Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics
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| Main Author: | |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Berlin [u.a.]
Springer
2013
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| Edition: | 3., transl. ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltstext Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XVIII, 879 S. 552 schw.-w. Ill. 235 mm x 155 mm |
| ISBN: | 9783642271502 |
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MARC
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Wind turbines |b fundamentals, technologies, application, economics |c Erich Hau |
| 250 | |a 3., transl. ed. | ||
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CONTENTS
1 WINDMILLS AND WINDWHEELS 1
1.1 THE ORIGINS OF WINDMILLS 1
1.2 EUROPEAN WINDMILLS 4
1.3 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF HISTORICAL WINDMILLS 11
1.4 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT OF WINDMILLS 13
1.5 THE AMERICAN WIND TURBINE 17
REFERENCES 21
2 ELECTRICAL POWER FROM THE WIND - THE FIRST ATTEMPTS 23
2.1 POUL LA COUR - A PIONEER IN DENMARK 23
2.2 LARGE WIND POWER PLANTS - AMBITIOUS PROJECTS IN GERMANY 28
2.3 1250 KW FROM THE WIND - THE FIRST LARGE WIND TURBINE IN THE US 33
2.4 WIND TURBINES IN THE FIFTIES - BEFORE THE "ENERGY CRISIS" 36
2.5 AFTER THE ENERGY CRISIS - A NEW START TOWARD MODERN WIND POWER 43
2.6 THE LARGE EXPERIMENTAL TURBINES OF THE EIGHTIES 46
2.7 FIRST SUCCESSES WITH THE SMALL WIND TURBINES IN DENMARK 57
2.8 THE WIND FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES 58
REFERENCES 63
3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF WIND ENERGY CONVERTERS 65
3.1 ROTORS WITH A VERTICAL AXIS OF ROTATION 66
3.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS ROTORS 69
3.3 WIND ENERGY CONCENTRATORS 72
3.4 TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS 77
REFERENCES 78
4 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION 79
4.1 BETZ'S ELEMENTARY MOMENTUM THEORY 79
4.2 WIND ENERGY CONVERTERS USING AERODYNAMIC DRAG OR LIFT 84
REFERENCES 87
5 ROTOR AERODYNAMICS 89
5.1 MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND CALCULATIONS 90
5.1.1 BLADE ELEMENT THEORY 91
5.1.2 VORTEX MODEL OF ROTOR FLOW 96
HTTP://D-NB.INFO/1017013640
VIII
CONTENTS
5.1.3 NUMERIC FLOW SIMULATION 97
5.1.4 THE ROTOR WAKE ! 99
5.2 ROTOR POWER CHARACTERISTICS 102
5.2.1 POWER AND TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS 102
5.2.2 POWER CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS ROTOR CONFIGURATIONS 104
5.3 AERODYNAMIC POWER CONTROL 106
5.3.1 POWER CONTROL BY ROTOR BLADE PITCHING 107
5.3.2 PASSIVE STALL CONTROL WITH FIXED BLADE PITCH 111
5.3.3 ACTIVE STALL CONTROL 115
5.3.4 TRANSIENT AERODYNAMIC EFFECTS AND BOUNDARY-LAYER CONTROL 117
5.3.5 TURNING THE ROTOR OUT OF THE WIND 119
5.4 THE AERODYNAMIC AIRFOIL 120
5.4.1 CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES 120
5.4.2 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY AND CLASSIFICATION 123
5.4.3 LAMINAR AIRFOILS 128
5.4.4 INFLUENCE ON THE POWER COEFFICIENT OF THE ROTOR 132
5.5 ROTOR-DESIGN FEATURES AND POWER CHARACTERISTICS 134
5.5.1 NUMBER OF ROTOR BLADES 135
5.5.2 OPTIMUM SHAPE OF THE ROTOR BLADES 136
5.5.3 ROTOR BLADE TWIST 143
5.5.4 BLADE THICKNESS 145
5.5.5 DESIGN TIP-SPEED RATIO OF THE ROTOR 146
5.6 EXISTING ROTOR BLADE DESIGNS 148
