Divided we stand: why inequality keeps rising
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OECD Publishing
2011
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| ISBN: | 9789264119536 9789264111639 |
| DOI: | 10.1787/9789264119536-en |
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TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Acronyms, Country ISO Codes and Conventional Signs
. 15
Editorial
. 17
An Overview of Growing Income Inequalities in
OECD
Countries: Main Findings
. 21
1.
The big picture: inequality on the rise in most
OECD
countries
. 22
2.
What drives growing earnings and income disparities?
. 28
3.
Lessons for policies
. 40
Notes
. 42
References
. 42
Annex
Al.
Trends in Different Income Inequality Measures
. 44
Special Focus: Inequality in Emerging Economies (EEs).
. 47
1.
Introduction
. 48
2.
Inequality patterns in EEs
. 50
3.
Economic factors behind inequality
. 53
4.
Institutional arrangements shaping redistribution
. 58
5.
Policy challenges for tackling inequality while creating more
and better jobs
. 64
Notes
. 77
References
. 78
Annex 0.A1. Main Features of Social Protection Systems in EEs
. 81
Parti
How Globalisation, Technological Change and Policies Affect Wage
and Earnings Inequalities
Chapter
1.
Trends in Wage Inequality, Economic Globalisation and Labour
Market Policies and Institutions
. 85
1.1.
Introduction
. 86
1.2.
Trends in wage dispersion
. 86
1.3.
Globalisation: recent trends in global economic developments
. 88
1.4.
Trends in labour market policies, institutions and regulations
. 99
1.5.
Summary and conclusions
. 104
Notes
. 105
References
. 106
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Chapter
2.
The Impact of Economic Globalisation and Changes in Policies
and Institutions on Rising Earnings Inequality
. 109
2.1.
Introduction
. 11°
2.2.
Effects of economic globalisation, technological change, and changes
in policies and institutions on wage inequality
.
Ш
2.3.
Effects on the top and the bottom of the wage distribution:
tail-sensitive analyses
. 123
2.4.
Summary and conclusions
. 125
Notes
. 126
References
. 128
Annex 2.A1. Data Sources and Variables
. 133
Annex 2.A2. Changes in the Skill Wage Gap and the Role of Sectors
. 136
Chapter
3.
Inequality Between the Employed and the Non-employed
. 143
3.1.
Introduction
. 144
3.2.
Earnings inequality among the whole working-age population
. 145
3.3.
Linking globalisation and developments in policies and institutions
to changes in earnings inequality among the working-age population
. 151
3.4.
Globalisation, regulatory reforms and changes in overall earnings
inequality: bringing together the evidence
. 154
3.5.
Summary and conclusions
. 156
Notes
. 157
References
. 159
Annex 3.A1. Data for the Analyses in Section
3.2. 161
Annex 3.A2. Additional Tables and Figures
. 163
Part II
How Inequalities in Labour Earnings Lead to Inequalities
in Household Disposable Income
Chapter
4.
Hours Worked, Self-Employment and Joblessness as Ingredients
of Earnings Inequality
. 167
4.1.
Introduction
. 168
4.2.
Trends in inequality among full-time workers and all workers
. 169
4.3.
Compositional changes and their impact on trends in earnings inequality
. 171
4.4.
Earnings inequality and joblessness
. 179
4.5.
Summary and conclusions
. 181
Notes
. 182
References
. 184
Annex 4.A1. Additional Tables
. 185
Annex 4.A2. Accounting for the Effect of Joblessness on Earnings Inequality
Among the Whole Working-Age Population
. 189
DIVIDED WE STAND: WHY INEQUALITY KEEPS RISING
β
OECD
2011
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Chapter
5.
Trends in Household Earnings Inequality: The Role of Changing Family
Formation Practices
. 193
5.1.
Introduction
. 194
5.2.
Levels and trends in household earnings inequality
. 195
5.3.
The determinants of changes in household earnings inequality:
labour market and demographic factors
. 198
5.4.
Explaining changes in household earnings inequality
. 204
5.5.
