Forest hydrology: an introduction to water and forests
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| Main Author: | |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Boca Raton, Fla. [u.a.]
CRC Press
2013
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| Edition: | 3. ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | Includes bibliographical references and index |
| Physical Description: | XXVII, 569 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9781439879948 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Forest hydrology |b an introduction to water and forests |c Mingteh Chang |
| 250 | |a 3. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Boca Raton, Fla. [u.a.] |b CRC Press |c 2013 | |
| 300 | |a XXVII, 569 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Includes bibliographical references and index | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Hydrology, Forest | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Hydrologie |0 (DE-588)4026309-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1804150030614921216 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Titel: Forest hydrology
Autor: Chang, Mingteh
Jahr: 2013
Contents
Conversions of Basic Units Used in the Book.........................................................................xxi
Preface.........................................................................................................................................xxiii
Acknowledgment.......................................................................................................................xxv
Author........................................................................................................................................xxvii
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Water Spectrum.............................................................................................................1
1.2 Forest Spectrum............................................................................................................2
1.3 Issues and Perspectives................................................................................................3
References.................................................................................................................................4
2. Functions of Water..................................................................................................................5
2.1 Biological Functions......................................................................................................5
2.1.1 Necessity of Life...............................................................................................5
2.1.2 Habitat of Life...................................................................................................5
2.1.2.1 Wetlands............................................................................................6
2.1.2.2 Estuaries............................................................................................6
2.1.2.3 Ponds and Lakes...............................................................................6
2.1.2.4 Streams and Rivers..........................................................................7
2.1.2.5 Oceans................................................................................................7
2.1.3 Therapy for Illness (Hydrotherapy)..............................................................7
2.2 Chemical Functions......................................................................................................8
2.2.1 Solvent of Substance........................................................................................8
2.2.2 Medium in Chemical Reactions....................................................................8
2.3 Physical Functions........................................................................................................9
2.3.1 Moderator of Climate......................................................................................9
2.3.2 Agent of Destruction.....................................................................................10
2.3.3 Potential Source of Energy and Power.......................................................10
2.3.4 Scientific Standard for Properties................................................................12
2.3.5 Medium of Transport....................................................................................12
2.4 Socioeconomic Functions...........................................................................................12
2.4.1 Source of Comfort..........................................................................................12
2.4.2 Inspiration for Creativity..............................................................................13
2.4.3 Role Model for Self-Expectation..................................................................14
2.4.4 Medium for Agricultural and Industrial Production...............................14
2.4.4.1 Hydroponics....................................................................................15
2.4.4.2 Fish Culture.....................................................................................15
2.5 Mechanical Functions................................................................................................17
2.5.1 Tool for Industrial Operations.....................................................................17
2.5.2 Material for Musical Instruments................................................................17
viii Contents
2.6 Political Functions.......................................................................................................18
2.6.1 Cause of International Conflicts..................................................................18
2.6.1.1 Potential Conflicts..........................................................................18
2.6.1.2 Iraq-Iran War, 1980-1988...............................................................19
2.6.2 Issue of Regional Stability............................................................................20
2.6.3 Drive in Local Confrontations.....................................................................21
2.6.3.1 Uprising in Cochabamba (Bolivia), 2000.....................................21
2.6.3.2 Pastoralists versus Farmers in Kenya, 2005................................23
2.7 Military Functions......................................................................................................23
2.7.1 Weapon against Enemies..............................................................................23
2.7.1.1 France-Dutch War, 1672-1678.......................................................24
2.7.1.2 Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1944......................................................24
2.7.2 Target of Terrorist s Attack...........................................................................25
2.7.2.1 Water Infrastructure Systems.......................................................25
2.7.2.2 Attack Measures.............................................................................26
2.7.3 Tactical and Strategic Model of War...........................................................26
2.7.4 Torture against Suspects...............................................................................26
References...............................................................................................................................27
3. Science of Water....................................................................................................................31
3.1 Water in History..........................................................................................................31
3.1.1 Asia..................................................................................................................31
3.1.2 Middle East.....................................................................................................33
3.1.3 Europe.............................................................................................................34
3.1.4 The United States...........................................................................................35
3.2 Hydrosciences..............................................................................................................36
3.2.1 Hydrology.......................................................................................................36
3.2.2 Disciplines in Hydrology..............................................................................37