5.7 YAW CONTROL OF THE ROTOR 152
5.8 AERODYNAMICS OF VERTICAL-AXIS ROTORS 156
5.9 EXPERIMENTAL ROTOR AERODYNAMICS 160
5.9.1 MEASUREMENTS ON MODELS IN THE WIND TUNNEL 160
5.9.2 MEASUREMENTS ON SITE 163
REFERENCES 164
6 LOADS AND STRUCTURAL STRESSES 167
6.1 LOADS ON THE WIND TURBINE 168
6.2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TERMINOLOGY 170
6.3 SOURCES OF LOADING 171
6.3.1 GRAVITY AND INERTIAL LOADS 172
6.3.2 UNIFORM AND STEADY-STATE AIR FLOW 173
6.3.3 VERTICAL WIND SHEAR AND CROSS WINDS 177
6.3.4 CROSS WIND ON THE ROTOR 178
6.3.5 TOWER INTERFERENCE 179
6.3.6 WIND TURBULENCE AND GUSTS 183
6.4 DESIGN LOAD ASSUMPTIONS 187
6.4.1 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL DESIGN STANDARDS 188
6.4.2 IEC CLASSES OF WIND TURBINES AND GERMAN WIND ZONES 191
6.4.3 NORMAL WIND CONDITIONS 193
CONTENTS IX
6.4.4 EXTREME WIND CONDITIONS 194
6.4.5 OTHER CLIMATIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES 195
6.4.6 OTHER EXTERNAL CONDITIONS 197
6.4.7 SAFETY FACTORS 198
6.5 OPERATIONAL STATUS AND LOAD CASES 199
6.5.1 NORMAL OPERATION 199
6.5.2 TECHNICAL FAULTS 201
6.6 STRUCTURAL STRESSES IN THE WIND TURBINE 203
6.6.1 KIND OF STRESSING 203
6.6.2 LOAD SPECTRA 205
6.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS 208
6.7.1 FUNCTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL MODELLING OF THE WIND TURBINE 208
6.7.2 REPRESENTATION OF THE WIND TURBULENCE 209
6.7.3 ANALYTICAL APPROACHES AND NUMERICAL COMPUTER CODES 213
6.8 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FEATURES AND STRUCTURAL STRESSES 215
6.8.1 NUMBER OF ROTOR BLADES 215
6.8.2 ROTOR HUB HINGES IN TWO-BLADE ROTORS 217
6.8.3 STIFFNESS OF THE ROTOR BLADES 220
6.8.4 POWER CONTROL SYSTEM 221
6.8.5 ROTOR SPEED FLEXIBILITY AND VARIABLE-SPEED OPERATION 223
6.9 MEASURING THE STRUCTURAL STRESSES 226
6.9.1 ROTOR BLADE TESTING 227
6.9.2 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS AND FIELD MEASUREMENTS 228
REFERENCES 230
7 VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS 233
7.1 EXCITING FORCES AND VIBRATIONAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM 234
7.2 AEROELASTIC STABILITY OF ROTOR BLADES 236
7.2.1 STATIC DIVERGENCE 236
7.2.2 NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND VIBRATION MODES 237
7.2.3 TYPICAL ROTOR BLADE VIBRATIONS 239
7.3 TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF THE DRIVE TRAIN 242
7.3.1 MATHEMATICAL MODEL 242
7.3.2 EQUIVALENT MECHANICAL MODELS FOR THE ELECTRICAL GRID COUPLING 246
7.3.3 NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND VIBRATION MODES 247
7.3.4 EXCITATIONS AND RESONANCES 249
7.4 DYNAMICS OF THE YAW SYSTEM 252
7.4.1 MODELLING AND MOMENTS AROUND THE YAW AXIS 252
7.4.2 EXCITATION AND RESONANCES 254
7.5 VIBRATION OF THE WHOLE WIND TURBINE 256
7.5.1 TOWER STIFFNESS 256
7.5.2 VIBRATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTING WIND TURBINES 258
7.6 MATHEMATICAL SIMULATION 264
REFERENCES 267
X
CONTENTS
8 ROTOR BLADES 269
8.1 MATERIALS 270
8.2 AIRCRAFT WINGS AS MODEL 272
8.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS OF ROTOR BLADES IN THE PAST 274
8.3.1 REVITED ALUMINIUM CONSTRUCTION 275
8.3.2 STEEL DESIGNS 277
8.3.3 TRADITIONAL WOOD CONSTRUCTION 280
8.3.4 PREVIOUS DESIGNS WITH FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 281
8.3.5 WOOD/EPOXY COMPOSITES 286
8.4 MODERN FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE BLADES 287