Summary and conclusions
. 211
Notes
. 212
References
. 214
Annex 5.A1. Additional Tables and Figures
. 216
Chapter
6.
From Household Earnings to Disposable Household Income Inequality
. 225
6.1.
Introduction
. 226
6.2.
Inequality: trends in the distribution of market and disposable income
. 227
6.3.
How much of inequality is explained by each of the income sources?
. 236
6.4. Redistributive
effects of marginal increases in individual income
components
. 243
6.5.
Summary and conclusions
. 245
Notes
. 246
References
. 247
Annex 6.A1. Additional Tables
. 248
Part III
How the Roles of Tax and Transfer Systems Have Changed
Chapter
7.
Changes in Redistribution in
OECD
Countries Over Two Decades
. 261
7.1.
Introduction
. 262
7.2.
Measured changes in redistribution
. 264
7.3.
The role of policy reforms
. 281
7.4.
Summary and conclusions
. 292
Notes
. 293
References
. 295
Annex 7.A1. Additional Tables and Figures
. 299
Chapter
8.
The Distributive Impact of Publicly Provided Services
. 309
8.1.
Introduction
. 310
8.2.
Defining public social services
. 312
8.3.
The overall distributive impact of publicly provided services
on the distribution of income
. 314
8.4.
The distributive impact of particular public services
. 318
8.5.
The distributive impact of public services over time
. 329
8.6.
Summary and conclusions
. 330
Notes
. 331
References
. 332
Annex
8.
Al.
How to Account for Publicly Provided Services in Household
Income: Conceptual and Methodological Issues
. 335
Annex 8.A2. Additional Tables and Figures
. 340
DIVIDED WE STAND: WHY INEQUALITY KEEPS RISING
© OECD 2011
TABLE
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Chapter
9.
Trends in Top Incomes and Their Tax Policy Implications
. 343
9.1.
Introduction
.
344
9.2.
Data on top incomes
. 345
9.3.
Trends in the share of top incomes
. 346
9.4.
Explanations of the trends in top incomes
. 355
9.5.
Tax policy implications
. 361
9.6.
Summary and conclusions
. 369
Notes
. 370
References
. 371
Annex 9.A1. Characteristics and Limitations of Income Data
from Tax Returns
. 374
Annex 9.A2. Additional Data and Figures
. 379
List of figures
1.
Income inequality increased in most, but not all
OECD
countries
. 24
2.
Inequality increased in most countries over the long term, but recently fell
in some high-inequality countries
. 25
3.
The integration of trade and financial markets and technological progress
grew rapidly, especially from the
mid-1990s. 29
4.
Product and labour market regulations and institutions became weaker
. 30
5.
Levels of earnings inequality are much higher when part-timers
and self-employed are accounted for
. 33
6.
Hours worked declined more among lower-wage workers
. 34
7.
Demographic changes were less important than labour market trends
in explaining changes in household earnings distribution
. 35
8.
Capital income became a greater source of household income, but mainly
in rich households
. 35
9.
Market incomes are distributed much more unequally than net incomes.
. 36
10.
While market income inequality rose, redistribution through tax/transfers
became less effective in many countries
. 37
11.
In-kind benefits from public services are
redistributive
in all
OECD
countries
. 39
12.
The share of top incomes increased, especially in English-speaking
countries
. 39
0.1.
GDP per capita
. 49
0.2.
Change in inequality levels, early
1990s
uersus late 2000s
. 51
0.3.
Change in real household income by
quintile
. 52
0.4.
Inequality in urban and rural areas
. 54
0.5.
Informality in emerging economies
. 55
0.6.
PISA scores in mathematics,
2009
(proficiency levels)
. 57
0.7.
Earnings inequality, decile ratios
. 58
0.8.
Public social expenditure in
OECD
countries and emerging economies
. 59
0.9.
Unemployment benefit recipiency rates in
OECD
countries
and emerging economies
. 61
0.10.
Employment protection legislation
. 64
0.11.
