Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications:
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Chichester
Wiley
2012
|
| Edition: | 1. publ. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Physical Description: | XVI, 405 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9780470661116 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications |c [ed.] Sergio Pizzini |
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| adam_text | Contents
Preface xi
List of Contributors xv
1.
Silicon Science and Technology as the Background of the Current
and Future Knowledge Society
1
Sergio Pizzini
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Silicon Birth from a Thermonuclear Nucleosynthetic Process
2
1.3
Silicon Key Properties
2
1.3.1
Chemical and Structural Properties
2
1.3.2
Point Defects
7
1.3.3
Radiation Damage and Radiation Hardness
7
1.4
Advanced Silicon Applications
9
1.4.1
Silicon Radiation Detectors
9
1.4.2
Photovoltaic Cells for Space Vehicles and Satellite
Applications
11
1.4.3
Advanced Components Based on the Dislocation Luminescence
in Silicon
12
1.4.4
Silicon Nanostructures
14
References
15
2.
Processes
21
Bruno Ceccaroli and Sergio Pizzini
2.1
Introduction
21
2.2
Gas-Phase Processes
23
2.2.1
Preparation and Synthesis of Volatile Silicon Compounds
23
2.2.2
Purification of Volatile Silicon Compounds
30
2.2.3
Decomposition of Volatile Precursors to Elemental Silicon
30
2.2.4
Most Common Reactors
33
2.2.5
Recovery of By-Products
38
2.3
Production of MG and UMG Silicon and Further Refining Up to Solar
Grade by Chemical and Physical Processes
40
2.3.1
MG Silicon Production
42
2.3.2
Metallurgical Refining Processes
47
2.3.3
Metal-Metal Extraction Processes
52
vi
Contents
2.3.4
Solid/Liquid Extraction Techniques
54
2.3.5
Final Purification by Directional Solidification
55
2.3.6
Solar-Grade Silicon Production from Pure Raw Materials
or Via the Direct Route
58
2.4
Fluoride Processes
59
2.5
Silicon Production/Refining with High-Temperature Plasmochemical
Processes
61
2.5.1
Silicon Production Via Plasma Processes
62
2.5.2
Silicon Refining Via Plasma Processes
63
2.6
Electrochemical Processes: Production of Silicon Without Carbon
as Reductant
64
2.7
Conclusions
68
Acknowledgements
69
References
70
3.
Role of Impurities in Solar Silicon
79
Gianluca
Coletti,
Daniel Macdonald and
Deren Yang
3.1
Introduction
79
3.2
Sources and Refinements of Impurities
79
3.3
Segregation of Impurities During Silicon Growth
86
3.3.1
Equilibrium Segregation Coefficients
86
3.3.2
Effective Segregation Coefficient
87
3.3.3
Distribution of Impurities in Silicon Crystal Due
to Segregation
90
3.4
Role of Metallic Impurities
92
3.4.1
Solubility and Diffusivity
92
3.4.2
Impact on Charge-Carrier Recombination
94
3.4.3
Modeling the Impact of Metallic Impurities on the Solar-Cell
Performance
96
3.5
Role of Dopants
101
3.5.1
Carrier Mobilities in Compensated Silicon
101
3.5.2
Recombination in Compensated Silicon
103
3.5.3
Dopant-Related Recombination Centers
105
3.5.4
Segregation Effects During Ingot Growth
106
3.5.5
Detecting Dopants in Compensated Silicon
107
3.6
Role of Light Elements
108
3.6.1
Oxygen
108
3.6.2
Carbon
109
3.6.3
Nitrogen
111
3.6.4
Germanium
113
3.7
Arriving at Solar-Grade Silicon Feedstock Definitions
114
References
118
4.
Gettering
Processes and the Role of Extended Defects
127
Michael Seibt and
Vítaly Kveder
4.1
Introduction
127
Contents
vii
4.2
Properties of Transition-Metal Impurities in
Silicon 130
4.2.1
Solubility of Transition-Metal Impurities
131
4.2.2
Diffusion of Transition-Metal Impurities
136
4.3
Gettering
Mechanisms and their Modeling
139
4.3.1
Segregation
Gettering
140
4.3.2
Relaxation
Gettering
142
4.3.3
Injection
Gettering
142
4.3.4
Modeling of
Gettering
Kinetics
143
4.3.5
Aluminum
Gettering
144
4.3.6
Phosphorus-Diffusion
Gettering
146
4.3.7
Boron-Diffusion
Gettering
149
4.4
Bulk Processes Affecting
Gettering
Efficiency and Kinetics
150
4.4.1
Metal-Silicide Precipitates
150
4.4.2
Dislocations
154
4.4.3
Grain Boundaries
167
4.4.4
Light-Element Impurities and Related Defects
169
4.5
Gettering Strategies and Defect Engineering
170
4.6
Conclusions
173
Acknowledgements
173
References
174
5.