8.4.1 FIBRE COMPOSITES TECHNOLOGY 287
8.4.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF THE ROTOR BLADES 289
8.4.3 MANUFACTURING METHODS 290
8.5 BLADE CONNECTION TO THE ROTOR HUB 293
8.6 COMPARISON OF ROTOR BLADE DESIGNS 296
8.7 AERODYNAMIC BRAKES ON STALL-CONTROLLED ROTORS 300
8.8 LIGHTNING PROTECTION 302
8.9 ICE WARNING AND DE-ICING 303
REFERENCES 304
9 MECHANICAL DRIVE TRAIN AND NACELLE 305
9.1 FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS OF POWER TRANSMISSION : 306
9.2 PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 309
9.2.1 GENERATOR IN THE TOWER BASE 310
9.2.2 VERTICALLY POSITIONED GENERATOR IN THE TOWER HEAD 310
9.3 CURRENT STANDARD DESIGNS 312
9.3.1 GEARBOX BETWEEN ROTOR AND GENERATOR 312
9.3.2 DIRECT ROTOR-DRIVEN GENERATOR 314
9.4 ROTOR HUB 318
9.4.1 CAST STEEL ROTOR HUBS FOR THREE-BLADE ROTORS 320
9.4.2 ROTOR HUB CONCEPTS FOR TWO-BLADED ROTORS 321
9.5 BLADE PITCH MECHANISM 325
9.5.1 ROTOR BLADE BEARINGS 327
9.5.2 BLADE PITCH SYSTEMS WITH HYDRAULIC DRIVE 329
9.5.3 ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN BLADE PITCH SYSTEMS 333
9.5.4 PASSIVE BLADE PITCHING 335
9.5.5 REDUNDANCY AND SAFETY ISSUES 336
9.6 ROTOR SHAFT AND BEARING ASSEMBLY 338
9.6.1 BEARING TECHNOLOGY 338
9.6.2 ROTOR SHAFT WITH SEPARATE BEARINGS 341
9.6.3 THREE-POINT SUSPENSION OF ROTOR SHAFT AND GEARBOX 343
9.6-4 ROTOR SHAFT INTEGRATED INTO THE GEARBOX 344
9.6.5 THE "SINGLE-BEARING" CONCEPT 345
9.6.6 ROTOR SUPPORT ON A FIXED AXLE 346
CONTENTS XI
9.7 ROTOR BRAKE 347
9.8 GEARBOX 350
9.8.1 GEARBOX CONFIGURATIONS 350
9.8.2 EXTERNAL LOAD SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE GEARBOX 354
9.8.3 INTERNAL GEARBOX DIMENSIONING AND DESIGN 357
9.8.4 EFFICIENCY AND NOISE EMISSION 358
9.9 VARIABLE-SPEED POWER-SPLITTING GEARBOXES 361
9.10 TORSIONAL FLEXIBILITY IN THE MECHANICAL DRIVE TRAIN 363
9.11 INSTALLATION OF THE ELECTRIC GENERATOR 366
9.12 NACELLE 368
9.12.1 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 368
9.12.2 LOAD CARRYING CONCEPT 371
9.12.3 EXTERNAL SHAPE - AESTHETIC ASPECTS 374
9.13 YAW SYSTEM 377
9.14 ASSEMBLY AND FUNCTIONAL TESTING 3 80
REFERENCES 382
10 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 385
10.1 SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR 386
10.1.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR 386
10.1.2 INDUCTION GENERATOR 390
10.1.3 GENERATOR WITH PERMANENT EXCITATION 394
10.2 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR USING GENERATORS IN WIND TURBINES 398
10.3 FIXED-SPEED GENERATOR SYSTEMS 401
10.3.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR DIRECTLY COUPLED TO THE GRID 401
10.3.2 INDUCTION GENERATOR DIRECTLY COUPLED TO THE GRID 403
10.3.3 VARIABLE-SLIP INDUCTION GENERATOR 405
10.3.4 MULTI-SPEED GENERATOR SYSTEMS 406
10.4 VARIABLE SPEED GENERATOR SYSTEMS WITH INVERTER 408
10.4.1 FREQUENCY INVERTERS 409
10.4.2 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH INVERTER 411
10.4.3 INDUCTION GENERATOR WITH OVERSYNCHRONOUS CASCADE 413
10.4.4 DOUBLE-FED INDUCTION GENERATOR 414
10.5 DIRECTLY ROTOR-DRIVEN VARIABLE-SPEED GENERATORS 417
10.5.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH ELECTRIC EXCITATION 417
10.5.2 DIRECT-DRIVE GENERATORS WITH PERMANENT-MAGNET EXCITATION 419
10.6 COMPLETE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM OF A WIND TURBINE 421
10.6.1 LARGE TURBINES 421
10.6.2 SMALL WIND TURBINES 424
