Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria: (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries)
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| Language: | English |
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Veliko Tărnovo
Faber
2011
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| Item Description: | Aus dem Bulg. übers. |
| Physical Description: | 203 S. zahlr. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 9789544005566 |
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Record in the Search Index
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TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
.7
INTRODUCTION
.9
I. PILGRIM
EULOGIA
.11
Importance of the research
.11
Reliquae, relics and eulogia
-
terms and meaning
.15
Early Byzantine eulogia
.17
Middle and Late Byzantine eulogia
.22
II. RELICS AND RELIQUARIES OF ST. DEMETRIUS
.31
Lytron
(λυτρον)
.33
Myrrh
(μυρον
).35
Reliquaries
.40
III. AMPULES KOUTROUBIA
.53
Studies
.54
Technological characteristics
.58
Decorative ornamentation
.61
Iconography
.64
The Martyrs St. Demetrius and Theodora
.65
The warriors St. Demetrius and St. Nestor
.69
The Warrior St. Demetrius and the Virgin Mary Orans
.71
The Warrior St. Demetrius and Virgin Mary the Sign
.72
The Warrior St. Demetrius on horseback and the Virgin Mary the Sign
.74
A Bilateral Inscription
Ο ΑΓΗΟΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ
(St. Demetrius)
.76
Main conclusions
.77
IV. ENCOLPIONS-EULOGIA
.81
Research
.82
Technology
.87
Style
analysis
.88
Inscriptions
.94
Iconography
.96
V. ICONS-EULOGIA
.103
Research
.103
Technology
.106
Classification
.108
Bilateral icons
.109
Unilateral icons
.109
Stylistic features
.110
Iconographie
observations
.117
Images of crosses
.117
Saints healers
.118
Holly warriors
.119
Images of the Virgin Mary
.127
Production and distribution
.133
CATALOGUE
.135
CONCLUSION
.177
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.184
CONCLUSION
The intention
to highlight the different facets in
the development of Byzantine pilgrimage art
lies within the context of tracing the major trends
associated with the development and dissemination
of eulogia. Some of them, made of precious metals,
cell enamel and colorful stones and crystals and hav¬
ing undoubtedly high artistic value, sometimes ac¬
companied by votive and donation inscriptions, are
often used as special gifts with a diplomatic purpose
or they are ordered as an expression of Christian pi¬
ety. Significantly larger is the pilgrimage production
popular in the wider circles of Byzantine society.
Thus, the eminent researcher of Byzantine applied
art A. Bank defines the intermediate place of some of
these works of small plastics (medallions, ampoules,
crosses, icons, etc.) among the works of „higher"
and „mainstream" applied art. Most of these monu¬
ments are broadly dated to the llth-Uth centuries.
For example the icons of ivory are primarily known
from the 11th century, while those of steatite and
stone originate mainly in the 12th or even the 13th
century. The technique of cell and barrier enamel at
that time (12th-! 3th centuries) is used to decorate
not only gold objects but also silver ones, apparently
intended for the wider social circles of the popula¬
tion. However, it is not easy to identify the copies of
Byzantine models used in the earlier period and to
distinguish the models made in different techniques
and materials in the late 12th or early 13th century
in Southern Italy, Bulgaria, Serbia, Western Europe,
Russia or the Middle East. The pilgrimage produc¬
tion of precious materials meets the same principles.
The Thessalonican eulogia made of lead deserve jus¬
tified interest in this regard. Copies of them are pre¬
served which are not only similar, but are cast in the
same mould. Such is the case with many other monu¬
ments of applied art
-
lead ampoules, glass cameos,
metal icons and crosses of Byzantine, Western Euro¬
pean or mixed style
iconographie
features.
The main objective of this study is to present such a
group of lead eulogia found in Bulgaria whose pro¬
duction is mainly associated with the workshops of
Thessalonica in the 12th-! 4th centuries. The ana¬
lyzed production of the second largest city of the
Byzantine Empire shows the intense pilgrimage
travel and roads to various towns and fortresses in
medieval Bulgaria. In this respect the identified ma¬
terial offers various oppportunities for using the in¬
formation about the place of discovery of the eulogia
unearthed in excavations, obtained as purchases in
museum facilities or those which became the prop¬
erty of private collectors.
