Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji: modeli i nasleđe
Literaturverz. S. 195 - 207
Saved in:
| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Published: |
Beograd
Arheološki Inst.
2010
|
| Series: | Posebna izdanja / Arheološki Institut
48 |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Summary: | Literaturverz. S. 195 - 207 |
| Item Description: | PST: Byzantine jewellery in Serbia. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache |
| Physical Description: | 207 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9788680093727 |
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1812551000476614656 |
|---|---|
| adam_text |
IMAGE 1
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The central Balkans,
which today is to a great extent included within the borders
of Serbia, often represented an interesting sphere for great states. Byzantine re-
conquests at the beginning of the 11th century brought extensive changes, signi¬
ficantly influencing the subsequent development of the entire region. Serbian
territories also entered within the scope of active Byzantine policy at that time.
The Byzantine administrative system was established over an extensive territory
which for the Empire represented a border region, so that the actual degree of
Byzantine rule in these areas was not uniform. In addition to their varying poli¬
tical statuses, frequent disputes over parts of the territory became a precondition
for the dynamic turnover of people and goods throughout the whole area, in turn
leading to face-to-face encounters between various cultural milieus. The pres¬
ence of Byzantium therefore meant different levels of inclusion into mainstream
Byzantine commercial practices and cultural norms. The withdrawal of its posi¬
tion in the Balkans following the independence and prosperity of the Serbian
state did not automatically mean the termination of all Byzantine achievements.
On the contrary, its heritage remained very evident, and together with all other
ties, both culture and art in medieval Serbia remained closely and variedly con¬
nected with the creations of Byzantine civilization.
Until now the treatment and publication of archaeological material has pre¬
sented a firm base for wide-ranging research following established models
—
types
of items, shapes, and decorative elements
-
so that clearly recognizable Byzantine
objects appear among medieval archaeological findings in the Central Balkans
iifíkíT
и
Jrßiii
area. The chronological parameters for this study are determined by historical
events marked by the presence of Byzantine culture in Serbian territories from the
beginning of the
11*
to the end of the 15th centuries. The earlier chronological
parameter is marked by the Byzantine re-conquest of the Balkan Peninsula in
1018,
although that date did not necessarily mean the appearance of Byzantine
objects. Such items had been present earlier, but much more sparsely, judging by
their quantity and type. However, only after
1018
did the organized inflow of
products begin, creating an open market for the penetration of Byzantine culture
in the region, along with the subsequent move of domestic Serbian art towards
that cultural circle. For that reason a more precise chronology, which includes
territorial factors, might presume three stages: the
pre-Nemanjić (10th-12th
cen¬
tury), the
Nemanjić
state stage, and the period of the Serbian Despot state. During
these stages two different political and commercial models can be distinguished,
but they are not completely separate from each other. One fell within the Byzan¬
tine administrative system, while the other developed within the independent
Serbian state. In that sense the complexity of studying Byzantine jewellery on
Serbian territories is reflected in the various origins of archaeological material,
including as it does items which arrived complete from Byzantine cities, along with
contemporary domestic production following certain models, and items whose
style and inspiration can be found in the heritage of the Byzantine cultural circle.
The territory of Serbian lands, considered as a whole throughout the medieval
period, did not experience unique political, commercial, or artistic/craft develop¬
ment. These circumstances present an advantage for the proposed research model
since it is possible to compare certain features in several neighbouring areas,
which are often close to each other in political and economic background. On the
basis of data concerning the organization of Byzantine rule after
1018,
that is of
the Serbian lands, Byzantine influence was to a great degree direct and uniform
in central and southern Serbia; in eastern Serbia, since its areas formed part of
the Bulgarian state, this influence was strong, while the area north of the Rivers
Sava
and Danube (today
Vojvodina)
and western Serbia represent a peripheral
zone, where influence was often weak, temporary, and indirect.
The complexity of studying production which is Byzantine in both style and
model is reflected both in the variety of produced items and in the purpose of
excavated objects, since elements of Byzantine applied art and craftsmanship
appear throughout the four hundred year period. The Byzantines were famous
for their ancient skills, upon which they developed their own unique art and
crafts style, uniting the traditions, models, and influences of other communities
with whom they came into contact. It is perhaps this eclecticism that explains the
easy penetration of Byzantine cultural influence over such a wide geographical
area. Similarly, the inflow of Byzantine goods re-established to good measure the
iv
и
Srbiji
existing albeit indirect connections with classical creativity, stopped by barbaric
incursions and Slavic settlings. Jewellery particularly reveals this connection. The
appearance of jewellery underwent little change when considered
vis-à-vis
the range
of Roman gold work, which was present in Byzantium throughout the Imperial
period and the later states. All observed examples of jewellery in the Serbian region
echo the development of Byzantine jewellery, both in their range and in their
decorative motifs. Also, regional characteristics are noticeable in the wide accept¬
ance of individual types, as is the situation in other parts of the Balkans.
The basic purpose of this study is to present the forms of Byzantine heritage
amongst findings which come from archaeological excavations of settlements,
necropolises and monastery complexes (fig.
2).
The
stratigraphie
context of most
material is reliable, which is important for its precise chronological evaluation,
and to establish the real significance of these objects within the total context of
material from one area. In addition, items from the content of so-called deposits
are dealt with, since they present valuables buried in times of crisis, in the face of
certain danger, in hidden places outside the homes and
areals
of a settlement. Like
modern safes, deposits often contained objects which are not found in settlement
layers or necropolises, and so offer important data about the character of the
material culture of a particular area.
To date, items dating from the Byzantine cultural circle have been observed
in almost all investigated archaeological sites in the Serbian area which have
medieval cultural layers. The number of locations and finds is much greater in
the region south of the Danube, which is logical bearing in mind the political sys¬
tem in medieval times. In today's
Vojvodina,
north of the
Sava
and Danube,
Byzantine goods are relatively rare. During the first stage this could be connect¬
ed with the spread of cultural influences from Byzantine Sirmium, while in the
later medieval period the same appearances emerge because of the political links
between Serbia and Hungary, and as a whole from different forms of cultural
permeation.
A large number of jewellery finds have been published before, some in more,
some in less detail. However, at the moment studies of the Byzantine presence in
the Serbian area cannot be completely concluded because of the rather weak extent
of published results, concerning excavated findings. The Danube Basin provides
a clear example of this. Many sites were discovered and investigated during work
on the Iron Gates Projects
(Đerdap
I and
Đerdap
II). Bearing in mind the pre¬
dominantly conservative and sounding character of these excavations, they were
mainly of limited extent, while results were usually published in the form of pre¬
liminary reports. On the basis of researched material one can confirm that
archaeological research of the
Vojvodina
area has been good and results well pub¬
lished. Knowledge about the material culture of Kosovo and
Metohija
has been
100
I HfíkivM Srbi
ii
enhanced by the publication of individual findings from investigated necropolises,
but this is insufficient considering the exceptional significance of the area for
Byzantine studies. More recently, several monographs have been published con¬
taining important material, for example relating to the necropolis in site Slog
(Ravna
by
Knjaževac),
as well as
Novo Brdo
and
Stalać.
However, studies and
publications need material from a whole range of sites where archaeological exca¬
vations were completed ten or twenty years ago, including necropolises in
Vinca
—
Belo Brdo, Visoka Ravan
in Brostovik, around the churches of The Mother of
God (Sv.
Bogorodica)
in
Kuršumlija
and St Panteleimon in
Niš,
as well as St Peter's
church in
Novi Pazar.
In addition, the results of excavation soundings in Dubra-
vica
—
Margum were published in the form of a preliminary report, but sadly
lacking detailed
stratigraphie
interpretation of the medieval cultural layers and
movable finds. The same applies to the fortress at
Niš.
Generally, central and west
Serbia can be distinguished as the least investigated area with minimal archaeo¬
logical sample materials.