Minimum wages in G20 countries,
2009. 69
g
DIVIDED WE STAND: WHY INEQUALITY KEEPS RISING
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1.1.
Trends in wage dispersion, selected
OECD
countries,
1980-2008. 87
1.2.
Country-specific regression of wage inequality (D9/D1) on time trend
(years indicated)
. 88
1.3.
Change in trade intensity by region of origin,
1980-2008. 89
1.4.
Change in trade intensity with developing countries, by income group
of developing country
. 90
1.5.
Association between trends in wage dispersion and trade openness,
1985-2007. 91
1.6.
Cross-border liabilities by components
(%
of GDP),
OECD
average,
1980-2007. 92
1.7.
Cross-border assets by components
(%
of GDP),
OECD
average,
1980-2007. 92
1.8.
Inward (liabilities) foreign direct investment stock to GDP ratios,
1980-2008. 93
1.9.
Outward (assets) foreign direct investment stock to GDP ratios,
1980-2008. 94
1.10.
Association between trends in wage dispersion and foreign direct
investment restrictiveness,
1985-2006. 95
1.11.
BERD
as a percentage of GDP,
1981-2008. 95
1.12.
Total patent counts,
1980-2007. 96
1.13.
Patents per capita (per million persons)
. 96
1.14.
Shares of ICT investment in non-residential gross fixed capital
formation
. 97
1.15.
Share of ICT employment in business sector employment
. 97
1.16.
Association between trends in wage dispersion and R&D intensity,
1985-2007. 98
1.17.
Association between trends in wage dispersion and ICT intensity,
1985-2007. 98
1.18.
Changes in labour market institutions and policies,
1980-2008. 101
1.19.
Association between trends in wage dispersion and labour market policies
and institutions,
1985-2007. 103
2.1.
Share of outward FDI stock by industry sectors, selected
OECD
countries,
2007. 118
2.2.
Robustness tests: influential country in the regression of wage inequality
. 121
2.3.
Accounting for changes in wage inequality: the role of globalisation,
technology and labour market policies and institutions
. 122
2.A2.1. Increased gap between the wages of high and low-skilled workers,
1985-2005. 137
2.A2.2. Wage gaps and trade openness by sector,
1985-2005. 138
2.A2.3. Wage gaps and technological change by sector,
1985-2005. 139
2.A2.4. Wage gaps and trade in intermediate inputs,
1995-2005. 140
2.A2.5. Changes in wage gaps and outward FDI,
1995-2005. 141
3.1.
Change in employment rate needed to compensate change in wage
inequality among workers, in order to keep earnings inequality
among the whole working-age population unchanged
. 147
3.2.
Estimated contributions of wage dispersion and employment effects
to overall earnings inequality among the working-age population
. 148
3.3.
Decomposing changes in the
Gini
coefficient of earnings
among the entire working-age population
. 149
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З.АІ.І.
Actual versus simulated changes in
Gini
coefficients
among the working-age population
. 161
3.A2.1. Contributions of wage and employment effects to overall earnings
inequality among the working-age population: alternative scenario
. 164
4.1.
Earnings inequality
(Gini
coefficient) among full-time workers, full-time
and part-time workers and all workers, mid-20003
. 170
4.2.
Evolution of earnings inequality among full-time workers,
full- and part-time workers and all workers,
mid-1980s
to mid^OOOs
. 171
4.3.
The contribution of paid employment earnings and self-employment
income to earnings inequality
(Gini
coefficient) among all workers,
mid-1980s
to mid^OOOs
. 174
4.4.
Inequality of hourly wages versus inequality of annual earnings,
all paid workers
. 175
4.5.
Changes in annual hours worked and in hourly real wages by earnings
quintile,
mid-1980s
to mid-20003
. 178
4.6.
Inequality of earnings
(Gini
coefficient) among the entire working-age
population,
mid-1980s
and
mid-2000s
. 180
4.7.