3.2.2.1 On Bodies of Water........................................................................37
3.2.2.2 On Land-Use Conditions..............................................................39
3.2.2.3 On Interdisciplinary Studies........................................................41
References...............................................................................................................................43
4. Properties of Water...............................................................................................................47
4.1 Physical Properties......................................................................................................47
4.1.1 Three States of Water.....................................................................................47
4.1.2 Latent Heat of Water......................................................................................47
4.1.3 Saturation Vapor Pressure............................................................................49
4.1.4 Vapor Diffusion..............................................................................................50
4.1.5 Heat Capacity.................................................................................................50
4.1.6 Thermal Conductivity...................................................................................51
4.2 Hydraulic Properties..................................................................................................52
4.2.1 Density............................................................................................................52
4.2.2 Pressure...........................................................................................................53
4.2.3 Buoyancy.........................................................................................................55
4.2.4 Surface Tension and Capillary Rise............................................................56
4.2.5 Viscosity..........................................................................................................57
Contents
4.2.6 Reynolds Number..........................................................................................58
4.2.7 Shear Stress.....................................................................................................58
4.2.8 Stream Power..................................................................................................59
4.3 Chemical Properties...................................................................................................60
4.3.1 Water Molecule...............................................................................................60
4.3.2 Formation of Water........................................................................................60
4.3.3 Chemical Reactions.......................................................................................60
4.4 Biological Properties...................................................................................................61
4.4.1 Temperature....................................................................................................61
4.4.1.1 Measures..........................................................................................61
4.4.1.2 Significance.....................................................................................63
4.4.2 Dissolved Oxygen..........................................................................................63
4.4.2.1 Measures..........................................................................................63
4.4.2.2 Significance.....................................................................................64
4.4.3 PH.....................................................................................................................65
4.4.3.1 Measures..........................................................................................65
4.4.3.2 Significance.....................................................................................65
4.4.4 Conductivity...................................................................................................65
4.4.4.1 Measures..........................................................................................66
4.4.4.2 Significance.....................................................................................66
4.4.5 Sediment.........................................................................................................66
4.4.5.1 Measures..........................................................................................66
4.4.5.2 Significance.....................................................................................67
4.4.6 Chlorophyll a..................................................................................................67
4.4.6.1 Measures..........................................................................................68
4.4.6.2 Significance.....................................................................................68
References...............................................................................................................................68
5. Water Distribution...............................................................................................................71
5.1 Globe.............................................................................................................................71
5.1.1 Saline Water....................................................................................................73
5.1.2 Freshwater.......................................................................................................74
5.1.2.1 Icecaps and Glaciers.......................................................................74
5.1.2.2 Water under the Ground...............................................................74
5.1.2.3 Lakes................................................................................................77
5.1.2.4 Rivers...............................................................................................77
5.1.2.5 Atmospheric Water........................................................................78
5.2 United States................................................................................................................78
5.2.1 Rivers...............................................................................................................78
5.2.2 Lakes................................................................................................................79
5.3 Hydrologic Cycle.........................................................................................................80
5.3.1 Hydrologic Processes....................................................................................81
5.3.1.1 Precipitation....................................................................................81
5.3.1.2 Evapotranspiration.........................................................................82
5.3.1.3 Runoff...............................................................................................82
5.3.2 Hydrologic Budget.........................................................................................82
5.3.2.1 Globe................................................................................................82
Contents
5.3.2.2 The United States............................................................................83
5.3.2.3 Watersheds......................................................................................84
5.3.3 Energy Budget................................................................................................85
References...............................................................................................................................87
6. Water Resource Problems...................................................................................................89
6.1 Water Demand and Supply.......................................................................................89
6.1.1 Water Demand...............................................................................................89
6.1.1.1 World................................................................................................89
6.1.1.2 The United States............................................................................91
6.1.1.3 Projections for the Future.............................................................92