These weaknesses resulting from the state of research of the medieval cultural
layer are inevitably present in this work and could not be overcome in a satisfacto¬
ry way. There is a lack of precise evidential findings which would enable attempts
to confirm the kind and quantity of finds or even individual elements of style in
different regions, as well as comparative statistical analysis, which would provide a
solid basis for this research and some sort of conclusion. Also, there is disharmony
between the known repertoire and jewellery discovered by archaeological methods.
The best example of this are grape-like earrings, which offer completely contra¬
dictory pictures
—
stratigraphed finds are of precise manufacture, usually of silver
or bronze, while museum collections containing items found during excavations
present an opposing situation: moulded earrings of considerably poorer quality
predominate. All together this has presented an obstacle to research connected
with the material culture of the earlier
Nemanjić
state. It has been impossible to
determine the real extent of Byzantine components compared to the role of the
older Slavic heritage in the formation of an autonomous jewellery style.
Ш
and
grůuymg mečkůd
The comparatively extensive and varied material brought together in order to
study the phenomenon of the Byzantine heritage presupposed a particular form
of systemization, which in certain segments is somewhat different from the norm.
This anomaly resulted from the desire to observe jewellery which can to a greater
or lesser extent be connected with the Byzantine style within a longer period,
during which social, artistic, and manufacturing circumstances varied. On one
пак іт
к
Svisili
hand, there is jewellery originating from the Byzantine Balkan area, while on the
other hand there is jewellery forming part of the Byzantine heritage. There are
also many related points and common elements as well as differences which arose
inevitably as time passed, and as a result of inflowing influences from different
directions in the case of central European jewellery. All this has been considered
in more or less detail in earlier works, but there has been no attempt to propose
a unique review of jewellery bearing features of the Byzantine style.
All types of jewellery are classified according to shape or basic recognizable
features, while names mainly correspond to those appearing in current literature.
Likewise, old names containing toponyms have not been used as key terms but
have been quoted beside more acceptable forms, to maintain links with earlier
published findings. Hopefully this will simplify following the recommended
method of classification of Byzantine-style jewellery.
The complete appearance of jewellery formed the basis for its recommended
systematization, and then individual basic shapes were defined in the context of
classes. A few classes, such as plaques, parts of diadems or wreathes, necklaces,
pendants, and buttons, are very simple to classify, since they are a clearly defined
product. The same can be said for bracelets. In contrast, there is a different
approach to the systematization of earrings and rings, flowing from the purpose
of this study to present the transformation of standard forms of Byzantine jew¬
ellery over a period of several centuries. For this reason greater attention is devot¬
ed to the systematization of these types of jewellery and they are among the first
to be analyzed. Likewise, they are used to illustrate one of the methods by which
it is possible to group such a complex collection of finds (figs.
5-7).
б
mid
іклу сі
bfjew&üery
Within craft production, jewellery occupies a very special place, mostly because
of its higher significance. Chosen pieces of jewellery not only ornament the indi¬
vidual wearing them, but at the same time indicate his or her wealth and cultural
level. The same indicators, especially the quality of materials and level of skilled
workmanship, not only apply for the observation of cultural position within a
community, but also the level of commercial development of a country in a par¬
ticular historical period. In her unsurpassable study
Nakit kod Srba
(Jewellery
among the Serbs) B.
Radojković
perhaps best demonstrates the wide-ranging
nature of jewellery: »While the production of jewellery was most closely connected
with the economic role of a community, and the artistic expression of jewellery
with the state of cultural development, the symbolic significance of jewellery re¬
flected social position in a certain time period. Through the symbolism of jewellery
4
1
<aZ
.' /
f i k
і
τ
и
S
ι ν
ii i
one can perceive a cross-section of a particular social class or of society as a whole,
indicating both political power, and though its value, economic strength. In its
historical-social context jewellery has more significance than money«. In this
context the study of jewellery with Byzantine characteristics achieves its full
meaning since it prompts us to consider the genesis of its type and shape, cultural
permeation, the directions of inflow, and the ways in which Byzantine art and
craftsmanship were successfully embedded into the production style of jewellery
in the Balkans.
DIADEMS AND WREATHS
All findings of plaques
—
parts of diadems or wreaths
—
were made in the same way,
from silver, or more rarely bronze, hammered sheets, using the
repoussé
techni¬
que, often with a thin layer of surface gilt. Among these items there are obvious
differences in size, shape and decoration (figs.
8—10).
Judging from finds from
necropolises, one can conclude that in most cases, diadems were composed of
plaques of uniform size and shape. From reviews of archaeological finds pub¬
lished to date one gets the impression that diadems were a relatively rare type of
jewellery. Sixteen finds are known to us
— 13
from necropolises and
3
from
deposits. Among necropolis finds, most are in the body's head area, but there are
individual examples situated near the neck or hand. Bearing in mind that exam¬
ples originate from sites which are generally and characteristically the necropolises
of a peasant population, with a large proportion
(11)
from the Danube Basin, the
number of diadems is not small, and these finds must be evaluated differently.
Above all, they indicate the broad and well-established practice of head decora¬
tion, which could also indicate fashion, although the issue concerns the practical
use of jewellery. In addition, diadems composed of tiny plaques, most common
among finds, cannot be treated as a clear indicator of Byzantine style, since they
are a universal decoration. However, we notice that the bulging model has in the
valuable appearance of its decoration, pearls, and precious stones, special exam¬
ples of plaques with borders comprising tiny decorative grains, i.e. granules.
Byzantine models certainly have motifs on plaque compositions, which are the
only examples in this review that can confidently be deemed to form part of
noble jewellery.
PINS
As decorative jewellery pins only appear among archaeological findings from the
late medieval period. In Serbia they are especially known from discoveries in
Novo
Brdo,
while in this review examples are included from the necropolises in the
area of the cathedral and from deposits of jewellery in the settlement of
Trgovište
in
Ras
dating from the 15th century (figs.
11—12).
In this review only one form is
ìtfikìT
н
Srbiji
included
-
a pin with a small round head tipped with a granulated cone. On pins
of this kind old Byzantine techniques and motifs are applied, using a general de¬
corative model. This includes the use of smooth woven filigree wires, forming
spirals and petals, representing an old method of decoration not just for this kind
of pin but for jewellery in general, applied even in the early Byzantine period.
EARRINGS
With earrings, the Byzantine style manifests itself in a number of ways. Apart
from technical workmanship and decoration this may be by the shape of an item
as a whole, or sometimes only by recognizable details or inspiration. Apart from
conformity regarding shape, earrings appear in several different sizes, ranging
from very small to very bulky and massive.
Grape-like pendant earrings (figs.
13—17)
In more recent literature there is a lot
of data concerning the origins of theses grape-like pendant earrings in medieval
culture. The origins of their development goes back to a much earlier period:
from the presence of Mycenaean culture, through Etruscan from the 5th to 3rd
centuries B.C., to Greek and Roman cultures of the 1st century B.C. to the 3rd
century
A.D.
The basic shape is very simple, comprising a small gold hoop on the
lower part to which granules have been applied in the form of a pyramid or clus¬
ter of grapes. The later development, similar to Roman jewellery of the
3—
4th cen¬
tury as a whole, was influenced by impulses from Eastern workshops, mostly
from Syria (Palmyra), which remained the tendency throughout the proceeding
centuries, right up to the 6th century. Byzantium would accept these kinds of
eastern earrings, but increase their size and enrich their decoration. As a very
clearly defined type, grape-like pendant earrings appear in finds from Trilj dating
from the 9th century. On the basis
ofthat
and other similar finds, especially those
of precious materials, one can postulate that early imports of both product and
its influence extended in part via
Dalmaţia,
that is, Dalmatian towns in which the
Antique heritage had to a great degree been preserved.