Earnings inequality among workers and the entire working-age
population and developments in non-employment rates
. 181
4.A2.1. Static decomposition of earnings inequality among the working-age
population, by earnings dispersion among workers and employment
status, mid-2000s
. 190
4.A2.2. Dynamic decomposition of changes in earnings inequality among
the working-age population
(GEO)
. 191
5.1.
Inequality
(Gini
coefficient) of annual earnings among individuals
and households, all working-age households (including individuals
and households with no earnings)
. 196
5.2.
Inequality
(Gini
coefficient) of annual earnings among individuals
and households, workers and working households
. 196
5.3.
Evolution of equivalent household earnings inequality
(Gini
coefficient)
. 197
5.4.
Polarisation of men's earnings distribution
. 200
5.5.
Women's employment rates have increased markedly
. 200
5.6.
Female employment rates increased the most among wives of top earners
. 201
5.7.
Degree of assortative mating, stricter and broader definitions
. 203
5.8.
The share of single-headed households has increased
in all
OECD
countries
. 204
5.9.
Explaining changes in household earnings inequality: contributions
of labour market and demographic factors
. 209
5.A1.1. Working wives' annual earnings by husband's earnings decile,
couple households,
mid-1980s
and mid-20003
. 221
6.1.
Gini
coefficients of inequality of market and disposable incomes,
persons of working age, late 2000s
. 228
6.2.
Trends in inequality of disposable and market income,
working-age population
. 229
6.3.
Shares of disposable income components, working-age population,
mid^OOOs
. 230
10
DIVIDED WE STAND: WHY INEQUALITY KEEPS RISING
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6.4.
Shares of income components in lower and higher income groups,
mid-20003
. 233
6.5.
Gini
coefficients of concentration of market income sources,
mid-1980s
and mid^OOOs
. 235
6.6.
Decomposition of income inequality by income source,
average of
14
OECD
countries, mid-20003
. 238
6.7.
Contribution of wages and self-employment income to overall inequality,
mid-1980s
to
mid
-гОООѕ
.
238
6.8.
Contribution of capital income to overall inequality,
mid-1980s
to mid-20003
. 240
6.9.
Contribution of social insurance and means-tested transfers
to overall inequality,
mid-1980s
to mid-20005
. 241
6.10.
Contribution of income taxes and social security contributions
to overall inequality,
mid-1980s
to mid-20003
. 242
6.11. Redistributive
effects of marginal increases in individual income
components, mid-2000s
. 244
7.1.
Overall amounts of taxes paid and benefits received in the
mid-2000s
. 265
7.2.
Redistribution tends to be higher when incomes are more unequal
. 272
7.3.
Drivers of redistribution: progressivity and size of transfers and taxes
. 278
7.4.
Unemployment benefit recipiency
. 281
7.5.
Unemployment benefit coverage
. 282
7.6.
Net replacement rates of unemployment support
. 286
7.A1.1. Gains and losses in net transfers, percentage of disposable income,
1995-2005:
policy changes and fiscal-drag
. 302
7.A1.2. Position in the income distribution under different policy scenarios
. 305
8.1.
Public expenditure for in-kind and cash transfers,
in percentage of GDP,
2007. 311
8.2.
Income-increasing effect of in-kind benefits from public services,
2007. 316
8.3.
Income poverty rates before and after including total of public services
(floating poverty line),
2007. 318
8.4.
Gini
coefficient before and after inclusion of public education services
. 320
8.5.
Distribution of education services over income
quintiles,
2007. 321
8.6.
Gini
coefficient before and after inclusion of public health care services
. 323
8.7.
Distribution of in-kind benefits from social housing by income
quintiles,
2007. 324
8.8.
Income-increasing effect from ECEC services,
2007. 325
8.9.
Distribution of ECEC in-kind benefits over
quintiles
. 326
8.10.
Distribution of elderly care expenditures over income
quintiles
. 328
8.11.
Association between trends in size of public services and changes
in inequality reduction,
2000-2007. 330
8.A1.1.
Gini
coefficient before and after inclusion of all types of public services,
comparing three equivalence scales for extended income
. 339
9.1.
Top
1%
income share,
1910-2008. 347
9.2.