10.7 COMPARISON OF ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS 426
REFERENCES 428
11 CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE 429
11.1 INPUT DATA MEASUREMENT 430
11.1.1 WIND MEASURING SYSTEM 431
11.1.2 MEASURING ELECTRIC POWER 434
11.1.3 OTHER INPUT DATA 435
XII
CONTENTS
11.2 BASIC TECHNOLOGY OF CONTROLLERS 435
11.3 YAW CONTROL 437
11.4 POWER CONTROL WITH ROTOR BLADE PITCHING 438
11.4.1 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND ANALYTICAL DESIGN METHODS 440
11.4.2 FIXED-SPEED GENERATORS DIRECTLY COUPLED TO THE GRID 443
11.4.3 VARIABLE-SPEED OPERATION WITH FREQUENCY CONVERTER 448
11.4.4 ISOLATED OPERATION WITHOUT GRID 450
11.5 POWER LIMITING BY AERODYNAMIC STALL 452
11.5.1 PARALLEL-GRID OPERATION 452
11.5.2 ISOLATED OPERATION 453
11.5.3 ACTIVE STALL CONTROL 454
11.6 OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE AND SAFETY SYSTEM 457
11.6.1 OPERATIONAL STATES 457
11.6.2 SAFETY SYSTEM 459
11.7 CONTROL SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION 460
11.8 INTERACTION WITH THE GRID 462
REFERENCES 465
12 THE TOWER 467
12.1 TOWER CONFIGURATIONS 468
12.2 STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS DESIGN 471
12.3 TOWER DEMENSIONING CONFORMING TO GERMAN BUILDING REGULATIONS 473
12.4 FREE-STANDING TUBULAR-STEEL TOWERS 474
12.4.1 STIFFNESS AND STRUCTURAL MASS 474
12.4.2 MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES AND CONSTRUCTION 477
12.4.3 CLIMBING AIDS AND INTERNAL INSTALLATIONS 480
12.5 LATTICE TOWERS 483
12.6 CONCRETE TOWERS 487
12.7 CONCRETE-STEEL HYBRID TOWERS 492
12.8 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TOWER CONCEPTS 494
12.9 INCREASING THE HEIGHT WITH DIFFERENT TOWER CONCEPTS 496
12.10 THE FOUNDATION 499
REFERENCES 503
13 THE WIND RESOURCE 505
13.1 CAUSES OF THE WIND AND OF THE POWER IN THE WIND 505
13.2 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF WIND RESOURCES 508
13.3 WIND RESOURCES IN EUROPE 516
13.4 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE WIND 517
13.4.1 MEAN ANNUAL WIND SPEED AND WIND SPEED FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION 517
13.4.2 INCREASE IN WIND SPEED WITH ALTITUDE 520
13.4.3 STEADINESS OF THE WIND 524
13.4.4 WIND TURBULENCE AND GUSTS 529
CONTENTS XIII
13.5 TOPOGRAPHY AND LOCAL WIND FLOW 532
13.6 MEASURING AND DETERMINING THE WIND SPEED 534
13.6.1 MEASURING TECHNIQUES 534
13.6.2 ASCERTAINING THE WIND DATA AND THE ENERGY YIELD
FROM THE EUROPEAN WIND ATLAS 539
13.6.3 NUMERIC MODELS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL WIND FIELDS 542
13.7 ABOUT THE WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL 543
REFERENCES 547
14 POWER OUTPUT AND ENERGY YIELD 549
14.1 FROM ROTOR POWER CHARACTERISTICS TO TURBINE POWER CURVE 550
14.1.1 INSTALLED GENERATOR POWER AND ROTOR SPEED 550
14.1.2 LOSSES DUE TO POWER CONTROL AND OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE 554
14.1.3 EFFICIENCIES IN THE MECHANICAL-ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 557
14.1.4 POWER COEFFICIENTS OF TODAY'S TURBINES 559
14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE POWER CURVE 560
14.2.1 DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS AND WARRANTY 561
14.2.2 MEASURING THE POWER CURVE 563
14.3 SITE-RELATED INFLUENCES ON THE POWER CURVE 569
14.3.1 COMPLEX TERRAIN 569
14.3.2 AIR DENSITY 570
14.3.3 TURBULENCE 573
14.3.4 OTHER WEATHER-RELATED INFLUENCES 575
14.3.5 SOILING OF THE ROTOR BLADES 575