6.1.2 Water Supply..................................................................................................93
6.1.2.1 World................................................................................................93
6.1.2.2 The United States............................................................................95
6.2 Water Quantity............................................................................................................98
6.2.1 Drought...........................................................................................................98
6.2.1.1 Rainmaking.....................................................................................98
6.2.1.2 Water Translocation.......................................................................99
6.2.1.3 Desalination..................................................................................100
6.2.1.4 Water Reclamation.......................................................................100
6.2.1.5 Rain Harvesting...........................................................................101
6.2.1.6 Iceberg Harvesting.......................................................................102
6.2.1.7 Household Conservation............................................................102
6.2.1.8 Evaporation Reduction................................................................103
6.2.1.9 Irrigation Efficiency.....................................................................103
6.2.1.10 Vegetation Control.......................................................................103
6.2.1.11 Genetic Engineering....................................................................104
6.2.1.12 Drought Forecast..........................................................................105
6.2.1.13 Price Control.................................................................................105
6.2.2 Floods............................................................................................................105
6.2.2.1 Forms and Causes........................................................................105
6.2.2.2 Nature of Floods...........................................................................106
6.2.2.3 Flood Damages.............................................................................106
6.2.2.4 Flood Control and Management................................................109
6.2.2.5 Disaster Aids.................................................................................113
6.3 Water Quality............................................................................................................114
6.3.1 Water-Quality Control................................................................................114
6.3.1.1 Monitoring and Research............................................................115
6.3.1.2 Public Education...........................................................................115
6.3.1.3 Prevention and Treatment...........................................................115
6.3.1.4 Management.................................................................................116
6.3.1.5 Legislation and Enforcement......................................................116
6.3.2 Water-Quality Laws and Regulations......................................................116
6.4 Water Rights...............................................................................................................117
6.4.1 Diffused Water.............................................................................................117
6.4.2 Surface Water................................................................................................118
6.4.2.1 Riparian Rights.............................................................................118
Contents
6.4.2.2 Prior Appropriation.....................................................................118
6.4.2.3 Hybrid Doctrine...........................................................................118
6.4.2.4 Reserved-Rights Doctrine...........................................................119
6.4.3 Groundwater................................................................................................120
References.............................................................................................................................120
7. Characteristic Forests.........................................................................................................123
7.1 Natural Resource.......................................................................................................123
7.1.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................123
7.1.2 Forest Trees...................................................................................................124
7.1.2.1 Canopies........................................................................................125
7.1.2.2 Root Systems.................................................................................127
7.1.2.3 Stems..............................................................................................128
7.1.3 Forest Distribution.......................................................................................129
7.1.3.1 Horizontal Distribution...............................................................130
7.1.3.2 Vertical Distribution....................................................................131
7.1.3.3 Forest Areas...................................................................................132
7.2 Environmental Functions........................................................................................135
7.2.1 Hydrological.................................................................................................136
7.2.2 Climatological..............................................................................................136
7.2.3 Mechanical....................................................................................................137
7.2.4 Biological.......................................................................................................137
7.2.5 Societal...........................................................................................................138
7.3 Functional Forests.....................................................................................................139
7.3.1 Production Forests.......................................................................................139
7.3.2 Protection Forests.........................................................................................140
7.3.3 Preservation Forests....................................................................................141
7.3.4 Public Forests................................................................................................141
7.4 Threats to Forests......................................................................................................142
7.4.1 Deforestation and Grazing.........................................................................142
7.4.2 Forest Fires....................................................................................................143
7.4.3 Air Pollution.................................................................................................143
7.4.4 Biotic Infestation..........................................................................................144
7.5 Forests and Climate Change...................................................................................145
7.5.1 Global Warming...........................................................................................145
7.5.1.1 Global Surface Temperatures.....................................................145
7.5.1.2 Greenhouse Effect........................................................................146
7.5.1.3 Atmospheric C02 Concentrations..............................................147
7.5.2 Carbon Stocks...............................................................................................147
7.5.2.1 Carbon Cycle.................................................................................148
7.5.2.2 Forest Carbon Sequestration.......................................................149
7.5.3 Impacts of Deforestation.............................................................................150
7.5.3.1 On Site- and Local-Scale..............................................................150
7.5.3.2 On Regional-Scale........................................................................151
7.5.3.3 Global-Scale...................................................................................152