Top
1%
income share,
1900-2009. 348
9.3.
Effect of capital gains on share of top percentile,
1940-2008. 350
9.4.
Top
0.1%
income share and composition, United States,
1916-2008. 351
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9.A1.1.
Share of top
1%
of income recipients in the United States under alternative
income definitions
. 376
9.A2.1. Top
10%
income share
. 380
9.A2.2. Top
1%
income share
. 381
9.A2.3. Top
0.1%
income share
. 382
9.A2.4. Shares of gross income by fractile group
. 383
List of tables
1.
Household incomes increased faster at the top
. 23
2.
Trends in technology, policies and education were the key drivers
of changes in wage inequality and employment in the
OECD
area
. 32
Al.l. Trends in different income inequality measures
. 45
0.1.
Total tax revenue as a percentage of GDP for major non-OECD economies.
. 62
0.2.
Tax systems of selected
ЕЕ
countries: a comparative overview
. 63
2.1.
The impact of globalisation, technological progress and regulatory reform
on trends in wage dispersion
. 112
2.2.
The impact of trade integration on trends in wage dispersion
. 114
2.3.
The impact of trends in financial openness on trends in wage dispersion
. . 117
2.4.
Impact of changes in product and labour market policies and institutions
on trends in wage inequality
. 120
2.5.
Globalisation, labour market policies/institutions and inequality among
lower-wage and higher-wage workers
. 124
2.A1.1.
OECD
structure of earnings database
. 133
2.A1.2. Explanatory variables and data sources
. 134
2.A2.1. Changes in the share of high-skilled workers wages,
1985-2005. 139
2.A2.2. Data sources, country and sector coverage
. 142
3.1.
Wage inequality and employment effects on overall inequality among
the working-age population
. 148
3.2.
Globalisation, polices and institutions and changes
in the employment rate
. 152
3.3.
Main drivers for changes in the earnings distribution among
the whole working-age population
. 155
3.A2.1. Simulation of the wage and employment effects by country,
entire working-age population
. 163
3.A2.2. Wage and employment effects on overall inequality among
the working-age population: alternative scenario
. 164
4.1.
Decomposition of the variance of log annual earnings, paid workers,
mid
-гОООѕ
.
177
4.A1.1. Decomposition of annual earnings inequality by income source,
all workers (aged
25-64). 186
4.
Al.
2.
The developments of hourly wages and annual hours worked by top
and bottom
quintiles
of the annual earnings distribution
. 188
5.1.
Factors influencing changes in household earnings inequality
. 207
5.
Al.
1.
Labour market and family formation factors impacting on household
earnings inequality
. 217
5.A1.2. Factors influencing on changes in household earning inequality,
robustness test
. 219
12
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6.1.
Changes
in shares of disposable income components
in selected
OECD
countries
. 232
6.2.
Changes in wage, capital and other income shares for poorer
and richer income segments
. 234
6.A1.1.
Gini
coefficients from the
OECD
Database on Household Income Distribution
and Poverty and from the
LIS dataset.
249
6.A1.2. Decomposition of (disposable) income inequality by income sources,
countries reporting gross incomes
. 250
6.A1.3. Decomposition of (disposable) income inequality by income sources,
countries reporting net incomes
. 253
6.A1.4. Marginal effects of changes in income components
. 256
7.1.
Tax revenues: trends and components
. 266
7.2.
Redistribution: general country trend
. 268
7.3.
Redistribution trends: detailed results by country
. 269
7.4.
A higher degree of redistribution at the bottom than at the top
of the income distribution
. 273
7.5.
Main changes in generosity of four benefit programmes,
mid-1980s
to mid^OOOs
. 283
7.6.
Net replacement rates of unemployment support
. 287
7.A1.1. Public social expenditure: trends and components
. 300
8.1.
Income-increasing effect of in-kind benefits from public services
by
quintile, OECD27
average,
2007. 316
8.2.
Summary inequality indicators for cash income and extended income
(imputing total public services),
2007. 317
8.3.
