Boni et mali milites Romani: relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Kraków
Wydawnictwo Avalon T. Janowski
2010
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Bibliogr. s. [298]-431. Indeksy |
| Beschreibung: | 452 s. 22 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788377300015 |
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| 264 | 1 | |a Kraków |b Wydawnictwo Avalon T. Janowski |c 2010 | |
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| 500 | |a Bibliogr. s. [298]-431. Indeksy | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804149445619613696 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | SPIS TREŚCI
Wstęp
9
Status żołnierza
35
prawne kryteria służby wojskowej
37
pochodzenie
53
Status społeczny
68
in caliga-
na służbie
77
Służba rekrutów
(tirocinium)
78
Towarzysze z pododdziału
(contubernium militum)
108
Towarzysze z kompanii
(manipulares
et
commanipulares)
136
towarzysze broni (commilitones)
165
bracia, spadkobiercy i przyjaciele
(fratres,
heredes
et amici)
217
rodzina żołnierza (familia militum)
267
Zakończenie
290
Wykaz skrótów czasopism
296
Bibliografia
298
indeks rzeczowy
432
Indeks postaci historycznych
437
Summary
444
The aim of the present work is to specify and define, on the basis
of the available evidence, the interpersonal links between Roman
soldiers during the Early Roman Empire.
Before a man could join the Roman army, he had to be verified
for his legal status
-
he had to be a freely born citizen {condicio
in¬
genui)
and a free person {condicio libertinae). Freed slaves
{liberti)
had a limited access to the army on account of their duties towards
their ex-owners. In order for a slave to become a Roman soldier, he
first had to be freed by his master {manumissio).
Every soldier began his service at that level of the hierarchy
which agreed with his social and legal status. A foreigner was as¬
signed to auxiliary forces
{auxilia)
or the navy. A Roman citizen
(civis
Romanus) was
assigned to the legions or units stationed in
Rome
{cohortes praetoriae, cohortes
urbanae). Freed slaves were
enlisted to
cohortes vigilum,
to the navy and partly to
équités
singu¬
lares
and
auxilia
(auxiliary forces). A person from the urban elite,
in turn, could be made a centurion directly. A person with the sta¬
tus of a Roman equite {equus publicus) undertook militia equestris,
whereas a senator served as a high-ranking officer in a legion (tribu-
nus laticlavius).
On the basis of the Roman legal regulations one can identify sev¬
eral categories of punishment and crimes the perpetration of which
resulted in a ban from the service. This concerned, for example, per¬
sons sentenced to death or exile. Those who had been exiled tem¬
porarily of punished with permanent infamy (infamiam
perpetuam)
could join the army. The Roman law envisaged punishments for per¬
sons who through their behaviour made it impossible for their rela¬
tives to join the army. A father who was a Roman citizen could not
forbid his son to enlist in the armed forced, for his fatherly authority
Summary
445
could not restrict the son s status as another Roman citizen. Evasion
of military service was treated as a much more serious offense than
an attempt
tojóin
the army illegally.
The places of birth {origo natalium) of soldiers were important
for their identification within specific formations of the army. The
analysis of epigraphic sources reveals that a substantial number of
soldiers from the same province, region, town or even village could
belong to the same military unit. Importantly, countrymen
{muníc¬
ipes
-convicani) could be assigned not only to the same cohort but
also the same
centuria.
Soldiers of the same origin could associate themselves into in¬
formal groups within a military unit. The fact that they drew others
attention to their common origin could result from their attachment
to their birthplace or indicate a major reason for the emergence of
relations they maintained throughout the period of the service. The
presence of a person or persons from the same town or village could
prove extremely important in the drafting process, as well as during
the service. One s countryman was probably the first real companion
in the unit.
Even if these relationships could at first be rather formal and
superficial, they could change with time so that the men became
companions , units companions or roommates from the same
accommodation unit in a camp.
The chapter on the social status of soldiers is an attempt to ap¬
proach the problem on the basis of
onomastic
data. The analysis
of nicknames
{cognomina)
used by the soldiers of the Praetorian
Guard, city cohorts
{cohortes
urbanae) and legions shows that they
were drafted from the Italian
plebs
ingenua.