Stratigraphed finds which are here analyzed as specimen models, albeit small
in number, offer a clear picture of the types and styles of grape-like pendant ear¬
rings. Features common to all types are the method applied in their hoops and the
appearance of their pendants. Hoops are made in two ways: they are either com¬
pletely smooth (although the bottom half may be wider) with granulated deco¬
ration, or, in the case of poorer quality specimens, ridged, with at least one pair
of applied granulated wreaths. The hoop is open or fastened with a small hook.
Since grape-like pendant earrings are especially recognizable by the pendant,
comprising a string of tiny granules, the shape of this element presents the basis
for classification of the whole type. By this criterion, there are two large groups
1Θ4
I
л
n'k/r v Srjh'?
of material. The first group is characterized by cylindrical granulated pendants,
while in the second group the pendant is thicker and conical, made from com¬
bined granules and filigree work.
Grape-like pendant earrings are particularly considered in the 9th to the
1
1th
centuries, from which period there are many examples, varying to a greater or
lesser extent in type and variety. Accepting this dating, the
1
1th century represents
the last stage of their noteworthy occurrence. It seems certain that the divided
typology of grape-like pendant earrings proceeds from the 4th to the 9th centuries,
and that the greatest variety can be noticed in examples from the 9th to 10th cen¬
turies, judging by finds from graves and deposits. It is hard to establish the extent
to which the correlation between late Roman jewellery production depended on
eastern impulses and direct influences from eastern provinces, but because of the
varying types of theses earrings over a wide area
—
from Great Moravia and the
Panonian plane, via the Balkan peninsula, to the Middle East
—
one can certainly
presuppose the dual influence. Likewise, it is not unjustified to deduce that the rich
typology of grape-like pendant earrings is partly a reflection of their reception by
different Slavic tribes. The presence of such earrings among 12th century jewellery
is confirmed by finds from necropolises investigated in the Serbian area (fig.
4),
but
there are indications that the type only survived to the end of the 12th or possibly
the beginning of the 13th centuries, judging from the analysis of stratigraphed
examples. From their characteristic appearance, material type, manner of produc¬
tion, and style, it seems that from the last stage of their widespread appearance, these
earrings indicate the work of experienced workmen from developed craft centres,
rather than products of regional workshops, but this view should be accepted with
reserve because of the limited number of samples from stratigraphed finds.
Earrings with four beads (figs.
18—20)
With earrings of this type, beads are
always in the same order on an elliptical, round hoop
—
two form the pendant, and
two are placed lateral to the centre. In most cases, the lower part of the pendant
is decorated with rows of filigree granules, but occasionally there are examples
with a thin, smooth ring. In older literature this type was not uncommonly per¬
ceived as belonging to the grape-like
»Bjelo brdo
group of earrings« because of
their similarly made hoops or upper sections of their pendants, but also because
of their hybrid shapes, which are to a great extent directed by their morphologi¬
cal similarity.
Earrings with four beads are not commonly found in excavated necropolises
and settlements in Serbia. Also, examples discovered do not show great typologi¬
cal homogeny. Most examined examples are made of silver, or are silver-plated,
while earrings made from hammered bronze are rarer, usually with grape-like
elements. The origin of four-bead earrings has not been adequately explained,
ío.T
ii
Sivüi
but it is most likely that the shape originated from late Roman or 6th century pro¬
duction, based on oriental prototypes. Judging from available data, this type is
most numerous in the vicinity of the Dalmatian-Croatian cultural group, which
could be evidence of their late Roman origin, since in that era the activity of
developed urban centres on the Adriatic coast was renewed. In the absence of
firm material evidence of prototypes, and the small number of examples from the
pre-medieval period, one can only guess the beginning and development of these
earrings. When seeking an answer to this question one should bear in mind the
relatively numerous finds from necropolises in the Great Moravia area. Regarding
earring type, we have on this occasion studied earrings discovered in the village
of
Koštunić,
in a deposit of jewellery and money dating from the second half of
the 14th century
(fíg.
20).
Considered as a whole, they have all basic elements of
similar standard earrings of this group, although they were manufactured in a
completely different style.
Crescent earrings (figs.
21—28)
Half-moon earrings comprise the third kind
connected with the heritage of the Byzantine cultural circle. The crescent shape
of these decorated objects dates back to very early times in East Mediterranean
cultures (Egypt, Mesopotamia), is then in found various forms in Mycenaean,
Etruscan, Hellenic, and Roman jewellery. Compared to other kinds, the typology
of crescent earrings is not very extensive. A modest number of varieties have
already been established in the gold jewellery of the 6th to 7th centuries, when the
surface of the crescent was richly decorated with various floral motifs or con¬
fronting peacocks, not unusually with pearls along the lower edge. This kind was
also favoured in later epochs, only the decorative style changing. Thus in the 10th
to
1
1th centuries they often appeared with religious scenes, while later in the 13th
century a return to floral models is noticeable. Here, studied finds of crescent
earrings to a slight degree indicate their origins in earlier Byzantine production,
both regarding shape and manufacture. In this group there are distinctive earrings
with striped rings, bent into a half-moon form. They do not belong to standard
varieties, but rather to one
derivate,
which by its general appearance is similar to
earrings of the crescent-circle type. Crescent earrings, worked in the form of gra¬
nulated plaques also appeared later, in the 13th to 14th century. However, on the
basis of published archaeological finds, one cannot gain an impression that there
was wide demand for this kind of decoration. Published examples are from the
time when they appeared most frequently in our region, in the 10th century. In
contrast, a type of earring with the sharp point of a wave is not unusual in necro¬
polises of the 10th to
1
1th centuries, although appearing relatively rarely. For that
reason the appearance of the same earrings in a later era is considered an exception,
judging from the small number of discovered examples in cultural layers of that
йкіт
period. In late medieval jewellery, two groups of thick earrings developed, based
on the crescent shape. These have received several descriptive designations, round
earrings, because of their surface in the shape of a semi-circle, and radial for fan)
earrings, because of the conical or tubular decoration along the lower edge. Hollow
crescent earrings present the earliest version chronologically, dating from the 15th
century, according to stratigraphed examples (figs.
27—28).
Earrings with wire decorations (fig.
29)
are hoops decorated with fine filigree
wire. They are simple, open hoops, i.e. the ends touch, or close with the help of a
hook and loop. Also, finds appear sporadically where the hoops are interwoven
into the form of a Hercules knot. In the medieval period decorations of twisted
wire appeared on jewellery from the
Karantanian-Köttlach
cultural group, were
also present in eastern
Dalmaţia
in the 10th century, and were widespread (but not
equally distributed) in central and eastern Europe. In Byzantium, jewellery made
from spirally twisted wire appear in the 10th to
1
1th centuries, but in other parts
of the Balkan peninsula that type of jewellery did not often appear before the 12th
century. The finds are grouped into central and eastern areas at that time. During
a similar period twisted spiral wire decorations also appear on various items of
jewellery, although their wider application is limited to the 12th century and the
first decade of the 13th century, especially in the Danube Basin region. Finds in
the Romanian part of Dobruja are relatively numerous, as well as individual sites
in Bulgaria, in the 13th to 14th century cultural layers. In these circumstances, one
can only suppose, albeit reservedly, that the first models of this style of decoration
came from the Byzantine Empire motherland and were subsequently adopted by
local goldsmiths. The long tradition of this type of decoration also indicates a
Byzantine model i.e. adopting the style of early-Byzantine jewellery with a sim¬
ple technique for the creation of different decorations in various forms, certainly
influenced the wide use of this style of jewellery so that it became the national
style over a wide region.
Earrings with one, two, or three small wreaths/rosettes (figs.