In the first part of the study the key conclusions are
related to the opportunities for classification of the
Byzantine eulogia. It is noteworthy that the main
types created in the early Byzantine era are also made
in the middle and late Byzantine period.
Iconoclasm
failed to break the tradition connected with the old
pilgrim centres. Moreover, it is seen that the produc¬
tion of certain eulogia such as ampoules, reliquaries
and especially pilgrim tokens and phylacteries cop¬
ies specific specimens from the early period, which
are circulated with minor amendments during the
middle Byzantine epoch. In their studies the scholars
are sometimes misled by erroneous dating. Recently,
increasing attention is paid to the religious practices
associated with the major and local religious centres
and especially to the works of pilgrimage art pro¬
duced in them. A number of historical-cultural issues
are tabled and new specific arguments related to these
sacred objects are suggested which often become the
subject of scientific discussions. Those reasons force
one, when working with this material, to explore and
clarify the terminology for description of the differ¬
ent groups of monuments. It becomes clear that in
the early, middle and late Byzantine period the dif¬
ferent types of eulogia basically retained the same
meaning and content but they were manufactured in
various techniques and materials. They are reliquar¬
ies, pilgrim tokens, ampoules, phylacteries, icons
and various types of souvenir pendants.
Until recently it was believed that the pilgrimage
production created in the early period was signifi¬
cantly larger and varied than that in the Macedonian,
Comnenian and Paleologan era. The conclusions of
the overall comparison of the material show, how-
178
Konstantin Totev. THESSALONICAN EULOGIA
FOUND IN BULGARIA
ever, that there are reliquaries, ampoules, pilgrim
tokens, phylacteries and various souvenir pendants
both before and after
iconoclasm,
i.e. great diver¬
sity of the types is lacking. The main differences
consist of certain changes in the
iconographie
rep¬
ertoire and some technological changes in the pro¬
duction of various types of eulogia. For example in
the middle Byzantine period the terracotta objects
are almost completely replaced by metal products.
New techniques like cell enamel,
nielo,
glass casting
are used and sometimes even various jewelry objects
are decorated with Christian scenes and stories. On
the other hand the production, format and repertoire
of eulogia associated with some Christian centres
is maintained and interest in them after
iconoclasm
is renewed, as exemplified by the pilgrim tokens of
St. Simeon the
Stylitě,
St.
Marnant
and others. All
this is understandable, since the major pilgrimage
centres and the centres associated with veneration of
individual local saints in the early Byzantine period
were significantly more numerous than the preserved
and new places of worship in later centuries. Vari¬
ous eulogia unearthed recently during archaeologi¬
cal excavations clearly show that after the period of
iconoclasm
a number of pilgrim centres continued to
operate. Their popularity increased during the cru¬
sades and especially from the 12th century onwards.
Thessalonica is one of those centres which retains its
importance in the middle and late Byzantine period
as well. The city is famous for the cult of St. Deme¬
trius and his followers
-
the saints Nestor and
Loup,
and a group of local saints, some of which are myrrh-
bearing. All conclusions that can be made regarding
the development of artistic traditions in Thessalonica
are not incidentally related to its patron St. Deme¬
trius and the holy warriors and martyrs connected
with him. With his cult and relics
λύτρον
and
μύρον
is associated the production of gold, silver and lead
reliquaries and lead ampoules-koutrubia decorated
with the image of St. Demetrius and the other Thes-
salonican saints. To these one can add another artis¬
tic production of bone, steatite, enamel, glass, etc. of
similar repertoire and identical stylistic-
iconograph¬
ie
feastures. According to
A. Grabar,
it is proper to
date the appearance of the lytron relic (the saint>s
blood mixed with earth) to the 10th century at the
earliest, while information for the emission of aro¬
matic oil (myrrh) from the body of the saint is avail¬
able only from the 12th century onwards. The prayer
inscriptions accompanying the lytron on some of the
precious reliquaries are direct evidence of its mirac¬
ulous power associated with the relics of the saint.