These predominantly
were freeborn citizens {condicio
ingenui),
whose parents were freed
slaves
{liberti)
and foreigners naturalized in accordance with Ro¬
man law
{peregrini).
The majority of Roman soldiers could in fact
be rather poor. Their low social status is also suggested by the fact
that many of them might have been illegitimate offspring of women
without Roman citizenship: such children inherited the social status
of their mothers. As their origin, therefore, they indicated the
mili-
446
SUMMARY
tary
camp {origo
cas
tris) or
tribus
Polia.
Recruits, upon receiving
assignment, could also receive the status of Roman citizens as well
as a full Roman name
{tria
nomina),
along with a fictional
tribus,
origo and filiation. A private in the Roman army could hardly fit in
the structure of the Roman society between the elite and the masses,
the latter being rather poor and underprivileged. On the other hand,
among the recruits there could also be representatives of municipal
aristocracy and persons with Roman citizenship, who also owned
property. Therefore, the circumstances and the reasons why some¬
one decided to join a given Roman formation could be diverse.
The soldiers in the Roman army, when still recruits, called them¬
selves
contirones.
Later, once they received the status of full-fledged
soldiers
{legitimi
milites),
they called themselves contubernales
,
manipulares,
commanipulares, turmales and conturmales
.
Also in
use were the terms commilitones
,
fratres and
amici.
In the period of the
Principate
there were three categories of
recruits
(tirones).
These were: volunteers
{voluntarii),
conscripts
(lecti) and substitutes
{vicarii).
One could follow the footsteps of
one s father, who served in the army. A man reporting for recruit¬
ment could have a semi-formal letter of recommendation {epistula
commendaticia) with him.
During the so called probatio, a personalized list of recruits was
composed, which contained their names, ages and special physi¬
cal characteristics of a given person. Recruits could also be given
new names, in accordance with Roman
onomastic
principles. Per¬
sons without the status civitatis who were to serve in the legions, in
the
Pretorián
corps or in city cohorts were given Roman citizenship
(civitas
Romana).
After receiving their assignment, recruits were
sent to specific units and then to centuriae and turmae. A recruit
could ask for a different assignment if he was not satisfied with the
one he received. Centuriae and turmae were divided into smaller
troops, the so called contubernia, consisting of six, eight or ten sol¬
diers. Brothers in arms {commilites) from the same contubernium
were called contubernales and
équités
were called conturmales. Re¬
cruits
{tirones)
did not have the status of full-fledged soldiers. Their
Summary j
447
position in the army was regulated by the law. They were treated as
a distinct group within the Roman military structure, separate from
regular soldiers. Mutual responsibility and friendship could arise
among recruits. It was thanks to other recruits that those who died
before the second, particularly difficult stage of recruitment (signa-
tio) could be buried. For at least four months recruits were subjected
to everyday exhausting exercises to check if they were fit for service
in the regular army. Only after the training and passing tests of abil¬
ity did the recruits take the military oath (sacramentum militiae).
They were added to the personalized lists of their units, together
with the exact day of the beginning of the service (the reception of
probatio). A recruit was then paid the soldier s pay
{stipendium)
and
could be receive financial rewards
{donat
iva):
he was a full-fledged
soldier (¡egitimus miles).
Contubernaies, as soldier companions from his sub-unit (con-
tubernium) were present in every formation in the Roman military
system. During the
Principate,
a contubermum was a group of sol¬
diers who occupied the same leather tent in a field camp
(castra
aesüvaliä)
or one or two rooms in the building occupied by a single
centuria
in a permanent camp.
Contubernaies called themselves colleagues
(collegae),
which
meant more than just belonging to the same troop. The expression
could suggest that they had the same position in the military hier¬
archy, fulfilled the same functions and performed identical duties.
During the service, soldiers did not refrain from making use
of the support of other fellow soldiers. The nature of the relation¬
ship of the soldiers within the same contubermum could in some
situations significantly influence their future military career. The
principles of Roman military law determined the boundaries of
the relationships between soldiers within a given troop (a con-
tubernium,
centuria,
turma
or a cohort). Living under one roof
was connected with a number of specific dangers (contubernaies).