30-32)
represent
a long-lasting type, probably because of their simplicity of form and universal
decoration. The small wreaths are formed of granules and fixed with coiled filigree
wire or a small ring. The prototype is connected with the west Mediterranean
—
Sardinia and Carthage, i.e. Italian and Phoenician jewellery from the 7th to 5th
centuries B.C. Roman jewellery from the 1st to the 3rd centuries included earrings
made with one small wreath at the end of the ring, although the favourite deco¬
ration at that time was a rather different, stylized ring, with a thick filigree coil at
one end
—
a type spread right across the East Mediterranean basin. Earlier Byzantine
jewellery from the 7th century also includes this kind
-
with a small granulated
u
fi
k
ír
и
'Srbiti
107
wreath in the middle of the hoop. In the medieval period earrings with small
wreaths were one of the most numerous items from the
1
1th to the first decade
of the 13th centuries. They appear only sporadically after this period.
The number of small wreaths on the hoop can be divided into three groups,
simply systematized. However, their typology is very jagged, especially because of
their differences in the way the wreath is manufactured throughout the Balkan
Peninsula and neighbouring territories. Almost all known varieties are present in
stratigraphed material in Serbia. Considered as a whole, these earrings form one
of a number of represented types from the
1
1th to 13th centuries. The various forms
of the wreath and their common style within this group raises the important
question of where they were produced. Only occasional pieces can be presumed
to have been made in larger centres with a developed goldsmith trade, because of
their specific manufacturing method, such as the finds in
Brestovik
and Trnjane
(figs.
30/1, 31/11).
Almost all other earrings are made of bronze and present a
firm goldsmith product, with tiny granules and very fine wire, carefully wound
around the hoop. This homogeny can be explained by the narrow distribution,
since finds are limited to the central Danube Basin area, which indicates a work¬
shop in that area.
Beaded earrings (figs.
33-46)
Earrings with one, two, or three beads form a special
and numerous kind. They can be distinguished by their varied form and decora¬
tion. They are part of the classical heritage which obtained a new, richer form in
Byzantine workshops, especially thanks to the wide application of decorative fili¬
gree and granulation. Earlier Byzantine varieties, very similar in their decorative
systems to classical oriental models, appear in medieval cultures in Avar—Slav
jewellery, and later in regions belonging to the Dalmatian—Croatian and Karan-
tanian—
Köttlach
cultural groups. The further dynamic spread of this shape and
decoration is evident from 11th to 12th century earrings, established in earlier
centuries. All examined collections in Serbia date from the 11th to the beginning
of the 13th century, although they were most numerous in the 12th. The same
type are correspondingly frequent finds in other parts of the Balkan peninsula in
necropolises of the
1
1th to 12th century as well as certain neighbouring territories
to the west. However, for specific types, such as earrings with one bi-conical bead
or with three uneven beads, the Byzantine origin is not certain, since there is no
material confirmation of such jewellery from the same period, even in older de¬
corations originating from Byzantium.
Earrings with hoops in the form of a question mark (figs.
47—48)
In compari¬
son with all other considered types, this is a particular collection of earrings,
characterised by the »vertical decorative concept« i.e. at one end the hoop is bent
108
I
ihikìZ
U SlV
jij
into the shape of a hook, intended to pass through the pierced ear, while the
lower end is flat. The decoration is generally closely connected with the other ear¬
ring-types, especially those with one bead or filigree decoration. Here we will
consider one other possible model for their overall appearance. Bearing in mind
their special shape, shown in examples from
Vinča (fíg.
48/3)
and
Brestovik
(fíg.
48/1,2)
it is possible that the initial idea goes back to gold Byzantine designs,
especially one type of earrings with a lengthened pendant which has a bundle of
tiny wire hoops between its calottes, with granules on the outer edge.
In the material there are two groups, differing not so much in their shape but
rather in their decorative style. In the first smaller collection the earrings have
beads at the end (fig.
47).
The other group is larger, and includes earrings with a
decorated pendant comprising bent spiral wires, mentioned earlier. These are
thicker and longer than the first group and appear in new forms. The manner in
which the wire decoration is applied forms the basis for their systemization, since
it only enriches the basic shape with a thick bead at the end (fig.
48).
Such earrings
are typical for Serbia and Macedonia from the end of the 12th century and through¬
out the 13th, and for the 14th century regarding Bulgaria.
Earrings with strung pendants (fig.
49)
As name clearly explains, this category
comprises earrings which have a pendant strung on a plain, round hoop. Only
three have been discovered in a clear context, and all have a »silver effect«, since
they are made either of silver or silver-plated hammered bronze. In identifying
the origins for the shape and construction of theses earrings one is reminded of
similar techniques used in other types of earrings. Their simple style and con¬
struction, their close chronological orientation, and their distribution (southern
Bulgaria,
Dalmaţia,
and Serbian Danube Basin area) suggests that their workshop
origin should be sought in the Black Sea littoral, where there were developed
craft centres with a long tradition of jewellery production.
NECKLACES AND PENDANTS
The Byzantine style can only confidently be recognized in one necklace, composed
of
33
hollow beads, pirced in four places to enable them to be hung on a thin cord
in three strips lengthwise in three rows, ending in a decoration comprising an
almond-shaped pendant (fig.
50/2).
Each part of the necklace
-
beads and pen¬
dants
—
were made from silver-plated copper, using a hollow casting and pressing
technique. Regarding the necklace with pendants from
Čezava
and part of unique
collection of jewellery whose individual elements were found in various parts of
the Balkans peninsula and lands directly to the west, it is presumed that they
originate from workshops active in Byzantine craft centres on the Black sea coast,
especially because of the early date of the find from southern Bulgaria. However,
н
Svbìiì
we consider that in this case there is only one workshop centre in issue, which
would account for the modest quantity of this jewellery, its distribution, and
value. Nevertheless, comparative analysis of the alloy from which these pieces are
made might offer a conclusive answer to this question of origin.
The necklace comprises a string of coloured beads but carries an assortment
of pendants as an independent decoration. In Serbia this kind of jewellery is rare,
both in kind and in the number of discovered examples: only two types have been
confirmed from displayed examples, made from metal and stone (figs.
51—52).
Theses two groups, both small in number, differ not just in form, but also in pur¬
pose. While metal pendants are truly decorative, stone pendants are more practi¬
cal, and usually were used as seals.
BRACELETS
According to written medieval records a bracelet signified the end of a sleeve, like
a cuff. That meant that bracelets were generally made in pairs, and from fabric or
fur. In a few cases the material and haberdashery trimmings were very expensive,
made from the finest materials, decorated with pearls and cords woven with gold
and silver. For this reason they were developed as a special type of ornamentation
for suits or costumes, to which fresco-portraits eloquently testify (fig.
53).
Metal
(especially silver) bracelets were worn considerably more rarely as cuffs or deco¬
ration, which was the case with the bracelets from
Brestovik.
There are still traces
of preserved fibre parts on their inner side. Medieval typology of bracelets starts
with kinds originating from Roman arts-and-crafts from the 2nd to 3rd centuries,
based on models from older Egyptian or Mesopotamian cultures. In addition to
metal bracelets there was a very developed production of glass bracelets, also imi¬
tating ancient oriental cultural models.
The basic division of metal bracelets is into open bracelets and those com¬
prising two semi-cylindrical pieces, hinged together. Both types can be systema¬
tized according to their basic cross-section and end shapes, number of parts, and
other characteristic details (figs.
7, 54, 56).
The systematization of glass bracelets
is commonly based on their basic cross-section shape (figs.
7, 57).
Among the two
groups, bracelets with round or oval cross-sections predominate, while others
have segmented, striped, semi-circular, square, and triangular cross-sections. The
application of glass strings is not just characteristic for »twisted« bracelets but
also appears on striped varieties, as well as those with square cross-sections, but
very infrequently. Most bracelets are made of blue glass (dark blue, aquamarine,
and light-blue) as well as black, or even shades of green, light to olive. Bracelets
with painted motifs represent luxurious items, of which only nine are included in
this review. Glass bracelets were spread throughout the Byzantine cultural circle
from the 11th to the early 13th centuries.