References.............................................................................................................................153
Contents
8. Forests and Precipitation...................................................................................................157
8.1 Precipitation Processes.............................................................................................157
8.1.1 Atmospheric Moisture................................................................................157
8.1.1.1 Magnitude.....................................................................................157
8.1.1.2 Measures........................................................................................157
8.1.2 Precipitation Formation..............................................................................158
8.1.2.1 Cooling Mechanisms...................................................................158
8.1.2.2 Condensation Nuclei...................................................................159
8.1.2.3 Growth of Water Droplets...........................................................159
8.1.2.4 Moisture Convergence.................................................................159
8.1.3 Precipitation Types......................................................................................159
8.1.3.1 Orographic Precipitation.............................................................159
8.1.3.2 Convective Precipitation.............................................................160
8.1.3.3 Cyclonic Precipitation..................................................................160
8.2 Forest Interception....................................................................................................162
8.2.1 Interception Components...........................................................................162
8.2.1.1 Canopy Interception....................................................................163
8.2.1.2 Litter Interception........................................................................164
8.2.1.3 Throughfall and Stemflow..........................................................165
8.2.1.4 Total Interception.........................................................................166
8.2.2 Related Events..............................................................................................166
8.2.2.1 Canopy Deposition......................................................................166
8.2.2.2 Transpiration Reduction..............................................................169
8.2.2.3 Mechanical Barriers.....................................................................169
8.2.2.4 Canopy Wettability......................................................................170
8.3 Snow Accumulation and Snowmelt.......................................................................171
8.3.1 Forest Effects.................................................................................................171
8.3.2 Site Characteristics.......................................................................................172
8.3.3 Clear-Cut Size...............................................................................................173
8.3.4 Water Yields..................................................................................................175
8.4 Do Forests Increase Precipitation?..........................................................................176
8.4.1 Arguments....................................................................................................176
8.4.1.1 Personal Experience.....................................................................176
8.4.1.2 Meteorological Inductions..........................................................176
8.4.1.3 Field Measurements.....................................................................176
8.4.2 Counterarguments.......................................................................................177
8.4.3 Assessment...................................................................................................178
References.............................................................................................................................179
9. Forests and Vaporization..................................................................................................185
9.1 Vaporization Processes.............................................................................................185
9.1.1 Water Surface................................................................................................185
9.1.2 Bare Soils.......................................................................................................186
9.1.3 Vegetative Surfaces......................................................................................188
9.1.4 Snow...............................................................................................................189
9.2 Sources of Energy......................................................................................................190
9.2.1 Net Radiation................................................................................................190
9.2.2 Energy Dissipation......................................................................................192
9.2.2.1 Sensible Heat.................................................................................194
Contents xiii
9.2.2.2 Conductive Heat...........................................................................196
9.2.2.3 Latent Heat....................................................................................197
9.2.2.4 Proportionality.............................................................................198
9.2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation...........................................................................199
9.3 Evapotranspiration...................................................................................................200
9.3.1 Potential Evapotranspiration.....................................................................200
9.3.1.1 Thornthwaite (1948) Model.........................................................201
9.3.1.2 Hamon (1963) Method.................................................................201
9.3.1.3 Penman (1948) Method................................................................203
9.3.1.4 Hargreaves et al. (1985) Equation...............................................205
9.3.2 Actual Evapotranspiration.........................................................................205
9.3.2.1 Hydrologic Balance Approach...................................................207
9.3.2.2 Lysimeters.....................................................................................207
9.3.2.3 Soil-Moisture Depletion Approach............................................208
9.4 Forested versus Nonforested...................................................................................209
9.4.1 Environmental Conditions.........................................................................209
9.4.2 Forested Watersheds....................................................................................210
9.4.3 Forest Species...............................................................................................211
References.............................................................................................................................213
10. Forests and Streamflow Quantity...................................................................................217
10.1 Runoff Generation.....................................................................................................217
10.1.1 Rainfall Intensity.........................................................................................217
10.1.2 Soil Infiltration.............................................................................................218
10.1.2.1 Soil Water.......................................................................................219
10.1.2.2 Infiltration Capacity.....................................................................220
10.1.3 Mechanics of Runoff....................................................................................225
10.2 Watershed Discharges..............................................................................................225
10.2.1 Hydrograph..................................................................................................226