14.4 UNIFORMITY OF POWER OUTPUT 576
14.5 ANNUAL ENERGY YIELD 579
14.5.1 METHOD OF CALCULATION 579
14.5.2 APPROXIMATE CALCULATION OF THE ENERGY YIELD 581
14.5.3 TECHNICAL AVAILABILITY 584
14.5.4 SAFETY DEDUCTIONS FOR ECONOMIC CALCULATIONS 588
14.6 WIND REGIME AND ENERGY YIELD 589
14.7 MAJOR DESIGN FEATURES AND ENERGY YIELD 591
14.7.1 ROTOR POWER COEFFICIENT 592
14.7.2 ROTOR DIAMETER 593
14.7.3 OPTIMAL ROTOR SPEED AND VARIABLE ROTOR SPEED
OPERATION 594
14.7.4 POWER CONTROL: BLADE PITCH CONTRA STALL 597
14.7.5 INSTALLED GENERATOR POWER 598
14.7.6 ROTOR HUB HEIGHT 600
14.7.7 OPERATIONAL WIND SPEED RANGE 601
14.7.8 EFFICIENCY OF A WIND TURBINE AS ENERGY CONVERTER 602
REFERENCES 603
XIV
CONTENTS
15 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 605
15.1 HAZARDS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT 606
15.1.1 HOW FAR CAN A ROTOR BLADE FLY? 606
15.1.2 SAFETY RISKS 609
15.2 WIND TURBINE NOISE 610
15.2.1 ACOUSTIC PARAMETERS AND PERMISSIBLE NOISE LEVELS 610
15.2.2 NOISE SOURCES IN WIND TURBINES 613
15.2.3 NOISE EMISSION OF CURRENT WIND TURBINES 617
15.3 SHADOW EFFECTS 622
15.4 INTERFERENCE WITH RADIO AND TELEVISION SIGNALS 625
15.5 IMPACT ON BIRD LIFE 628
15.6 LAND USE 629
15.7 VISUAL IMPACT ON THE LANDSCAPE 631
15.8 UTILISATION OF WIND ENERGY AND CLIMATE PROTECTION 633
15.8.1 EFFECT ON THE LOCAL CLI MATE 633
15.8.2 UTILISATION OF WIND POWER AND C0
2
EMISSIONS 634
REFERENCES 636
16 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF WIND TURBINES 637
16.1 STAND-ALONE WIND TURBINE APPLICATIONS 638
16.1.1 AUTONOMOUS POWER SUPPLY - STORAGE PROBLEMS 639
16.1.2 RESIDENTIAL HEATING WITH WIND ENERGY 645
16.1.3 PUMPING WATER 648
16.1.4 DESALINATION OF SEA WATER 650
16.2 SMALL GRIDS WITH DIESEL GENERATORS AND WIND TURBINES 653
16.3 WIND TURBINES CONNECTED WITH LARGE GRIDS 657
16.3.1 DISTRIBUTED WIND TURBINES OPERATED BY PRIVATE
CONSUMERS 657
16.3.2 WIND PARK INSTALLATIONS 658
16.4 INTEGRATION INTO THE UTILITY GENERATION SYSTEM 662
16.4.1 OPERATIONAL STRATEGIES AND CONTROL ISSUES 663
16.4.2 ADAPTION OF THE UTILITY GRIDS TO RENEWABLE ENERGY UTILISATION
.665
16.4.3 CONTRIBUTION TO FIRM POWER 666
16.5 WIND TURBINE INDUSTRY AND MARKET 668
16.5.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARKETS 668
16.5.2 THE WIND TURBINE MANUFACTURERS 670
16.5.3 COMPONENTS INDUSTRY, SERVICE PROVIDERS AND BASIC RESEARCH 672
REFERENCES 675
17 OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY UTILISATION 677
17.1 IMPORTANT TECHNICAL ISSUES OF OFFSHORE SITING 678
17.1.1 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE WIND TURBINES 678
17.1.2 FOUNDATION ON THE SEA FLOOR 681
17.1.3 ELECTRICAL INFRASTRUCTURE 688
17.1.4 TRANSPORTATION AND INSTALLATION 694
CONTENTS XV
17.2 OPERATIONAL ISSUES OF OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES 697
17.2.1 ACCESSIBILITY AT POOR WEATHER CONDITIONS 697
17.2.2 SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE 699
17.3 OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY IN THE NORTH SEA AND IN THE BALTIC SEA 701
17.3.1 OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS AND WIND RESOURCES 701
17.3.2 LEGAL SITUATION 704
17.3.3 CRITERIA FOR THE PERMISSION 706
17.3.4 THE FIRST OFFSHORE WIND PARKS 708
17.3.5 COMMERCIAL OFFSHORE WIND PARKS 709
REFERENCES 718
18 WIND TURBINE INSTALLATION AND OPERATION 719
18.1 PROJECT DEVELOPMENT 720
18.1.1 SEARCH FOR A SITE AND ACQUISITION OF LAND LEASE AGREEMENTS 720