The large number of ampoules-koutrubia for storing
ointment and the epithet "myrrh-bearing", added in
other cases to the name of St. Demetrius, suggest
the great popularity of "the aromatic oil" among the
pilgrims.
The production of eulogia-reliquaries, associated
with St. Demetrius and the other Thessalonican
saints, is not always precisely established, but it is
clear that their manufacture must be sought both in
the city and in the surrounding monasteries. For ex¬
ample in the treasuries of the Vatopedi monastery
and the Great
Lavra
of St. Athanasius on Mount
Athos
are kept as gifts a number of expensive reli¬
quaries and encolpions of the saint. In the treasury
of the cathedral in Alberstadt (Germany) are pre¬
served three other reliquaries of St. Demetrius, one
is possessed by the British Museum, the Museum of
Dumbarton Oaks in Washington and the Arms Pal¬
ace in Moscow. Recently other silver reliquaries of
the saint unearthed in the Balkans and held in private
collections became known. The idea that part of this
production, if not almost all of the specimens, are
made in Thessalonica or on Mount
Athos
to order of
the imperial circle or the aristocratic elite of Byzan¬
tium and the other Eastern Orthodox countries dur¬
ing the
1
lth—
1
5th centuries looks more convincing.
This is also suggested by the fact that most of these
reliquaries attempt to reproduce the tomb of the saint
in the basilica of Thessalonica. Moreover, these pec¬
toral reliquaries are decorated with the images of the
closest companions of St. Demetrius
-
the Thessa¬
lonican saints Nestor and
Loup.
So far are known
more than
10
such monuments. The production of
other precious eulogia from the Oth-Hth centuries
depicting various saints
-
mostly St. Theodora and
St. George, made and decorated in the same way,
suggest the existence of a centre with workshops or
a workshop with old traditions in the production of
such works. They extend our ideas about the diver¬
sity of bilateral pectoral icons from the 13th—14th
centuries, belonging to the so-called Vatopedi group.
They are distinguished by the fact that their hulls are
shaped like miniature boxes similar to the precious
reliquaries of St. Demetrius. They are most often
made of precious metals or gold and silver plated
and additionally decorated with other techniques of
CONCLUSION
179
applied art (enamel, inlay of precious stones, pearls,
nielo,
etc.)· Usually they are encolpions of round,
oval and rectangular form, constructed of two parts,
sandwiched together by a thin strip. At their periph¬
ery are soldered a different number of hollow tubes,
usually made of thin metal wire, through which is
passed a string of pearls. The images on these icons
are made by hammering thin sheets and the interior
is lined with a wooden plank. Where exactly they are
made one it is impossible to tell but there is a great
possibility that the place was Thessalonica or the
surrounding monasteries, including those of Mount
Athos.
Along with some of the pectoral reliquaries
and other art monuments the group of encolpions
suggests concrete conclusions about the making of
objects of applied art in Thessalonica in the late Byz¬
antine period.
Different is the question of the production of am-
poules-koutrubia which, like the Jerusalem ones,
were made in different places after samples brought
back by pilgrims. Such production of copies in the
Balkans seems to have started in the late 13th century
and especially increased in the
1
4th-! 5th centuries
when political instability grew due to the Ottoman
invasion. The production of copies
-
not only of mir¬
acle-working icons but of eulogia as well
-
is related
to the pilgrimage routes and the continued desire of
towns and monasteries to increase their prestige and
popularity with the possession of "blessings" and
relics which were valuable for the Christians.
The presented new material from Bulgaria includes
more than
100
lead eulogia. They are considered in
turn in three chapters, accompanied by a catalogue.