10.2.1.1 Prominent Features......................................................................226
10.2.1.2 Direct Runoff versus Baseflow...................................................227
10.2.2 Factors Affecting Watershed Discharge...................................................227
10.2.2.1 Climate...........................................................................................228
10.2.2.2 Topography...................................................................................228
10.2.2.3 Land Use........................................................................................229
10.2.3 Estimation of Streamflow...........................................................................230
10.2.3.1 SCSRCN Model (Storm Runoff Volume)..................................231
10.2.3.2 Rational Equation (Storm Peak Flow)........................................234
10.2.3.3 Manning Equation (Flood Flows)..............................................236
10.2.3.4 Water-Balance Approach (Annual Streamflow)......................239
10.3 Deforestation..............................................................................................................240
10.3.1 Water Yield....................................................................................................240
10.3.1.1 Forest-Cutting Intensity..............................................................240
10.3.1.2 Species............................................................................................243
10.3.1.3 Precipitation..................................................................................245
10.3.1.4 Soil Topographic Conditions......................................................245
10.3.2 Timing of Streamflow.................................................................................246
10.3.2.1 Seasonal Distribution..................................................................246
xiv Contents
10.3.2.2 Treatment Duration......................................................................247
10.3.2.3 Flow Duration...............................................................................247
10.3.3 Flow Extremes..............................................................................................247
10.3.3.1 Peak Flows.....................................................................................248
10.3.3.2 Low Flows.....................................................................................249
10.3.4 Groundwater................................................................................................249
10.3.4.1 Groundwater in Steep Terrain....................................................250
10.3.4.2 Groundwater in Level Terrain....................................................250
10.4 Forest Fires.................................................................................................................251
10.4.1 Nature of Forest Fires..................................................................................251
10.4.1.1 Mediterranean Forests and Shrubs...........................................252
10.4.1.2 Boreal Forests................................................................................252
10.4.1.3 Tropical Rainforests.....................................................................252
10.4.1.4 Subtropical Grass and Shrubs....................................................252
10.4.2 Impacts on Soil.............................................................................................253
10.4.3 Impacts on Runoff........................................................................................254
10.5 Afforestation..............................................................................................................255
10.5.1 Water Yield....................................................................................................255
10.5.2 Streamflow Timing......................................................................................257
References.............................................................................................................................257
11. Forests and Streamflow Quality......................................................................................265
11.1 Water Pollutants........................................................................................................265
11.1.1 Sediments......................................................................................................265
11.1.2 Heat................................................................................................................266
11.1.3 Oxygen-Demanding Wastes......................................................................266
11.1.4 Plant Nutrients.............................................................................................266
11.1.5 Disease-Causing Agents.............................................................................267
11.1.6 Inorganic Chemicals and Minerals...........................................................267
11.1.7 Synthetic Organic Chemicals.....................................................................268
11.1.8 Radioactive Substances...............................................................................268
11.2 Sources of Water Pollution.......................................................................................269
11.2.1 Point Sources................................................................................................269
11.2.2 Nonpoint Sources........................................................................................269
11.3 Water Quality Determination.................................................................................270
11.3.1 Input-Output Budgets................................................................................270
11.3.1.1 Budget Components.....................................................................270
11.3.1.2 Variations.......................................................................................271
11.3.1.3 Element-Stream Discharge.........................................................271
11.3.2 Water Quality Criteria.................................................................................272
11.3.3 Bio-Assessment............................................................................................274
11.3.3.1 Benthic Invertebrates...................................................................275
11.3.3.2 Applications..................................................................................275
11.3.4 Cumulative Watershed Effects...................................................................276
11.3.4.1 Significance...................................................................................276
11.3.4.2 Assessments..................................................................................277
11.4 Forest Practices..........................................................................................................278
11.4.1 Clear-Cutting.......................................................................... ...Z1 .Z .278
11.4.2 Forest Roads..................................................................................................279
Contents
11.4.3 Forest Fire......................................................................................................280
11.4.3.1 Burning..........................................................................................281
11.4.3.2 Fire Control Practices...................................................................281
11.4.4 Mechanical Site Preparation.......................................................................282
11.4.4.1 Practices.........................................................................................282
11.4.4.2 Impacts...........................................................................................282
11.4.5 Grazing..........................................................................................................284
References.............................................................................................................................285
12. Forests and Stream Sediment...........................................................................................291
12.1 Soil Erosion Processes..............................................................................................291
12.1.1 Detachment...................................................................................................291