18.1.2 PREPLANNING AND BUILDING PERMISSION 721
18.2 TECHNICAL LAYOUT OF WIND PARK INSTALLATIONS 724
18.2.1 WIND TURBINE SPACING 725
18.2.2 INTERNAL ELECTRICAL CABLING 729
18.2.3 GRID CONNECTION 732
18.2.4 SITE PREPARATION AND BUILDING ACTIVITIES 738
18.3 TRANSPORTATION TO THE SITE 741
18.4 ERECTION ON THE SITE 745
18.4.1 STANDARD METHOD 745
18.4.2 ERECTION WITHOUT HEAVY LIFTING EQUIPMENT 749
18.4.3 EXTREMELY LARGE INSTALLATIONS 752
18.4.4 LARGE EXPERIMENTAL TURBINES WITH TWO-BLADED ROTOR 755
18.5 COMMISIONING 760
18.5.1 COMMERCIAL WIND TURBINES 760
18.5.2 EXPERIMENTAL TURBINES AND PROTOTYPES 761
18.6 OPERATION AND MONITORING 763
18.6.1 ACQUISITION OF OPERATIONAL DATA 763
18.6.2 MONITORING OF LARGE WIND PARKS 767
18.6.3 TECHNICAL CONDITION MONITORING 768
18.7 SAFETY ASPECTS 770
18.7.1 TECHNICAL SAFETY SYSTEMS 770
18.7.2 RISKS FROM EXTREME WEATHER CONDITIONS 775
18.8 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 779
18.8.1 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE 780
18.8.2 CAUSES OF DAMAGE AND REPAIR RISKS 781
18.8.3 STATISTICAL EVALUATIONS 785
REFERENCES 786
19 WIND TURBINE COSTS 789
19.1 MANUFACTURING COSTS AND SELLING PRICES OF WIND TURBINES 790
19.2 SPECIFIC COSTS AND REFERENCE PARAMETERS 791
XVI CONTENTS
19.2.1 STRUCTURAL MASSES AS A BASIS FOR DETERMINING
THE MANUFACTURING COSTS 792
19.2.2 STRUCTURAL MASSES OF PRESENT WIND TURBINES 798
19.2.3 MANUFACTURING COST CALCULATION ON THE BASIS
OF MASS-RELATED COST FIGURES 801
19.2.4 MANUFACTURING COSTS AND PRICE CALCULATION 803
19.2.5 DESIGN FEATURES AND MANUFACTURING COSTS 809
19.2.6 ECONOMY OF SCALE IN SERIES PRODUCTION 811
19.2.7 LOWERING COSTS THROUGH FURTHER TECHNICAL
DEVELOPMENT 813
19.2.8 ALTERNATIVE TECHNICAL CONCEPTS AND ACHIEVABLE COSTS 814
19.2.9 ON THE DEVELOPMENT COSTS OF WIND TURBINES 816
19.2.10 DEVELOPMENT OF SALES PRICES FOR WIND TURBINES 817
19.3 INVESTMENT COSTS FOR TURNKEY INSTALLATIONS 820
19.3.1 ACQUISITION OF THE PROJECT RIGHTS 820
19.3.2 TECHNICAL PLANNING AND APPLICATION FOR THE BUILDING
PERMISSION 820
19.3.3 PROCUREMENT OF WIND TURBINES 821
19.3.4 TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE 822
19.3.5 ORGANISATIONAL COSTS 825
19.3.6 SELECTED EXAMPLES FOR TURN-KEY COSTS 826
19.4 OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS 829
19.4.1 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS 830
19.4.2 INSURANCES 832
19.4.3 OTHER OPERATING COSTS 833
19.4.4 TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS 834
19.5 OFFSHORE PROJECTS 834
19.5.1 INVESTMENT COSTS 834
19.5.2 OPERATING COSTS 841
REFERENCES 842
20 WIND TURBINE ECONOMICS 845
20.1 CORPORATE ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT AND FINANCING 846
20.2 POWER PRODUCTION COSTS AND REPAYMENT PERIODS 848
20.2.1 BASICS FOR CALCULATING THE COSTS OF ELECTRICITY 849
20.2.2 STATIC ANNUITY APPROACH 850
20.2.3 OFFSHORE INSTALLATIONS 854
20.2.4 DYNAMIC CALCULATION OF ECONOMIC VIABILITY 857
20.2.5 CASH-FLOW PROJECTION 859
20.3 COMPETITION WITH CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES 863
20.4 ENERGY RECOVERY IN WIND TURBINES 866
20.5 THE EFFECT OF WIND ENERGY UTILISATION ON EMPLOYMENT 867
20.6 MACROECONOMIC FRAMEWORK AND RENEWABLE ENERGIES 868
REFERENCES 870
SUBJECT INDEX 871 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Hau, Erich 1941- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)121330877 |