The newly unearthed ampoules, encolpions and
icons significantly expand the circle of monuments
of Byzantine metal plastics, associated with pilgrim¬
age, and create a real picture of the production of
such works in Thessalonica which were intended for
pilgrims from the entire Christian world.
The lead ampoules-koutrubia from Bulgaria signifi¬
cantly expand the number of eulogia of this kind. So
far
32
copies have been unearthed. They come in
different sizes, according to which they are pooled
into three groups: the largest are
7-8
cm in height
and
diamètre
of the shell
5-6
cm; the medium one
have an average height of
6-7
cm and
4-5
cm in
diamètre
while the smallest are
45
cm in height and
3-4
cm in
diamètre.
It is generally believed that the
ampoules were cast in two-part stone moulds, after
which the two halves were soldered. Recently an¬
other opinion became also known, stating that some
of the ampoules could have been cast entirely. The
hollow interior is achieved through a clay "ball" at¬
tached at the end of a thin rod placed between two
halves of the mould. The long neck is pinched at
the mouth or it was bent and sealed with a stopping.
The ampoules are equipped with two shaped small
handles or drilled holes in the periphery of the hulls,
through which hung a rope and they were worn over
the chest. The images and inscriptions on them are
cast in shallow relief. Certain types of ampoules
existed for two and even three centuries. When the
original molds were broken, defaced or lost, direct
imprints for making new moulds were made from
circulating items. That is why on some ampoules ap¬
pear negative inscriptions or images and mistakes in
dating are made.
According to the diversity of
iconographie
reper¬
toire the ampoules are divided into eight groups:
"The martyrs St. Demetrius and St. Theodora"; "The
warrior St. Demetrius and the martyr St. Theodora";
"The warriors St. Demetrius and St. Nestor"; "The
warrior St. Demetrius and Virgin Mary Orans";
"The rider warrior St. Demetrius and Virgin Mary
the Sign"; an ampoule with a bilateral inscription
О
ΑΓΙΟΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ;
"The martyr St. Demetrius
and Jesus Christ". Of these the most common is the
first group of the martyrs St. Demetrius and St. The¬
odora. The ampoules of this group date back to the
12th-! 3th centuries. The copies of the other groups
are dated from the 13th to the 15th century. The last
three groups: "The rider warrior St. Demetrius and
Virgin Mary the Sign"; an ampoule with the bilateral
inscription
Ο ΑΓΙΟΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ
and "The martyr
St. Demetrius and Jesus Christ" are so far known in
single copies.
Special comment deserves a relatively large group
of ampoules with the images of the holy warriors
Demetrus and Nestor. Apparently the companion of
St. Demetrius enjoyed great popularity in Thessa¬
lonica together with his myrrh-bearing patron. The
presence of ampoules, in which St. Demetrius is de¬
picted as a warrior, forces the conclusion that all they
were purchased with the belief that along with the
healing ointment the saint provided military protec¬
tion as well. This group of ampoules was probably
preferred by the soldier classes. The
iconographie
repertoire supports the suggestion that on the Thes-
180
Konstantin Totev. THESSALONICAN EULOGIA
FOUND IN BULGARIA
salonican
ampoules the
image
of St. Demetrius is
accompanied only by the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ
and two saints of Thessalonica
-
St. Theodora and
St. Nestor (maybe St.
Loup),
i.e. the characters fully
repeat those on the Thessalonican reliquaries of the
saint. At this stage of research one can conclude that
the ampoules-koutrubia are associated only with the
myrrh of St. Demetrius and St. Theodora because
there are no other images of Thessalonican myrrh-
bearing saints.
The ampoules unearthed in Bulgaria show basically
the main routes of pilgrims from Thessalonica to the
prominent urban centres and monasteries of the Sec¬
ond Bulgarian kingdom. Established in this regard is
the capital Turnovo, where originate the largest num¬
ber of specimens. More than half of the analyzed am¬
poules were found during regular excavations. Res¬
ervations are expressed about the information of the
origin of those which were bought by museums and
private collections. Outlined are the routes to Thes¬
salonica of pilgrims from more important cities and
fortresses in Northern and Southern Bulgaria
-
Ki-
ustendil,
Lovech,
Varna, Sevlievo, Shoumen, Veliki
Presláv,
Balchik, Melnik, Tsepina, Perperikon, Sliv-
en,
Stara Zagora,
Asenovgrad,
Krásen,
Russocastro
and others.