Sometimes soldiers behaved violently under the influence of al¬
cohol; they could attack and hurt one another with weapons, they
could even be responsible for the deaths of their fellow soldiers.
4 48
j
Summary
During the service, contubemales had a chance of promotion and
a higher position in their unit.
Soldiers transferred from one unit to another formed new troops
(centuriae, turmae) within the new unit
-
they then formed new con-
tubernia. Importantly,
milites
who were transferred from one unit to
another did not lose their privileges.
Comrades in the same sub-unit (contubemales)
-
we know that
from the extant correspondence
-
could enjoy cordial relationships.
Their duty was to see to the proper burial of a deceased companion.
Soldiers from the same contubernium had the status of
manipulares-
commun ipu
lares,
tur
males and conturmales
.
Companions from the
same maniple belonged to the same tactical troop, composed of two
centuriae. Every maniple had its flag
(signum),
which was carried
by the ensign colour bearer (sigmfer). The expressions turmales and
coturmales were, in turn, used in reference to
équités,
who were
formed into special squadrons, each of which also had its flag (vex-
ilia). Every Roman soldier was supposed to know, above all, his
own
centuria
and squadron
(turma).
The tasks given to the soldiers
of a maniple concerned not only the camp but also the terrain outside
it. Information about the change of unit was important for the given
soldier s companions from other units: requests for the information
can be found in the soldier s letters.
The most important duty of
manipulares
was obviously partici¬
pation in military operations. The sense of responsibility for them¬
selves and their companions was in a sense practised to perfection.
The fact that they were together all the time, fulfilled their duties and
trained together, the fear of individual and group punishment
-
all
this must have led to certain routine behaviour and the instinct to
offer help. The status of all
manipulares
in the light of Roman law
was the same. The authority of the commander was to a large ex¬
tent based on the principles of Roman military law. On this basis,
the commander could react to breaches of military discipline
(dis¬
ciplina
militaris). The commander, on the basis of military regula¬
tions, could counteract the behaviour of the
milites
which jeopard¬
ized their own safety, as well as that of the others.
Milites
cherished
Summary
і
449
the memory of their fellow soldiers but many of them were not to
see the end of service. Therefore, they paid small amounts of their
income to a common treasury and the money was then used to cover
the cost of the burials of the deceased soldiers.
The expression commilitones in reference to Roman soldiers was
used by military commanders, not only by Roman emperors. The
expression can also be found in letters and legal regulations. From
the 2nd
с
A.D.
it becomes an official and popular title used in refer¬
ence to active soldiers, as well as to ex-soldiers. The expression is
recoverable from epigraphic material.
The same expression was used, in reference to one another, by
the soldiers in legions, auxiliary units
(auxilia),
praetorians, sailors
from various divisions of the Roman navy
(classis),
as well as city
and the
cohortes vigilum.
It was used by soldiers whose position in
the military hierarchy was different.
The authority of the commander of the Roman army was enor¬
mous. His
imperium
was based on two means of repression: coerci-
tio and
indica
t
io.
Roman soldiers were obliged to carry out orders and obey their
commanders
(modestia militaris).
In the light of Roman law, an
active soldier (caligatus) who committed a crime had to be sent to
his commander. The commander had the right to punish all his sub¬
ordinates. The law and
disciplina
militaris played a significant role
in courts martial, which took place in camps (castrensis iurisdic-
tio). When a soldier was tried in a camp, the witnesses were mainly
his companions from the same unit. The trial could concern e.g.
the legal status of the person (status controversiam). A soldier s
legal situation could be shaped by his relations with his brothers
in arms.
Soldiers who had the status of contubernales referred to their
companions as brothers (fratres). The use of this term in reference
to non-relatives could derive from the Roman tradition of common
military operations performed by brothers. The emergence of such
relationships between brothers in arms was a reversal of the situa¬
tion from the period of the Republic, more specifically from the civil
sum
Маку
wars of the 1st
с
B.C., in which brothers, fathers and sons fought
against each other.
Military service led to strong relations between the soldiers. The
camp was to them a second home. It is within the camp, in the tents,
that they carried conversations, possibly about the fear of the enemy,
the conditions of the service, other soldiers and officers, especially
centurions and military tribunes who abused their power or exces¬
sively punished their subordinates.