12.1.1.1 Acting Forces................................................................................291
12.1.1.2 Detachment Rate..........................................................................295
12.1.2 Transport.......................................................................................................297
12.1.2.1 Rainfall Transport........................................................................297
12.1.2.2 Runoff Transport..........................................................................298
12.1.3 Deposition.....................................................................................................299
12.2 Watershed Gross Erosion.........................................................................................300
12.2.1 Interrill and Rill Erosion.............................................................................300
12.2.1.1 Empirical.......................................................................................300
12.2.1.2 Factor-Based..................................................................................301
12.2.1.3 Physical..........................................................................................309
12.2.2 Ephemeral Gully Erosion............................................................................310
12.2.2.1 Processes........................................................................................310
12.2.2.2 Estimates........................................................................................311
12.2.3 Gully Erosion................................................................................................315
12.2.3.1 Formation......................................................................................315
12.2.3.2 Gully Types...................................................................................317
12.2.3.3 Estimates........................................................................................317
12.2.4 Mass Movements.........................................................................................319
12.2.4.1 Occurrences...................................................................................319
12.2.4.2 Estimates........................................................................................321
12.2.5 Channel Erosion...........................................................................................321
12.2.5.1 Stream Bank Erosion...................................................................321
12.2.5.2 Sediment Transport.....................................................................321
12.3 Estimation of Sediment Yield..................................................................................324
12.3.1 Sediment Delivery Ratio.............................................................................324
12.3.2 Sediment-Rating Curve...............................................................................325
12.3.3 Modified USLE.............................................................................................328
12.3.4 Statistical Models.........................................................................................328
12.3.5 Physical Models............................................................................................329
12.4 Vegetation Effects......................................................................................................329
12.4.1 Vegetation Mechanisms..............................................................................329
12.4.1.1 Mechanical Effects.......................................................................330
12.4.1.2 Hydrologic Effects........................................................................331
12.4.2 Conservation Plants.....................................................................................332
12.4.3 Forest Activity..............................................................................................333
12.4.3.1 Forest Roads..................................................................................333
xvi Contents
12.4.3.2 Forest Cutting and Site Preparation..........................................333
12.4.3.3 Forest Fires....................................................................................335
12.5 Trends in Sediment Loads of the World s Rivers.................................................335
12.5.1 Decreasing Trends.......................................................................................336
12.5.2 Increasing Trends.........................................................................................337
12.5.3 Implications..................................................................................................338
References.............................................................................................................................338
13. Forests and Stream Habitat..............................................................................................345
13.1 Stream Habitat...........................................................................................................345
13.1.1 Habitat Parameters......................................................................................345
13.1.1.1 Streamflow....................................................................................345
13.1.1.2 Temperature..................................................................................346
13.1.1.3 Dissolved Oxygen........................................................................347
13.1.1.4 Sediment........................................................................................347
13.1.1.5 Substrate........................................................................................349
13.1.1.6 Pools...............................................................................................349
13.1.1.7 Cover..............................................................................................350
13.1.2 Habitat-Rating Indices.................................................................................350
13.2 Forest Impacts............................................................................................................351
13.2.1 On Riparian Vegetation..............................................................................352
13.2.1.1 Impacts...........................................................................................352
13.2.1.2 Management.................................................................................353
13.2.2 On Water Temperature................................................................................353
13.2.2.1 Variations.......................................................................................353
13.2.2.2 Impacts...........................................................................................354
13.2.2.3 Management.................................................................................354
13.2.3 On Sediment.................................................................................................355
13.2.3.1 Variations and Impacts................................................................355
13.2.3.2 Management.................................................................................357
13.2.4 On Large Woody Debris.............................................................................358
13.2.4.1 Variations.......................................................................................358
13.2.4.2 Impacts...........................................................................................359
13.2.5 On Streambank Erosion..............................................................................360
13.2.5.1 Occurrences...................................................................................360
13.2.5.2 Vegetation Impacts.......................................................................360
13.3 Forest Fires.................................................................................................................361
13.3.1 Occurrences..................................................................................................362
13.3.1.1 Causes............................................................................................362
13.3.1.2 Frequencies....................................................................................362
13.3.2 Impacts..........................................................................................................362
13.3.2.1 Fire Activity..................................................................................362