170
iifíkiv
и
orbili
RINGS
In
their developmental line, the shape of rings changed little from the classical
model until the end of the Middle Ages. The manufacture and wearing of rings,
especially seals, was known in ancient civilizations, although Greek and Roman
cultures showed the greatest variety of shapes and decorative techniques. The
custom of wearing rings continued in the Middle Ages, when they presented a
favourite form of ornamentation alongside earrings. Many were made to be worn
by men, women, and children, and had numerous meanings according to the motif
and style of their decoration. Finds from necropolises in Serbia indicate that they
were usually worn on one
fìnger
on the right hand, although the wearing of two
rings, the same or different, has been noticed. Judging from evidence studied to
date in published studies of necropolises, the wearing of two rings was relatively
frequent, especially noticeable in illustrative examples from the necropolis in Trnja-
ne (fig.58), but three rings, such as the findings in grave number
109
in Slog in
Ravna (Knjaževac)
is exceptional. In that sense, the rare use of more than two rings
is certainly illustrated by portraits of Serbian noble benefactors. Beside the land¬
owners in
Donja Kamenica, Pološko
and
St
Anargyroi
(Sveti Besrebrnici),
their
wives are clearly indicated by their rings in the benefactor's composition in the
church of St Nicholas in
Staničenje, Constantine's
wife, and
»Areta«.
They wear
three rings on both hands, two on the fourth and one on the little finger, while
Constantine
is depicted with two rings on each hand.
The greatest change from Roman and early Byzantine practice was to pay more
attention to the decoration of the bezel, while in the late Middle Ages
(14—
15th
century) different bezel shapes appeared, with a tendency towards more substan¬
tial ornamentation and increased decoration. These characteristics distinguished
rings from this later period from basic Byzantine models but at the same time
came closer to Roman goldsmith production. Similarly, early analytical studies
acknowledge that rings dating from the period of Byzantine rule imitated con¬
temporary (and earlier) Byzantine models in both typological characteristics and
decorative motifs. For example, old Byzantine types, originating from the classical
heritage, appear in groups of fully cast rings with a flat bezel and a raised flat
bezel, that is, together with rings which are completely consistent from a typolo¬
gical point of view. Special groups within the context of existing chronologically
older kinds were established for rings which by their typological features repre¬
sent a late medieval product, for example a ring with a massive bezel and rolled
neck among rings with a flat bezel, or with a small protruding bezel and with cas¬
sette for stone or glass.
Band rings (figs.
59-62)
cannot by their typological features and decorative motifs
be considered separately from fully cast rings with slab-like bezels (figs.
63-67)
kir
и
Srbiji
171
на
which they parallel to a great extent. Beside their common shapes, a special group
among fully cast rings with flat bezels are distinguished by pronounced shoulders,
not just decoratively but with relief-work. By their shoulder design and bezel shape,
two basic types of ring are distinguished: one has a rhomboid bezel and shoulder
in the form of three-part rosettes, while the other has a round-oval bezel and
elliptically widened shoulders. Examples are generally made of bronze, rarely of
silver. Like the striped rings to which they are connected, fully cast rings with a
flat bezel undoubtedly trace their origins to classical forms, both Hellenic and
Roman. Antique rings are decorated with engraved motifs and inscriptions, very
often decorated with glass or gems. Early Byzantine goldsmiths also created sim¬
ilar kinds on which inscriptions appeared, alongside decorative motifs, charac¬
teristics for engagement rings. The production of completely unchanged shapes
can be found not only in Byzantine jewellery but also later, from the 9th to the
15th century, when in addition to the gold and silver rings of highly skilled gold¬
smiths examples of poorer quality were made, which, more or less imitate luxu¬
rious examples.
Amongst the numerous heterogeneous fully cast rings with a raised flat bezel
(figs.
68—72)
there are several different ways of accentuating it. In their general
appearance, noted rings are not only similar to those described above but have
directly parallel individual types from the striped and fully cast rings with a flat
bezel. A few other designs, unique and sporadically arising, are notable for a better
perception of the total character of the whole group. Amongst rings of the first type
there are a number of varieties, both in the shape of the bezel's upper surface and
in its height. There are examples with a shallow oval bezel, square or rhomboid
(fíg.
68/1—3),
and others with a larger or higher oval or rectangular bezel (fig.
68/4, 5).
These rings are not distinguished by their decoration since this is pre¬
dominantly modest in the form of small dots and crossed lines. In the later develop¬
ment of rings with a raised flat bezel, the support becomes more pronounced
(figs.
73—75).
Establishing the order of changes, which would lead to a clear cate¬
gorization of jewellery types, is not possible, since there is a lack of stratigraphed
finds from the decisive 13th to 14th century period in all countries included in the
Byzantine cultural circle. It is certain that changes proceeded in several direc¬
tions, since in the 15th century there appeared two basic types, differing in the
way in which the decorative support is emphasized. This is above all a type of
ring with a raised neck, followed by one with a rolled, wide neck. As an extra dec¬
orative element, there appears a button-like protuberance on the base of the ring,
in a variety of shapes and decorative designs. In addition, there is one more form
of ring with a wide bezel and emphasized neck in the form of a gutter, and relief-
work around the ring, protruding in the form of small rosettes. Similar to all
17
Z ufihv
и
Svisili
other kinds, the shape of these rings originates from Byzantine i.e. Roman orna¬
mentation. Roman rings made from the end of the 2nd and throughout most of
the 3rd century also have a flat bezel, but with an inserted gem or piece of glass,
rarely an inscribed motif. The earliest findings of medieval rings in our area are
very similar to this. Early Byzantine rings are identical regarding their morphology,
created in the same way, whatever the material, while gold and silver rings often
have decorative motifs filled with niello.
Rings with a raised bezel and accentuated shoulders (figs.
76—78)
have a charac¬
teristic shape
—
from the ring which has modelled decorative reliefs to the height
of the shoulders, from which rises the bezel in the shape of a cone or truncated
pyramid, sometimes with a relatively small bulge decoration in the centre. The
basic morphological characteristics suggest a ring shape inspired by a classical
prototype. A good model is a luxurious ring with various decorative techniques,
including facing with decorative stone, very clearly recognizable in the formation
of a medieval piece cast in bronze. In addition, 3rd century Roman rings also had
widened necks, either rounded, angular, or sometimes modelled in the form of
female figures, dolphins, or a snake's head. From the medieval period there are
only two known luxurious finds: the first cast silver example with a decorated
support, from jewellery deposits and money found in the Biserikuta (Dobruja),
and the second made of gold, faced with a ruby, from Thessalonica.
Rings with a small raised bezel and widened neck found among Serbian ma¬
terial appear in five forms, especially their basic bezel shape, which can be square,
in the form of a truncated pyramid, in the shape of a truncated cone, or a pyramid
with cone
-а
like decoration at the top, in the shape of a very small cone, or a wide
oval surface. A second important common feature of this group of rings is a broad¬
ened neck, sometimes additionally emphasised with or gutters. Rings with raised
bezels and emphasised supports are predominately cast in bronze, and very rarely
in other materials (for example copper)
.
All examples are characterised by their
good-quality workmanship, with clearly executed detail. Regarding their specific
shape, the total number of rings with a protruding bezel and widened support is
not small
— 22
have been discovered during archaeological excavations. This col¬
lection is characteristic for the 11th century, although in southern Serbia they
appear as early as from the late 10th century, while from individual finds from
Danube Basin area one could suppose the upper chronological limit to be no
later than the first decade of the 12th century.
Rings with artistic glass, sometimes stone, fixed within a cassette (figs.
79—82)
have a significant place in medieval jewellery. As a representative of luxurious
decoration they are notable in their quality workmanship and decoration, which
пак
ir
и
Sru i u
17
S
had a long and almost unbroken
tradition
from classical times to the late Middle
Ages. Roman rings of this type are often luxurious, produced in many variations,
and were in use over a long period. Simpler shapes appear from the 1st century
(medieval cast rings are the most similar to them) while examples manufactured
using filigree and granulation techniques tend to date from the 3rd century, when
the influences of oriental goldsmiths became more dominant. Also, the cassette
for stones is generally shallow in Roman rings, while the granulation appearing in
individual examples is grouped compactly on the neck and is more pronounced.