The expression ftxitres could have been used by and in reference
to soldiers whose relations began at the beginning of the service,
when they were still recruits. The soldiers of the same troop support¬
ed and helped one another through fraternitas. They also probably
knew, to paraphrase the words of Sallustius, that there in no better
friend than a brother . However, service under the same command¬
ers did not necessarily mean that soldiers treated other soldiers as
brothers in arms. They sometimes found it difficult to act in a friend¬
ly, let alone brotherly manner towards one another and conflicts be¬
tween them could be very dramatic.
Relations between the soldiers of the same contubernium or troop
{centuria,
maniple, or
turma)
were possibly characterized by a cer¬
tain kind of ethos. It was a system of values shared by the soldiers,
which included the ideas of consent (concordia-consensus) or mu¬
tual trust and fidelity (fides
mutua). A
symbol of consent {insignia
mutua)
were right hands
{dextras)
in handshake. The brotherhood
{fraternitas) of Roman soldiers also consisted, apart from consent
and fidelity, in empathy and disinterestedness.
Also regulations of Roman law, especially those concerning in¬
heritance, could influence the relations of brotherhood {fraternitas).
Soldiers could, according to the law, indicate in their last will and
testaments other soldiers as inheritors, not necessarily related by
blood.
The nature of the relationship could also be shaped by the prop¬
erty they owned. The amount of the property, the amount of money
he had saved, could influence a soldier s position in the sub-unit
{contubernium) and troop
{centuria, turma,
maniple), and obviously
Ч
Ì
Ч
-S
SUMMARY
¡
h
¡
among his fellow soldiers. By belonging to military associations
(collegia
militaria)
soldiers had a chance to avoid the anonymous-
ness imposed on them by the service. Membership in a collegium
could allow one to establish and strengthen the links between broth¬
ers in arms.
Brotherhood between soldiers was strictly connected with friend¬
ship. Amicita was a type of relationship probably free from the hi¬
erarchical order prevalent in the army, although even here the legal
and socio-economic status of soldiers could also play a role. Friend¬
ship was perhaps one of the superordinate values uniting people.
Friends from the army could be referred to in a number of ways.
In a soldier s last will and testament, his fellow soldier could be
called a friend and an heir (heres) at the same time. The soldiers,
as evidenced by epigraphic data, may have referred to one another
as friends or brothers. Common places of origin may have been the
basis for the emergence of not merely friendship (amicus-municeps)
but in fact brotherhood. These relationships may have also obtained
between soldiers of different formations.
The inscriptions left by contuhernales contain expressions which
unanimously point to their strong emotional attitude towards the
deceased companions. The preservation of the memory of the de¬
ceased was probably very important for the living soldiers
-
not only
through gratitude for the money inherited.
Military service did not result in a breach of relationships be¬
tween a soldier and his family and relatives.
The very act of becoming a soldier partially freed the man {films
familias
miles) from the authority of the father
{patria
potestas). He
could decide about his military possessions {peculium
castrense),
draft military will and testaments and free his slaves, importantly,
the relationships between the father and the soldier son could be
maintained all the time.
Legal regulations did not forbid the possession of slaves by ac¬
tive soldiers. The latter could not marry but could maintain sexual
contacts with women. Therefore, the soldiers used the services of
their own female slaves, as well as other slaves who were ordered
452
I SUM
м ДНУ
to provide the service by their respective owners. The names of at
least some of the women slaves, who after manumissio married their
former owners also indicate that they might have been prostitutes
before. The soldiers also could, if given an opportunity, engage in
sexual relationships with free women. The possession of slaves,
women, children, as well as financial support of parents and rela¬
tives could entail rather large expenses on the part of the soldiers.
The fact that soldiers liaised with women who were former slaves
suggests that the status of the former was probably low.
Contubernales were assisted by camp servants,
calones
and lix-
ae. Both
calones
and lixae were civil persons and did not take part
in fighting. They were at the bottom of the social and legal hierarchy
of the Roman army.
Calones
were actually slaves, whereas lixae
were slaves or free persons
—
these were illegitimate sons of active
soldiers.