13.3.2.2 Fire Suppression...........................................................................363
13.3.3 Management.................................................................................................364
References.............................................................................................................................364
14. Forests and Flooding..........................................................................................................371
14.1 Folklore and Fallacies...............................................................................................371
14.2 Flood Occurrences....................................................................................................373
Contents
14.2.1 Causes............................................................................................................373
14.2.1.1 Hydrologic Origins......................................................................373
14.2.1.2 Human Origins............................................................................382
14.2.2 Types of Floods............................................................................................383
14.2.2.1 Flash Floods..................................................................................383
14.2.2.2 River Floods..................................................................................384
14.2.2.3 Urban Floods.................................................................................384
14.2.2.4 Coastal Floods...............................................................................385
14.2.2.5 Terminal-Lake Floods..................................................................386
14.2.3 Flood Seasons...............................................................................................387
14.3 Flood Measures.........................................................................................................389
14.3.1 Return Period...............................................................................................389
14.3.1.1 Definition.......................................................................................389
14.3.1.2 Frequency of Occurrences..........................................................390
14.3.2 Flood Extreme Indices.................................................................................391
14.3.2.1 Hydrologic Indices.......................................................................391
14.3.2.2 Social Indices................................................................................392
14.3.3 Flood Forces..................................................................................................394
14.3.3.1 Shear Stress...................................................................................394
14.3.3.2 Flood Power..................................................................................395
14.3.3.3 Kinetic Energy..............................................................................396
14.3.3.4 Hydropower..................................................................................396
14.4 Forest Impacts............................................................................................................397
14.4.1 Forests as a Nature Modifier......................................................................397
14.4.1.1 Forest Characteristics...................................................................397
14.4.1.2 Impacts on Runoff Generation...................................................399
14.4.2 Field Observations.......................................................................................400
14.4.2.1 Flood Occurrences.......................................................................400
14.4.2.2 Experimental Watersheds...........................................................403
14.4.3 Spatial Analysis............................................................................................404
14.4.3.1 What Is Spatial Analysis?............................................................404
14.4.3.2 Analyzed Results..........................................................................404
14.4.4 Watershed Modeling...................................................................................406
14.4.4.1 Why Modeling?............................................................................406
14.4.4.2 Simulated Results.........................................................................406
14.4.5 Management Implications..........................................................................407
References.............................................................................................................................408
15. Watershed Management Planning and Implementation...........................................415
15.1 Watershed Programs/Projects................................................................................415
15.1.1 Stakeholders..................................................................................................416
15.1.2 Watershed Committees...............................................................................417
15.2 Watershed Inventory................................................................................................417
15.2.1 Watershed Data............................................................................................417
15.2.2 Existing Data................................................................................................417
15.2.2.1 At Federal Level............................................................................418
15.2.2.2 At State Level................................................................................420
15.2.2.3 At Local Level...............................................................................420
15.2.3 Field Data......................................................................................................420
XV111
Contents
15.3 Watershed Analysis..................................................................................................421
15.3.1 Data Deficiency............................................................................................421
15.3.1.1 Data Quality..................................................................................421
15.3.1.2 Data Quantity...............................................................................421
15.3.2 Watershed Topography...............................................................................423
15.3.2.1 Topographic Parameters and Significance...............................423
15.3.2.2 Methods of Characterization......................................................424
15.3.3 Data Analyses...............................................................................................425
15.3.4 Watershed Issues..........................................................................................426
15.3.5 Developing Management Options............................................................426
15.3.5.1 Goals...............................................................................................426
15.3.5.2 Objectives......................................................................................427
15.3.5.3 Measures........................................................................................427
15.3.6 Cost/Benefit Analysis..................................................................................428
15.4 Watershed Management Strategies........................................................................429
15.4.1 Single versus Multiple Uses.......................................................................430
15.4.1.1 Objectives......................................................................................430
15.4.1.2 Practices.........................................................................................431
15.4.2 Multiple-Use versus Ecosystem Management.........................................431
15.4.2.1 Objectives......................................................................................431
15.4.2.2 Principles.......................................................................................432
15.4.3 Upstream versus Downstream..................................................................432
15.4.3.1 Characteristics..............................................................................433
15.4.3.2 Strategies........................................................................................433