| author_facet | Hau, Erich 1941- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Hau, Erich 1941- |
| author_variant | e h eh |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV040545427 |
| classification_rvk | ZP 3710 |
| classification_tum | ERG 730f |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)820398575 (DE-599)DNB1017013640 |
| dewey-full | 621.45 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 621 - Applied physics |
| dewey-raw | 621.45 |
| dewey-search | 621.45 |
| dewey-sort | 3621.45 |
| dewey-tens | 620 - Engineering and allied operations |
| discipline | Maschinenbau / Maschinenwesen Energietechnik, Energiewirtschaft Energietechnik |
| edition | 3., transl. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV040545427 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-08-21T00:19:30Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9783642271502 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025391259 |
| oclc_num | 820398575 |
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| owner_facet | DE-29T DE-1043 DE-91 DE-BY-TUM |
| physical | XVIII, 879 S. 552 schw.-w. Ill. 235 mm x 155 mm |
| publishDate | 2013 |
| publishDateSearch | 2013 |
| publishDateSort | 2013 |
| publisher | Springer |
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| spelling | Hau, Erich 1941- Verfasser (DE-588)121330877 aut Windkraftanlagen Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Erich Hau 3., transl. ed. Berlin [u.a.] Springer 2013 XVIII, 879 S. 552 schw.-w. Ill. 235 mm x 155 mm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd rswk-swf Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd rswk-swf Windenergie (DE-588)4079329-1 gnd rswk-swf Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 s Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 s DE-604 Windenergie (DE-588)4079329-1 s 1\p DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-3-642-27151-9 X:MVB text/html http://deposit.dnb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=3909270&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm Inhaltstext DNB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025391259&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Hau, Erich 1941- Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd Windenergie (DE-588)4079329-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4189962-3 (DE-588)4128839-7 (DE-588)4079329-1 |
| title | Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics |
| title_alt | Windkraftanlagen |
| title_auth | Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics |
| title_exact_search | Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics |
| title_full | Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Erich Hau |
| title_fullStr | Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Erich Hau |
| title_full_unstemmed | Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Erich Hau |
| title_short | Wind turbines |
| title_sort | wind turbines fundamentals technologies application economics |
| title_sub | fundamentals, technologies, application, economics |
| topic | Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd Windenergie (DE-588)4079329-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Windturbine Windkraftwerk Windenergie |
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| work_keys_str_mv | AT hauerich windkraftanlagen AT hauerich windturbinesfundamentalstechnologiesapplicationeconomics |