We call "encolpions" the second group of eulogia of
another nature and artistic value. Until recently only
two copies were known, interpreted differently by
researchers and dated to the late 12th
-
early 13th
century. On either side of these items of circular
form is depicted St. Demetrius on horseback with
the rescued Greek teenager and on the rectangular
ones
-
the warrior saints Theodore, George and De¬
metrius. On the reverse in both varieties in the same
way it is presented "a leaved cross". From Bulgaria
originate six encolpions of round form and four of
rectangular shape. Indeed, to this group belong only
two more identical round encolpions
-
from excava¬
tions in Novgorod and from a private collection in
New York. One of the studied specimens of rectan¬
gular shape, unearthed in Bulgaria, is currently kept
in the private collection of Christian Schmidt in Mu¬
nich. Round encolpions with
a diamètre
of
6
cm and
thickness of
0.25
cm are cast in different two-part
moulds. The upper part has an ear for the suspen¬
sion on a cord and wearing on the chest. Rectangular
encolpions are similar in size (approximately
5.5
x
5
x
0.1
cm) and are also cast in two-part moulds fitted
with an ear for suspension at the top.
The subject on the round encolpions represents one
of the miracles of St. Demetrius, associated with the
rescue of a Greek youth from captivity. The iconog¬
raphy of the scene is derived from that of St. George
on horseback who rescued a Mytilene teenager from
captivity. This episode and iconography, related to
the life of St. Demetrius, are secondary because, ex¬
cept for the monuments in question in Byzantium,
no others are known from earlier or later times. The
miracle of St. Demetrius who rescues a teenager
from captivity appears only in later versions of the
life of the saint. It is logical to believe that this epi¬
sode from the life of St. Demetrius appeared in Thes¬
salonica. The composition, in which the holy riders
Demetrius and George rescue a youth from captiv¬
ity is so similar that the depicted ones are difficult
to identify without distinguishing inscriptions. This
episode from the life of St. George is known from
two Cypriot icons from the 13th century, associated
with the art of the crusaders. Apparently, the Thes¬
salonican eulogia-encolpions reflect mixed artistic
influences that characterize the time of the Latin
Empire
(1204-1261).
The triumphal equestrian im¬
age of St. Demetrius, combined with the miracle
associated with the deliverance of the Greek youth
from captivity, strongly relate the production of all
copies of the discussed production to the city and the
pilgrims of the saint.
The subject on the eulogia-encolpions of rectangu¬
lar form represents the three warrior saints George,
Theodore and Demetrius, depicted in full length on
the obverse. Clearly evident is the Thessalonican
tradition for representing the warrior saints known
from other icons of steatite and other types of stone.
It is even reasonable to associate the production
of this group of monuments with the period of the
Latin rule in this city
(1204-1224).
The decoration
of "leaved crosses" on the reverse side of the lead
encolpions offers opportunities for comparison. It is
a plant decoration, presented in a simplified form as
two spirals, which is complicated by branches grown
in many directions, sometimes ending with grapes
and flowers. The shape, silhouette and shoulder ends
of the cross-like images themselves are reminiscent
of some varieties of processional Byzantine crosses,
produced in the
10th-12th
centuries. Their apotro-
paic meaning is reinforced by the acronyms located
between the arms. The image of the cross plays a
CONCLUSION
181
crucial
role in the semantics of the eulogia as a re- pilgrim eulogia are reproduced and to other images
liable protection against the forces of evil. Not by associated with the cult of myrrh-bearing saints or
chance
on most icons-eulogia of rectangular, round
and cross-like form on one side is always depicted
a "leaved cross". The ornamental decoration of the
crosses on the lead encolpions has many common
features and in some cases literal coincidences with
the ornate borders and backgrounds of a group of
icons painted in the workshops of crusader
Acra.