Advanced Characterization Techniques
189
Anna
Cavallini,
Daniela Cavalcoli
and Laura Polenta
5.1
Introduction
189
5.2
Surface
Photovoltage Spectroscopy
190
5.2.1
The Basic Principles
191
5.2.2
SPS Setup
193
5.2.3
Surface
Photovoltage
Spectroscopy of Hydrogenated
Nanocrystalline Silicon (nc-Si.H)
194
5.3
Photocurrent Spectroscopy
196
5.3.1
Basic Principles
197
5.3.2
Spectral Photoconductivity Setup
199
5.3.3
Application of Spectral Photoconductivity to Silicon
and Silicon Devices
201
5.4
Optical (Light) Beam Induced Current (OBIC or LBIC)
202
5.4.1
Basic Principles of Optical Beam Induced Current Method
202
5.4.2
Determination of the Electric Field and Depletion Region
Extent in Particle Detectors by OBIC
204
5.5
Scanning Probe Microscopy for the Nanoscale Electrical
Characterization of Semiconductors for PV Applications
207
5.6
Concluding Remarks
210
References
210
6.
Advanced Analytical Techniques for Solar-Grade Feedstock
215
Richard S. Hockett
6.1
Introduction
215
viii Contents
6.2 Review
of Analytical
Techniques
216
6.3
GDMS Analysis of PV Si
222
6.4
SIMS Analysis of PV Si
223
6.5
Applications of SIMS and GDMS for PV Si Feedstock Studies
227
6.5.1
Impurity Segregation in Directional Solidified (DS) Silicon
Blocks
227
6.5.2
Specification of [C], [O] and [N] in Solar-Grade Silicon
Feedstock to be Used in DS Furnaces
229
6.5.3
SIMS Capability for Reduced-Cost Measurement
of
[C, 0,
B, P]
230
6.5.4
Problems in Conversion Between Resistivity and Dopant
Concentration in Highly Compensated Silicon
231
References
232
7.
Thin-Film Deposition Processes
235
J.K. Rath
7.1
Introduction
235
7.2
Deposition Techniques of Thin-Film Silicon
235
7.2.1
Standard Radio-Frequency Plasma-Enhanced
С
VD
236
7.2.2
Very High Frequency Plasma-Enhanced CVD
236
7.2.3
Microwave Plasma-Enhanced CVD
237
7.2.4
Expanded Thermal Plasma (ETP) Deposition
237
7.2.5
Low-Energy Plasma-Enhanced PECVD
238
7.2.6
Hot-Wire CVD
238
7.3
In Situ Diagnosis of Growth Conditions
239
7.3.1
Electrical: Current-Voltage (I-V) Probe
239
7.3.2
Optical Emission Spectroscopy
(OES)
240
7.3.3
Infrared Spectroscopy
243
7.3.4
Ellipsometry
244
7.3.5
Ion Energy Probe
245
7.4
Challenges of Deposition at High Growth Rates and Low Substrate
Temperatures
246
7.4.1
Growth-Process Models
246
7.4.2
Inhomogeneity of Growth
250
7.4.3
Growth at High Deposition Rates
251
7.4.4
Silane Dissociation Efficiency and Depletion Criteria for nc-Si
Deposition
252
7.4.5
Low-Temperature (LT) Deposition
254
7.4.6
Structural Evolution at Low Temperature
257
7.4.7
Transient Plasma
260
7.5
Upscaling to Large-Area and Industrial Processing: Critical Analysis
of Various Fabrication Processes
270
Acknowledgements
273
References
273
Contents ix
8.
Modeling of Thin-Film Deposition Processes
287
Carlo
Cavalloni
8.1
Introduction
287
8.2
Modeling the Plasma Discharge
290
8.3
Modeling of the Gas Phase and Surface Kinetics
295
8.3.1
Gas-Phase Kinetic Scheme
297
8.3.2
Surface Kinetic Scheme
301
8.3.3
On the Consistent Solution of the Plasma Discharge and Kinetic
Models: Theory and Examples
303
8.4
Modeling of the Thin-Film Morphological Evolution
303
8.5
Status of the Field and Perspectives
308
References
309
9.
Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells
311
J.K. Rath
9.1
Introduction
311
9.2
Second-Generation Solar Cells: Advantages Compared to the First
Generation
312
9.3
Drift-Type Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells: Substrates and Configuration
314
9.4
Material Considerations for Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells
316
9.4.1
Amorphous Silicon
316
9.4.2
Amorphous Silicon-Germanium
317
9.4.3
Nanocrystalline Silicon
317
9.4.4
Light Confinement
318
9.5
Present Status of Drift-Type Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells
321
9.5.1
Recent R&D Results on Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells
322
9.5.2
Industrial Scenario
322
9.6
Technological Issues
325
9.6.1
High Deposition Rate
325
9.6.2
Thin Cells
325
9.7
Third-Generation Thin-Film Silicon Cell
329
9.8
Solar Cells on Plastics
331
9.8.1
Transfer Method
331
9.8.2
Direct Deposition
332
9.9
Hybrid Cells 334
9.10
Industrial Scenario of Thin-Film Silicon-based Solar Cells
336
9.11
Challenges for Thin-Film Silicon Solar-Module Fabrication
338
Acknowledgements
341
References -*41
10.
Innovative Quantum Effects in Silicon for Photovoltaic Applications
355
Zhizhong Yuan, Aleksei Anopchenko and Lorenzo
Pavesi
10.1
Basic Principles of 3rd-Generation Solar Cells
355
10.1.1
The Need for a New Generation of Solar Cells
355
χ
Contents
10.1.2
Limitations
in Early Generations
356
10.1.3 3
^-Generation Options
357
10.2
The Advantages of Using Silicon Nanocrystals
359
10.2.1
Fabrication and Advantages of Si-NCs
359
10.2.2
Quantum Confinement Effect in Si-NCs
360
10.3
Applications of Si-NCs in the 3rd-Generation Solar Cells
362
10.3.1
All-Silicon Tandem Solar Cells
362
10.3.2
Hot-Carrier Solar Cells
364
10.3.3
Intermediate-Band Solar Cells
366
10.3.4
Multiple-Carrier Generation
369
10.3.5
Downshifter Cell
372
10.4
Challenges and Solutions
375
10.4.1
Size Control
375
10.4.2
Carrier Transport
375
10.4.3
Absorption
378
10.4.4
Technological Constraints
381
10.5
Conclusions
381
Acknowledgements
381
References
381
Index
393
Advanced
Silicon Materials
for Photovoltaic
Applications
Editor SERGIO
PIZZINI
University of
Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
Today, the silicon feedstock tor photovoltaic cells comes from processes which were originally
developed for the microelectronic industry. It covers almost
90%
of the photovoltaic market,
with mass production volume at least one order of magnitude larger than those devoted to
microelectronics.
However, it is hard to imagine that this kind of feedstock (extremely pure but heavily penalized
by its high energy cost) could remain the only source of silicon for a photovoltaic market
which is in continuous expansion, and which has a cumulative growth rate in excess of
30%
in the last few years. Even though reports suggest that the silicon share will slowly decrease in
the next twenty years, finding a way to manufacture a specific solar grade feedstock in large
quantities, at a low cost while maintaining the quality needed, still remains a crucial issue.
Thin film and quantum confinement-based silicon cells might be a complementary solution.
Advanced Silicon Materials for Photovoltaic Applications has been designed to describe the full
potentialities of silicon as a multipurpose material and covers:
•
Physical, chemical and structural properties
oí
silicon
•
Production routes including the promise ot low co>t feedstock tor PV applications
■>
Detect engineering and the role of impurities and detects
>
Characterization techniques, and advanced analytical techniques for metallic and non-
metallic impurities
•
Thin film silicon and thin film solar cells
Innovative quantum effects
generation solar cells
With contributions from internationally recognized authorities, this book gives a
comprehensive analysis ot the state-ot-the-art ot process technologies and material properties,
essential for anyone interested in the application and development ofphotovoltaics.
Π
Also available
as an e-book
WILEY
wilev.com
|
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| publisher | Wiley |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications [ed.] Sergio Pizzini 1. publ. Chichester Wiley 2012 XVI, 405 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Silicon solar cells Photovoltaic cells Materials Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 gnd rswk-swf Silicium (DE-588)4077445-4 gnd rswk-swf Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd rswk-swf Silicium (DE-588)4077445-4 s Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 s DE-604 Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 s Pizzini, Sergio edt Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025201214&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025201214&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications Silicon solar cells Photovoltaic cells Materials Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 gnd Silicium (DE-588)4077445-4 gnd Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4181740-0 (DE-588)4077445-4 (DE-588)4121476-6 |
| title | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications |
| title_auth | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications |
| title_exact_search | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications |
| title_full | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications [ed.] Sergio Pizzini |
| title_fullStr | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications [ed.] Sergio Pizzini |
| title_full_unstemmed | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications [ed.] Sergio Pizzini |
| title_short | Advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications |
| title_sort | advanced silicon materials for photovoltaic applications |
| topic | Silicon solar cells Photovoltaic cells Materials Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 gnd Silicium (DE-588)4077445-4 gnd Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd |
| topic_facet | Silicon solar cells Photovoltaic cells Materials Solarzelle Silicium Fotovoltaik |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025201214&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025201214&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT pizzinisergio advancedsiliconmaterialsforphotovoltaicapplications |