The same types of ring, with all variants common to Roman jewellery, were pro¬
duced in the eastern Mediterranean after that time, from the 4th or 5th century to
the 7th. Then they had an additional wreath of tiny granules around the cassette,
sometimes with granulation on the support. The chronological span for the
appearance of rings with glass set in a cassette surrounded with wire is very broad
in the first stage, dating from the end of the 10th or beginning of the
1
1th cen¬
turies, until the first decade of the 13th century. By that time the same shapes
appeared throughout the Balkans.
Rings with bezels formed in the shape of a protruding cone or calotte with large
granules on top (figs.
83—85)
constitute a very luxurious group, unique in its ele¬
ments. This group is particularly known from investigation of necropolises in
Kosovo and
Metohija.
Almost all ring examples with a protruding bezel are very
similar to each other in most elements of their technological production and de¬
corative style. When considered in the context of the date attributed for the burial
horizontal or more rarely the settlement layers, the chronology of these rings is
very wide
—
from the end of the
1
1th century to the end of the 12th, although the
basic typological shape could be connected with the last decades of the 10th and
the 11th centuries. In the chronological
timeframe
within which these rings
appeared in Serbia they are also represented to a smaller or greater degree in finds
in other areas: Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, Dobruja, Ukraine,
Morava,
Croatia,
Bosnia, Montenegro and Slovenia.
Data outlined in connection with the morphology and technical features of
these rings does not offer adequate reliable evidence of their place of manufacture.
There are almost equal numbers of silver and gold rings with high quality work¬
manship which suggests production in developed workshops. However, one should
not forget that most finds are concentrated in a truly wide region, which indicates
the presence of Byzantine craftsmen rather than the organized production of these
rings. Findings from the Danube Basin, especially jewellery from the deposit in
Veliko Gradište,
contribute to speculation that skilled goldsmiths migrated to the
area. Likewise, one has to consider the possibility of well-organized workshops de¬
serted due to strict regulations, which in some way hampered the wider creativity
174 iifikiv
и
S j
Φ
fri
of goldsmiths. The other important question concerns the fact that altogether the
greatest number of findings are from necropolises in
Matičane
near
Pristina.
This
might be explained by its proximity to a mine
—
the source of raw materials, indi¬
cating also a prosperous community who could procure expensive jewellery for
themselves. Also, one should not ignore the fact that excavation and research of
sites from this period are rather weak. Unfortunately, dilemmas and questions
raised by these rings with cone and calotte bezels remain unresolved.
Certainly the most luxurious and unique as regards style is the type of ring
with a bezel formed from four calottes in a cross formation. In literature this is
referred to as the ring of King Stefan
Prvovenčani
(the Firstcrowned) (fig.
85).
All
the main characteristics of rings with a protruding, cone-like, calotte bezel, con¬
sidered through individual elements, can be observed in this luxurious item of
jewellery. However, in its general appearance, this ring is different from other
examples discovered in archaeological sites in Serbia, although it is similar to a ring
from Ptuj, the bezel of which is formed from five pieces, a larger centred calotte,
and four smaller lateral cones. This leads to the opinion that the properties of this
ring are the consequence of the special wishes of the client, while the location of
this find determines an upper chronological limit for the date when the ring was
worn, but not the date of its manufacture, which could be no later than the first
decades of the 12th century.
BUTTONS
Although a functional detail, buttons in the Middle Ages were an emphasised
form of decoration. For each different item of dress there were buttons of various
kinds and sizes, including expensive and artistically created ones. Archaeological
evidence offers data on their notably large diversity regarding size, shape and
ornamentation. Small, smooth undecorated buttons are most often found in ne¬
cropolises, together with a few other kinds, which on the basis of the techniques
used in their production are predominantly connected with the Byzantine style
(figs.
86-87).
The fr
Medieval jewellery but especially items with Byzantine characteristics is marked by
its expressive decorative nature. In comparison with classical jewellery, medieval
items are somewhat more solid and larger and, one can say, rather flamboyant.
Apart from its shape, discussed in the previous chapter, the decoration of this
jewellery was based on classical techniques, which in clearly similar forms were
applied not just until the end of the Middle Ages, but until modern times. These
пгі'кіт м
Srbiti
|
17
Ź
include filigree and granulation, as well as other techniques which are usually
combined. Engraved motifs have the greatest range, especially in the decoration of
rings. Among archaeological finds, rings are in most cases cast, so decoration is
engraved on the ring itself, only rarely subsequently totally engraved or finished
off with engraving. The examination of ring decoration in the Serbian region
reveals specific features and variety compared to models. However, notable dis¬
tinctions are only completely perceived in the context of findings from other parts
of the Balkans and neighbouring countries. Jewellery from Serbia appear with
the same decorative features as other regions: linear, geometric, and floral motifs;
representations of animals and birds; human figures (figs.
88-94).
Regarding de¬
coration, one should bear in mind that in late medieval times individual repre¬
sentations, especially animals and birds, appear within heraldic motifs, unknown
for Byzantine rings, but characteristic for the central European cultural circle.
rf
γ
cr
тілі
yictij
м
The consideration of items of personal piety within the study of jewellery cannot
be omitted, since on some kinds the same decorative techniques are applied as
the trade mark for jewellery, for example granulation, filigree, niello^ facing with
semi-precious stones and glass. So the study of Byzantine jewellery cannot be
completed without considering items of personal piety which can be regarded as
decorative jewellery in their artistic attributes. By general characteristics that
would apply to pendants in the shape of a cross with decorative details on the
surface. However, the chronology and distribution of these finds demand a short
review of some general questions which encroach on the basic issue of the
Christianization of a community on the Balkan Peninsula, connected with the
function of reliquaries. One of the most important questions is: can all kinds be
considered as items of personal piety, in the sense that they were worn as a sym¬
bol of Christian faith, or might they have had some different role? The answer to
that question is of vital importance, especially in the early stage of Christianizing
regions remote from Christian centres, as was the case with communities of Slavs/
Serbs in the Balkans. Bearing in mind that compared to the formation of the state
the conversion of the Serbs presents a »long, unbroken process«, completed only
in the second half of the 12th century, it is worth remembering this in future
analysis of necropolises and the study of items of personal piety in the Balkan area.
In that sense, a clear general directional guide and methodological approach to
the problem can be found in the study by J. Staecker. He researched material from
southern Scandinavia
—
Denmark and Sweden
—
from the time of the conversion
of the Vikings. The results of this research, based on archaeological material, did
)
ι
f-i
кіт н
Svisiti
not solve this complex problem, but did introduce new observations that the
wearing of pendants in the shape of a cross did not as a rule necessarily mean the
acceptance and manifestation of the Christian faith, especially in rural centres. In
that sense, J. Staekar emphasised three possible interpretations of cross-pendants:
as items of jewellery, that is, having a decorative element; as amulets connected with
a god, similar to pagan amulets; or directly connected with Christianity, to be
worn as a symbol of faith.
Regarding the jewellery's combined features, the interpretation of finds of all
crosses with
iconographie
content, especially reliquaries, undoubtedly places in¬
habitants within the context of familiarity with Christian ideology. That is to say,
reliquaries usually have a Crucifixion scene on the front and a representation of the
Virgin Mary Orant on the back, sometimes with images of the apostles in medal¬
lions on the reverse or, more rarely, engraved figures of other saints, especially St
Nicholas and St Vlachos. In that sense one can presume that the wearing of one of
theses reliquaries meant acceptance of the Christian faith, if not full conversion.