In stylistic terms the images on the two groups of
encolpions-eulogia are completely identical.
Most numerous are the monuments of the third group
of eulogia- bilateral icons of rectangular, round and
cross-like form, which are smaller but have a much
more varied
iconographie
repertoire. Of special in¬
terest are the images of the foot soldier and drag¬
on fighter St. George, the rider and dragon fighter
St. Theodore, St. Panteleimon, the Virgin Mary Ki-
kuitisa, the Virgin Mary Eleusa, etc. One must not
forget that on the reverse of all those icons there is
an image of a "leaved cross". This version of the
bilateral composition is typical of the decoration of
stauroteques and reliquaries from the middle Byzan¬
tine period, as well as a wide range of pectoral icons
made of different materials, which by their contents
serve as eulogia. They combine the blessing and in¬
tercession of the depicted saints with the victorious
triumph of the cross over the forces of evil.
The round and cross-like bilateral medallions are
notable by the half-length images of St. George and
St. Theodore, the Virgin Mary Orans and a cross,
the Virgin Mary Odigitria and a cross and various
other saints who apparently copy time-tested models
of Byzantine applied arts. Last but not least there is
a group of unilateral small size pendants, on which
are depicted in a schematic manner primarily images
of the Virgin Mary, archangels and other saints. The
analyzed lead icons, medallions and pendants pos¬
sess the semantic and pictorial content of the eulogia
from the middle Byzantine period, but it is correct to
date them to the 14th and even the 15th century.
with iconography which also originated in a mixed
environment intertwining Eastern Mediterranean,
Italo-Byzantine or Western European influences.
A large part of the discussed lead production, par¬
ticularly some of the unilateral icons and pendants,
could be produced after Byzantine models and pat¬
terns in local Bulgarian workshops, perhaps also re¬
lated to the church and monastery complexes in the
years of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom. According
to archeological excavations carried out in Bulgar¬
ia there is so far no direct evidence for this. At the
present state of research remains the possibility to
attribute those unilateral icons and pendants to the
pilgrimage production of Thessalonica only on the
basis of stylistic similarities.
The differentiated three groups of Thessalonican
eulogia obviously have a common stylistic-icono-
graphic connection. This trend most clearly stands
out when compared with the precious Thessalonican
reliquaries of St. Demetrius made of gold, silver and
enamel. The latter represent a starting point in deter¬
mining the conclusions for the identical manufacture
and decoration of the lead eulogia. Excluding several
pectoral reliquaries whose format is larger, the size
of the other reliquaries is similar to that of some of
the lead icons. The
iconographie
basis of their deco¬
ration, as already emphasized, is available in most
lead icons-eulogia. On the obverse is depicted a saint
and on the reverse
-
a "leaved cross". The frames of
the same reliquaries are filled with dotted friezes or
a single line, as are framed the lead icons and medal¬
lions. The image of a "leaved cross" on the bottom of
one of reliquaries is framed with a triangular frieze,
completely identical with the decoration around the
images of the Thessalonican ampoules. The exis¬
tence of this whole group of expensive reliquaries
shows that besides the mass production of eulogia of
cheaper material, such as lead, in Thessalonica were
also made eulogia of precious metals intended for
pilgrims of high rank, senior clerics or guests with
diplomatic missions.