15.4.4 Vegetative versus Structural......................................................................435
15.4.4.1 Erosion Control Treatments........................................................435
15.4.4.2 Strategies........................................................................................435
15.4.5 Preventive versus Restorative....................................................................436
15.4.5.1 Watershed Degradation...............................................................436
15.4.5.2 Strategies........................................................................................436
15.4.6 Short Term versus Long Term....................................................................437
15.5 Watershed Management Plans................................................................................437
15.5.1 Selection of Final Strategies........................................................................437
15.5.2 Implementation Programs..........................................................................438
15.5.2.1 Watershed Implementation.........................................................438
15.5.2.2 Establish a Schedule.....................................................................438
15.5.3 Participations of Stakeholders....................................................................439
15.5.4 Costs and Financial Sources.......................................................................439
15.6 Watershed Assessment.............................................................................................440
15.6.1 Types of Assessment...................................................................................440
15.6.1.1 First Assessment (Formative, Prior)...........................................440
15.6.1.2 Second Assessment (Process, During)......................................441
15.6.1.3 Third Assessment (Outcome, Afterward)................................441
15.6.1.4 Fourth Assessment (Impact, Long Term)..................................442
15.6.2 Communication............................................................................................442
15.6.3 Plan Adjustments.........................................................................................442
References.............................................................................................................................443
Contents
16. Research in Forest Hydrology..........................................................................................445
16.1 Research Issues..........................................................................................................445
16.1.1 Objectives......................................................................................................447
16.1.1.1 Cause and Effect...........................................................................447
16.1.1.2 Prediction......................................................................................447
16.1.1.3 Management.................................................................................447
16.1.2 Subjects..........................................................................................................448
16.1.2.1 Water Functions............................................................................448
16.1.2.2 Forest Functions...........................................................................448
16.1.2.3 Watershed Functions...................................................................449
16.2 Principles of Field Studies........................................................................................449
16.2.1 Control...........................................................................................................449
16.2.2 Randomness.................................................................................................450
16.2.3 Replication....................................................................................................450
16.3 Research Methods.....................................................................................................450
16.3.1 Experimental Watersheds...........................................................................451
16.3.1.1 Paired-Watershed Approach.......................................................451
16.3.1.2 Single-Watershed Approach.......................................................457
16.3.1.3 Replicated-Watershed Approach................................................458
16.3.2 Upstream-Downstream Approach...........................................................458
16.3.3 Experimental Plots.......................................................................................458
16.3.4 Regional Analysis........................................................................................460
16.3.5 Watershed Simulation.................................................................................461
16.3.6 Remote Sensing/GIS....................................................................................462
16.4 Wagon Wheel Gap Study: Example of Calibration and Analyses.....................463
16.4.1 Hydroclimatic Data.....................................................................................464
16.4.2 Calibration Equation...................................................................................464
16.4.3 Assessment of Treatment Effects...............................................................466
16.4.3.1 How Much Effect?........................................................................466
16.4.3.2 Is the Effect Significant?..............................................................467
References.............................................................................................................................471
Appendix A: Precipitation Measurements...........................................................................479
Appendix B: Streamflow Measurements..............................................................................493
Appendix C: Measurements of Stream Sediment...............................................................519
Appendix D: Measurements of Forest Interception...........................................................541
Index.............................................................................................................................................557
|
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| id | DE-604.BV040720761 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T00:32:27Z |
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| isbn | 9781439879948 |
| language | English |
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| spelling | Chang, Mingteh Verfasser (DE-588)1032923032 aut Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests Mingteh Chang 3. ed. Boca Raton, Fla. [u.a.] CRC Press 2013 XXVII, 569 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Includes bibliographical references and index Hydrology, Forest Hydrologie (DE-588)4026309-5 gnd rswk-swf Wald (DE-588)4064354-2 gnd rswk-swf USA (DE-588)4078704-7 gnd rswk-swf Wald (DE-588)4064354-2 s Hydrologie (DE-588)4026309-5 s USA (DE-588)4078704-7 g DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025700992&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Chang, Mingteh Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests Hydrology, Forest Hydrologie (DE-588)4026309-5 gnd Wald (DE-588)4064354-2 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4026309-5 (DE-588)4064354-2 (DE-588)4078704-7 |
| title | Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests |
| title_auth | Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests |
| title_exact_search | Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests |
| title_full | Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests Mingteh Chang |
| title_fullStr | Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests Mingteh Chang |
| title_full_unstemmed | Forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests Mingteh Chang |
| title_short | Forest hydrology |
| title_sort | forest hydrology an introduction to water and forests |
| title_sub | an introduction to water and forests |
| topic | Hydrology, Forest Hydrologie (DE-588)4026309-5 gnd Wald (DE-588)4064354-2 gnd |
| topic_facet | Hydrology, Forest Hydrologie Wald USA |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025700992&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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