Likewise, reliquaries and pendants with images of the crucifixion present an
independent find within archaeological evidence: articles which were worn fas¬
tened to a ribbon or goatskin thong. Regarding the acceptance and understanding
of their
iconographie
content and manner of wear, ampoules
—
small containers
with two sockets containing holy oil or soil from holy places, and small pectoral
icons
—
should also be considered in the same way as reliquaries. However,
ampoules most frequently bear the image of St Demetrius, St Theodora, or holy
warriors such as St George or St Nestor. Also, saint-protectors are often represented
on small pectoral icons, for example St Nicholas on an icon from Slavkovica,
engraved on double onyx, the Virgin Mary on a steatite icon from the necropolis
near the Church of St Panteleimon in
Niš,
or St George on a lead icon from the
fortress at
Ras.
Judging by their fine workmanship and gentle formation, the
onyx and steatite icons arrived from key workshops, while the lead icon originat¬
ed from a Thessalonian studio. In this collection, the icon from Slavkovica with
an image of St Nicholas is exceptional, engraved on double onyx, and later (pro¬
bably in the 14th or 15th century) mounted on a silver-plated locket. A few icons
from a later period, 14th to 15th century, bearing images of saints have also been
found in an archaeological context, although rather schematized. These reliquaries
were made locally, produced from inexpensive types of stone, and represent the
work of gifted believers.
In contrast to reliquaries and crosses depicting the crucifixion, pendants in
the shape of a cross present a collection distinguished by more or less expressed
decoration. In keeping with the theme of this study, an attempt is made here to
reveal direct models, on the basis of individual details of single examples, which
could serve as possible prototypes models, and verify the region from which they
η
fi
кіт н
Srbiji
177
originate (figs.
95-98).
In that way they will enable a panoramic overview of
Byzantine jewellery and its technological features. Although analysis will be of
different kinds of jewellery, it is important to mention that in the study of items
of personal piety, the starting point is systemization i.e. typological shape, based
on the form of the cross. Material from the area of Serbia can be considered in
the context of several collections and by production style. In a few cases this can
indubitably lead to the place of origin. In that sense, the first collection could be
the better-quality bronze pendants which can be ascribed to studios in Thessalo-
nica and Constantinople. Decorative examples from the collection of steatite
crosses originate from the workshops of capital cities. Individual pendants such
as the find from Veliki
Gradac
fortress are probably the work of some regional
Balkan workshops, while small cross-pendants made from local stone and lead
are most likely made locally, the work of skilful stonemasons or Christians.
Analysis of pendants in the shape of a cross, their distribution, chronology,
and stylistic features initially produced some very interesting data. That is to say,
finds originate from just a few sites, of which the largest is the fortress of
Ras
(11)
and from the necropolises around the Church of St Panteleimon in
Niš (9),
while
individual items were found near the Church of the Virgin Mary
(Bogorodica)
in
Kursumlija, around the Church of St Nicholas in Kursumlija, in the fortress at
Veliki
Gradac
by
Donji Milanovac,
in the settlement of Gamzigrad, and in the ne¬
cropolis at Trnjane. In addition to the finds from
Ras,
Niš
and Kursumlija which
indisputably testify to the residence and burial of Christians, sporadic finds from
Danube Basin area leave room to doubt the function of cross-shaped pendants.
ij
yrůdwti-ůii: tzckiiůl&gTj
and
The previous focus on morphological features, work and decoration leads to the
important question of the place of manufacture of jewellery which is the theme
of this study. Analysis of studied material leads to the impression that the extent
of jewellery production in the Byzantine style was very great, and the mode of
wearing earrings and rings wide-ranging. Likewise, standardization in the shape
and kind of decoration is evident. To some extent this could be the consequence of
the relatively narrow region from which most examples come, although the mate¬
rial offers valid grounds to consider the work of goldsmiths in, first of all, the 12 th
century. Ring shapes and the greatest number of motif types indicate a definite
link with Byzantine production in capital and other developed workshops, in
which a specific decoration originated, skilfully combining Roman and early
Byzantine traditions with Oriental impulses. Apart from gold jewellery only a few
items (especially silver rings) can be attributed to one of the »more prosperous«
178
І мсікїт
и
Sivii?'
workshops. However, most of the material can reasonably be assumed to have been
made in the region, in the central Balkans, either in main centres or the work of
travelling goldsmiths. Jewellery could have been created on the basis of models
—
moulds brought to the region or, more likely, cut locally from models and from
memory. This would explain the schematization and ambiguity of ideas, but like¬
wise the level of the workman's skill. On the other hand, the group of material
with individual elements of linear decoration, for which parallels can be found in
Macedonia and Bulgaria, is rather removed from Byzantine prototypes. By this a
form of decoration which was completely suited to the taste of the Balkan popu¬
lation is certainly presented. In that case it seems very likely that individual series
could have been preconceived and partly produced according to demand, before
being distributed to Balkan areas, but it is also possible that jewellery of a certain
style was partly designed and manufactured by local residents, perhaps even
encouraged by the variety of »imported offers«.
The standardised shapes of jewellery, especially items made of bronze, is
noticeable throughout the Balkans, which suggests a significant production whose
zenith was in the
1
1th or 12th century. The large quantity of varied jewellery in all
regions of the Byzantine cultural circle, with definite regional characteristics regar¬
ding decoration, additionally suggests that this does not present a truly import¬
ed product, but rather that this jewellery was made in all regions, probably close
to larger centres or significant route ways. Amongst products one encounters a
big difference in both artistic and workmanship quality. For that reason one can
suppose that individual skilled workmen came from developed workshops, from
which they brought models and moulds to remote provinces, although a large
number of rings indicates less mature, semi-skilled craft. Several discoveries tes¬
tify to this, especially a mould for jewellery production, while the remains of
buildings which could be considered to be workshops are markedly rare and can¬
not be confidently identified. A significant number of objects
—
moulds, matri¬
ces, tools
—
were discovered in Bulgaria, while few finds hail from Serbia, which
only partially explains some aspects of jewellery production in regions remote
from central workshops. During archaeological excavations in the central Balkans
four moulds for jewellery production were discovered, originating from two sites:
Belgrade fortress, and the fort at Veliki
Gradac
(figs.
99-100).
The most complex
and best preserved of the moulds is certainly the item from Belgrade (fig.
99),
which shows the approach to making jewellery. In the context of considering the
production of jewellery, technology and workshops, special attention certainly
needs to be paid to finds from the
Ras
fortress, in particular to a stone mould for
making small icons representing the Virgin Mary and Christ discovered in a pit
dug near to a house. This mould, as well as part of a casting pot with drops of
gold casting discovered nearby in the same stratified layer, bears eloquent witness
n ak
ir
и
Srbi
¡і
to the work of a goldsmith, or perhaps to the existence of a smaller goldsmith's
workshop in the fortress in the 12th or 13th century.
Regarding the production of jewellery in the central Balkans during the period
of Byzantine rule, one should address the question of glass bracelet production.
On the basis of the appearance of finds discovered and published to date, there is
no doubt that part of this product, especially luxurious examples, was imported
from workshops with developed glass production, such as those existing in
Byzantium, having in mind the long, continual tradition of making this type of
jewellery. Judging by the results of archaeological research in central parts of the
Empire, the production of glass bracelets was not centralised as was the case with
gold and silver jewellery. Rather, there was a series of small workshops to meet
regional needs, similar to those of Corinth and Sardis. The issue is of so-called
secondary workshops in which glass was only shaped (not made). One of the
regions which could be connected with the production of this jewellery was the
northern coast of the Black Sea. Beside that, there are discoveries which suggest
small-scale production in other areas, most likely Russia and Bulgaria, from Pliska,
Presláv
and
Trnovo,
presumably formed through the influence of developed glass
production in Black Sea centres. On the basis of misshapen examples, such as a
piece of glass dross, small-scale glass work was predicted at one time, with the
creation of very simple monochrome articles, such as in the settlement
Buljino
gnezdo in Popovica near Negotin. Here there is a large quantity of broken glass
bracelets, including a piece of glass dross and two pieces of distorted glass bracelets.