The choice of lead material, the manufacturing tech¬
nique and the purpose disclose the specific nature of
the entire production. Icons with images of warrior The detailed comparison of style and iconography
saints are usually purchased by the military class, between the three groups of lead eulogia (ampoules,
Perhaps such is the nature and distribution of some of encolpions and icons) offers the most accurate argu-
the lead icons probably executed by urban artisans, mentation about their Thessalonican origin. The first
Other groups of icons, however, are products closely group, including ampoules-koutrubia, «s strongly
linked to the monastery workshops where pectoral linked with Thessalonica. With almost the same ac-
182
Konstantin Totev. THESSALONICAN EULOGIA
FOUND IN BULGARIA
curacy the Thessalonican genesis of the lead encolpi-
ons of the second group can also be determined. It is
obvious that there is no stylistic difference between
the ampoules and the encolpions. All arguments con¬
nect these works with the same production centre
which worked at the same time. Slight doubts are
raised by some varieties (models) of the group of
icons-eulogia. The studied material can be divided
into separate subgroups according to certain differ¬
ences, mostly related to dating to the 12th century,
the late 12th or early 13th, the 14th or the late 14th
-
early 15th century. The style of the icons-eulogia
created in the
1
3th century is almost completely iden¬
tical with the decoration of the ampoules and encol¬
pions. Among them first place is taken by the images
of equestrian saints who are dragon fighters. Identi¬
cal stylistic features are found in the lead icons of
St. George from
Ras
(Serbia) and St. Nicholas (cat.
№ )
and the Thessalonican ampoules. The images are
made with the linear outlines and stylization typical
of the koutrubia which were used in the construction
of figures, faces and clothes, as well as the "leaved
cross". Above all, the decoration on the frame of the
icon of St. George from medieval
Ras
is identical
with the specific decoration around the hulls of the
ampoules. On the other hand the images on some of
the rectangular and cross-like lead icons are linked
with the Thessalonican tradition for depicting the
warrior saints George and Theodore. The vegetative
decoration on the shields of the cross-like medal¬
lions, however, is identical with the trailers around
the "blossoming crosses" of the encolpions-eulogia.
The stylistic-iconographic analysis of several variet¬
ies of icons in the third group in a sense demonstrates
a specific interpretation of the so-called
"Maniera
Greca"
phenomenon in painting, observed in some
of the major Italian centres from the late 12th to the
middle of the
1
3th century, in which Byzantine art
models directly affect late Romanesque art. The ex¬
amples of this cultural symbiosis in painting are var¬
ied and well studied, while in applied art the elements
typical of such mutual influences are not considered
in detail. In this regard, attention should be paid to a
number of
iconographie
features clearly identified in
the separate group of icons. For example the nimbus¬
es filled with radiant ornaments; the hanging ends of
the maphorion of the Virgin Mary; the stretching of
Christ's blessing hand alongside the body; his long
beard, etc. are typical details of Western iconography
in the portrayal of the images. These features and the
inscriptions in Greek characterize the monuments
created in a Byzantine environment under the influ¬
ence of West European art in that particular period.
One must not forget that this cultural exchange was
particularly well developed during the Latin rule in
Thessalonica.
The use of the icons as encolpions was usually
widespread among the military classes. Most of
these works are, however, production which is
closely linked to the monastery workshops which
manufactured such pectoral pilgrimage eulogia
with iconography which also originated in an envi¬
ronment where the traditions and models of Byzan¬
tium and the Latin West met. A striking example are
the icons with images of the foot soldier and dragon
fighter St. George, those with the Virgin Mary Ki-
kuitisa, the cross-like and circular medallions. We
should note that unlike the volume-plastic construc¬
tion of the figures in these groups of icons, the am¬
poules, encolpions and for example the icons with
the rider and dragon fighter St. Theodore are char¬
acterized by a linear style in creating the images.
With rare exceptions the icons with the foot soldier
and dragon fighter St. George and the cross-like and
circular medallions are dated to the second half of
the nth-Bth centuries. Along with that, however,
a number of decorative elements and
iconograph¬
ie
features give one good reason to link the entire
available lead production to Thessalonica. There
are two main directions in the development of mod¬
els for the lead eulogia considered here. The first
one appears to be directly dependent on the Thessa¬
lonican cult of St. Demetrius, while the second one
is connected with the Western European influences
on Eastern Mediterranean art and culture during the
Crusades.