Income-increasing effect of benefits from public education services
by
quintile, OECD27
average,
2007. 319
8.4.
Income-increasing effect of benefits from public health care services
by
quintile,
2007. 322
8.5.
Income-increasing effect of social housing, all individuals and reduced
rent tenants by
quintile,
2007. 324
8.6.
Percentage of young children enrolled in ECEC services, by income
quintile
. 326
8.7.
Income-increasing effect of long-term care in-kind benefits
by
quintile,
2007. 328
8.8.
Impact of total services on inequality
(Gini
coefficients),
2000
and
2007. 329
δ.ΑΙ.Ι.
Allocation methods applied for different public services
. 336
8.A1.2. Imputation of education services in household income for a typical
low-income family with two children, example with three alternatives
. 338
8.A2.1. Inequality indicators and percentage change when taking into account
different services
. 340
8.A2.2. Changes in inequality reduction through services, S80/S20,
2000
and
2007. 341
9.1.
Share of top
1%
in selected years
. 349
9.2.
Percentage of primary taxpayers in the top
0.1%
of the income distribution
(including capital gains) that are in each occupation, United States,
2004. 352
9.3.
Taxpayers analysed by industry, United Kingdom,
2007-08. 352
9.4.
Turnover rates for the top
1%
(exits compared with previous year)
. 353
9.5.
Income mobility of the top percentile group of United States taxpayers,
1996-2005. 355
DIVIDED WE STAND: WHY INEQUALITY KEEPS RISING
©
OECD
2011
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
9.6.
International comparison of average PIT rates
. 362
9.7.
Average personal income tax burdens on top percentile group
. 363
9.8.
Shares of
pre-
and post-tax income in the United States,
2004. 363
9.9.
Top marginal rates of central governments personal income tax
(%). 364
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DIVIDED WE STAND: WHY INEQUALITY KEEPS RISING
β
OECD
2011 |
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| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-17T11:05:50Z |
| institution | BVB |
| institution_GND | (DE-588)5157-3 |
| isbn | 9789264119536 9789264111639 |
| language | English |
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| physical | 386 S. graph. Darst. |
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| spelling | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising OECD Paris OECD Publishing 2011 386 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier OECD (DE-588)5157-3 gnd rswk-swf Einkommensverteilung (DE-588)4013898-7 gnd rswk-swf Mitgliedsstaaten (DE-588)4170174-4 gnd rswk-swf Ungleichheit (DE-588)4186884-5 gnd rswk-swf Income distribution--OECD countries. OECD (DE-588)5157-3 b Mitgliedsstaaten (DE-588)4170174-4 s Einkommensverteilung (DE-588)4013898-7 s Ungleichheit (DE-588)4186884-5 s DE-188 DE-604 OECD Sonstige (DE-588)5157-3 oth Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 10.1787/9789264119536-en https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264119536-en Verlag kostenfrei Volltext http://www.oecd.org/document/62/0,3746,de_34968570_34968855_49119358_1_1_1_1,00.html Verlag kostenfrei Volltext Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024739657&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising OECD (DE-588)5157-3 gnd Einkommensverteilung (DE-588)4013898-7 gnd Mitgliedsstaaten (DE-588)4170174-4 gnd Ungleichheit (DE-588)4186884-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)5157-3 (DE-588)4013898-7 (DE-588)4170174-4 (DE-588)4186884-5 |
| title | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising |
| title_auth | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising |
| title_exact_search | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising |
| title_full | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising OECD |
| title_fullStr | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising OECD |
| title_full_unstemmed | Divided we stand why inequality keeps rising OECD |
| title_short | Divided we stand |
| title_sort | divided we stand why inequality keeps rising |
| title_sub | why inequality keeps rising |
| topic | OECD (DE-588)5157-3 gnd Einkommensverteilung (DE-588)4013898-7 gnd Mitgliedsstaaten (DE-588)4170174-4 gnd Ungleichheit (DE-588)4186884-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | OECD Einkommensverteilung Mitgliedsstaaten Ungleichheit |
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