The fact that a veteran came from the province in which his mi-
latary unit was stationed could mean that when the service ended he
could attempt to settle down in the vicinity. For many veterans the
end of service did not mean the end of relationships with their fellow
soldiers
—
help and support were still possible.
sehe *-
r.isivbnotnek
(Vi
Li
ň
ciìè «
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Łuć, Ireneusz 1971- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1205475559 |
| author_facet | Łuć, Ireneusz 1971- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Łuć, Ireneusz 1971- |
| author_variant | i ł ił |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV040396954 |
| ctrlnum | (gbd)1005408 (OCoLC)812254989 (DE-599)BVBBV040396954 |
| era | Geschichte 30 v.Chr. - 476 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 30 v.Chr. - 476 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Rzym (państwo) / historia wojskowa / 30 a.C.-476 jhpk Römisches Reich (DE-588)4076778-4 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Rzym (państwo) / historia wojskowa / 30 a.C.-476 Römisches Reich |
| id | DE-604.BV040396954 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T00:23:09Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788377300015 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025250200 |
| oclc_num | 812254989 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 452 s. 22 cm |
| psigel | gbd_4_1302 |
| publishDate | 2010 |
| publishDateSearch | 2010 |
| publishDateSort | 2010 |
| publisher | Wydawnictwo Avalon T. Janowski |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Łuć, Ireneusz 1971- Verfasser (DE-588)1205475559 aut Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa Ireneusz Adam Łuć Kraków Wydawnictwo Avalon T. Janowski 2010 452 s. 22 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Bibliogr. s. [298]-431. Indeksy Rzym (państwo) / Armia / życie wojskowe jhpk Rzym (państwo) / Armia / organizacja jhpk Geschichte 30 v.Chr. - 476 gnd rswk-swf Żołnierze rzymscy / sytuacja społeczna jhpk Stosunki międzyludzkie jhpk Socjologia wojska / Rzym (państwo) jhpk Żołnierze rzymscy / obyczaje i zwyczaje jhpk Soldat (DE-588)4055409-0 gnd rswk-swf Rzym (państwo) / historia wojskowa / 30 a.C.-476 jhpk Römisches Reich (DE-588)4076778-4 gnd rswk-swf Römisches Militärwesen (DE-2581)TH000007270 gbd Römisches Reich (DE-588)4076778-4 g Soldat (DE-588)4055409-0 s Geschichte 30 v.Chr. - 476 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025250200&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025250200&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Łuć, Ireneusz 1971- Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa Rzym (państwo) / Armia / życie wojskowe jhpk Rzym (państwo) / Armia / organizacja jhpk Żołnierze rzymscy / sytuacja społeczna jhpk Stosunki międzyludzkie jhpk Socjologia wojska / Rzym (państwo) jhpk Żołnierze rzymscy / obyczaje i zwyczaje jhpk Soldat (DE-588)4055409-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4055409-0 (DE-588)4076778-4 |
| title | Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa |
| title_auth | Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa |
| title_exact_search | Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa |
| title_full | Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa Ireneusz Adam Łuć |
| title_fullStr | Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa Ireneusz Adam Łuć |
| title_full_unstemmed | Boni et mali milites Romani relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa Ireneusz Adam Łuć |
| title_short | Boni et mali milites Romani |
| title_sort | boni et mali milites romani relacje miedzy zolnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa |
| title_sub | relacje między żołnierzami wojsk rzymskich w okresie wczesnego cesarstwa |
| topic | Rzym (państwo) / Armia / życie wojskowe jhpk Rzym (państwo) / Armia / organizacja jhpk Żołnierze rzymscy / sytuacja społeczna jhpk Stosunki międzyludzkie jhpk Socjologia wojska / Rzym (państwo) jhpk Żołnierze rzymscy / obyczaje i zwyczaje jhpk Soldat (DE-588)4055409-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Rzym (państwo) / Armia / życie wojskowe Rzym (państwo) / Armia / organizacja Żołnierze rzymscy / sytuacja społeczna Stosunki międzyludzkie Socjologia wojska / Rzym (państwo) Żołnierze rzymscy / obyczaje i zwyczaje Soldat Rzym (państwo) / historia wojskowa / 30 a.C.-476 Römisches Reich |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025250200&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025250200&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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