It is impossible to think, however, that in the Thessa¬
lonican workshops during this period (the 12th-13th
centuries) were cast only lead eulogia. A particular
range of works with concrete specifics form a Thes¬
salonican group of monuments of applied art execut¬
ed in various techniques and materials. In addition
to eulogia are made objects of liturgical function
(panagias, censers, communion plates, processional
and altar table crosses, icons, etc.) and other precious
objects of Christian worship. Of course, as a place of
manufacture one should not exclude the monasteries
and cloisters in the nearby and more distant area of
CONCLUSION
183
the city. It is even possible to suppose the connec¬
tion of some of the lead icons with the monastery
workshops on Mount
Athos
or some of the islands.
A small portion of the discussed lead production and
particularly some of the unilateral icons and pen¬
dants can be made after Byzantine model specimens
in Bulgarian workshops during the Second Bulgar¬
ian Kingdom.
The studied material creates a concrete idea of the
art output produced in Thessalonica which occupies
an intermediate position among the works of repre¬
sentative and mass applied art intended for pilgrims
from the entire Christian world. The presence of
some schematic features in some eulogia shows that
occasionally one comes across cheap items which
became widely popular. Some of these eulogia
which reached new lands were used as models, i.e.
they were further replicated and spread.
The lead production associated with Byzantine pil¬
grimage art undoubtedly bears the meaningful and
pictorial content of the eulogia created in Thessaloni¬
ca during the 12th-14th centuries. The new material
from Bulgaria offers opportunities for technological
and stylistic observations and greatly enriches our
knowledge of the subject variety of the pilgrimage
production of that time and the mechanism of pil¬
grimage practices that go beyond the ethno-cultural
boundaries. Undoubtedly their collection and study
can be extremely useful for investigating the cultural
relations and influences in the Middle Ages. |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Totev, Konstantin |
| author_facet | Totev, Konstantin |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Totev, Konstantin |
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| building | Verbundindex |
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| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)767771631 (DE-599)BVBBV039692677 |
| era | Geschichte 1100-1500 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1100-1500 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Bulgarien (DE-588)4008866-2 gnd Thessaloniki Region (DE-588)4105237-7 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Bulgarien Thessaloniki Region |
| id | DE-604.BV039692677 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-08-10T01:08:57Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789544005566 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-024541406 |
| oclc_num | 767771631 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 203 S. zahlr. Ill. |
| publishDate | 2011 |
| publishDateSearch | 2011 |
| publishDateSort | 2011 |
| publisher | Faber |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Totev, Konstantin Verfasser aut Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) Konstantin Totev Veliko Tărnovo Faber 2011 203 S. zahlr. Ill. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Aus dem Bulg. übers. Geschichte 1100-1500 gnd rswk-swf Heiliger Gegenstand (DE-588)4747843-3 gnd rswk-swf Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd rswk-swf Bulgarien (DE-588)4008866-2 gnd rswk-swf Thessaloniki Region (DE-588)4105237-7 gnd rswk-swf Thessaloniki Region (DE-588)4105237-7 g Heiliger Gegenstand (DE-588)4747843-3 s Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 s Bulgarien (DE-588)4008866-2 g Geschichte 1100-1500 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024541406&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024541406&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Totev, Konstantin Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) Heiliger Gegenstand (DE-588)4747843-3 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4747843-3 (DE-588)4071507-3 (DE-588)4008866-2 (DE-588)4105237-7 |
| title | Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) |
| title_auth | Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) |
| title_exact_search | Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) |
| title_full | Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) Konstantin Totev |
| title_fullStr | Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) Konstantin Totev |
| title_full_unstemmed | Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) Konstantin Totev |
| title_short | Thessalonican eulogia found in Bulgaria |
| title_sort | thessalonican eulogia found in bulgaria lead ampules enkolpia and icons from the 12th 15th centuries |
| title_sub | (lead ampules, enkolpia and icons from the 12th - 15th centuries) |
| topic | Heiliger Gegenstand (DE-588)4747843-3 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Heiliger Gegenstand Funde Bulgarien Thessaloniki Region |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024541406&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024541406&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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