Since the surrounding circumstances of these finds is not clear (did the deforma¬
tion take place in the glass kiln or because of a fire) it is questionable whether these
finds can be interpreted as reliable evidence of the existence of a glass kiln, that
is, a workshop. If accepted as a possibility, the existence of glass workshops in a
rural settlement in a non-urbanised area raises the question of where and how
the bracelets could have been made. Since the nearest and only urban centres were
Niš
and
Brančevo,
equally distant, and as the number of bracelets found near
rural settlements and necropolises is modest, production in Popovica remains
questionable from an economic point of view as well. All things considered, there
is a need to reconsider the character of this site, having in mind its characteristic
ceramic material.
Late medieval jewellery production arose in very different economic condi¬
tions. In towns formed and developed near mines such as Brskovo, Srebmica,
Novo Brdo, Prizren
and Smederevo there was a broad economic, skilled, and
artistic base for the creation of a unique style, reflected in both aristocratic and
inexpensive lay jewellery. The prosperity established by exploitation of the mine
and by the sale of ore directly influenced the quality and value of jewellery. Data
recorded in written documents and preserved items of jewellery bear witness to
180
\ nuk'--
if
Srjii'
this, especially those dating from the 13th to the 15th century. Similar to other
European countries of the period, it can be supposed that in larger centres
—
towns,
jewellery production was organized, to some extent under state control along with
the trade of ore and the minting of coins. However, it remains unclear how gold¬
smiths' work was organised on a daily basis. For certain towns with
a Dubrovnik
colony like
Novo Brdo, Smederevo
or Srebrnica, one can assume they were
organized similarly to coastal towns, where goldsmiths (and other craftsmen) be¬
longed to a mutually supportive guild. Although we do not have any reliable data,
it is unlikely that goldsmiths in villages were organized into an association like
masters of archery equipment (bows and arrows), but some goldsmith families
in villages had responsibilities similar to those living in monastery properties.
m
the
yrůccM
'óf
'Nerbimi
The geographic heterogeneity of Serbian territories, largely contained within
Serbia's borders today, did not exist as a distinct whole in medieval times, nor did
it have the same destiny. The south-western regions and part of central Serbia
belonged to the core of the most essential Serbian state. The south west and the area
south of the River
Sava
which was called Srem in the Middle Ages, then
Mačva,
subsequently part of Central
Drina
valley, rich in mines, more or less continu¬
ously remained included within the Serbian flag.
Metohija
and part of Kosovo
together with areas in
Morava
valley, the seat of the Serbian state during the time
of the Despots, fell within the boundaries of the Serbian state from the last deca¬
des of the 12th century, the achievements of the great
żupan
Stefan Nemanja. The
political supremacy of other state fortresses over parts of this region
—
especially
that of Byzantium and Hungary
—
did not fundamentally change the Slavonic
mark of the whole area, rooted as it was from the beginning of medieval Balkan
history. Contact with the Roman world by the newly-settled Slavic inhabitants,
who had a distinct social organizations and culture along with a completely dif¬
ferent attitude towards encountered achievements presented a turning point in
the development of this region, while in later times this would form the basis for
the total growth of the Balkans. The unremitting battle between those two worlds
led to international adaptation, the permeation both old and new elements. This
would present the departure point for the history of the Serbian people. Cultural
development, as part of that process, was also a sign of the approaching classical
inheritance, preserved to a great extent through many different appearances in
Byzantine culture, the heritage of the Roman Empire in the East.
иакіги
Zrùiìi
І
181
The complexity of political and social relations and the special permeation of
cultural influences in this region is fully illustrated in jewellery, not just because
of the variety of finds, but also because of their multiple significance. Accordingly,
it was supposed that the analysis of jewellery, especially stratigraphed finds, would
lead to reliable results and firmly-grounded conclusions. The characteristic pro¬
ducts of Byzantine craft, noticeable in Serbia long before the establishment of
Byzantine rule, in one way determined the direction and forms of accepted ele¬
ments from that cultural circle in later times, but significantly the specific Serbian
style of Serbian art-and-crafts. Similarly to other products, jewellery had a com¬
pletely distinct developmental direction in Byzantine production, from the skilled
craft and decorative point of view displayed though the acceptance of various
influences from other cultures, some closer, some remote, but at similar stages of
development. All appearances and change observed in the centre of Byzantium
came to expression in provinces under the empire's direct political or cultural
influence. One can follow this at its most complete form in the Balkan Peninsula,
particularly in material from our archaeological sites.
At the end of the second decade of the
1
1th century, the end of the reoccu-
pation of the Balkan Peninsula, the regions in modern Serbia were also incorpo¬
rated into the Byzantine administrative system. Thematic organization included
peripheral Serbian areas
—
the route of the River
Morava,
Belgrade, and possibly
Sirmium, while
Raška, Duklja,
and Zahumlje remained as territories governed by
their own Dukes, despite being surrounded by Byzantium on three sides. This
represented a very important state of affairs for the future embryo of the Serbian
state. However, it seems that the establishment of military administration did not
automatically mean inclusion in the commercial movements of the empire, since
archaeological evidence does not offer signs of such a change. No Byzantine goods
were imported on a regular basis. Jewellery as a kind of craft production of the
Byzantine cultural circle had particular qualities which represented a reflection of
contacts established in earlier periods of the settlement and stabilization of Slavic
communities in the Balkans. This view is supported by the shapes of grape-like
and crescent earrings, which appeared among all Slavic peoples in Europe from
the 8th to the
1
1th century. The areas of Danube Basin and eastern
Dalmaţia
both
have a larger number of finds which demonstrate this. There is great similarity in
the material from both areas dating from the 9th to the late
1
1th century.
The routes by which Byzantine products were transported in that early period
also indicate the direction of their influence. One route was from the Black Sea up
along the Danube. Besides individual finds, remains of jewellery also mark this
route. Two items date from this period: crescent earrings from Boljetin dating
from the 10th century, or grape-like earrings and rings from
Veliko Gradište
from
the same period or early 11th century. The political map of the Balkans at the
182
J
пйкіт
и
Sivii!
beginning of the 9th century, when there were signs of weakening Avar influence
and strengthening of the Bulgarian state brought Slavic tribes around the
Morava,
Danube, and Timok under the wing of a cultural milieu in which the Byzantine
influence had been accepted, especially in wearing individual forms of jewellery.
If the view is accepted that the diversity of grape-like and crescent-shaped types
of earrings originated in the period between the 6th and 10th century under the
influence of oriental jewellery, then the area of the Crimea was most likely one of
the active craft centres, given its craftsmen's knowledge of the technology for mak¬
ing luxurious jewellery based on the classical heritage. As the Byzantium's closest
and strongest point
ofthat
time, the Crimea was also an important trading zone,
lying on the route by which nomadic peoples penetrated from the East. This makes
it reasonable to assume that the characteristic style of jewellery in the transitional
period to a large extent originated in this area. In the spread of the mentioned
types of earrings a key role was played by Slavic tribes, among others. This is
illustrated by the map of distribution of such findings, which matches the areas
where the Slavic element was present.
The second important region comprises the Byzantine cities in
Dalmaţia,
which had a direct cultural influence on the Slavic hinterland. Contacts between
the Romaioi and the Slavs were established through economic exchange, mostly of
food products, which has been confirmed by archaeological findings of Byzantine-
style items of jewellery, both luxurious, and those imitating expensive models.
Mutual interconnectedness became tighter after the establishment of the
Dalmaţia,
theme based in
Zadar,
when an attempt was made (at least symbolically) to renew
the power of the Byzantine emperor in provinces important for the defense of
southern Italy. The measures taken to keep Dalmatian cities entailed large con¬
cessions to Slavic principalities in the immediate vicinity. Implementation of an
active policy brought the two cultures closely together very early on, or rather, the
Slavic material culture was permeated with Byzantine elements. Besides the types
already listed, earrings with four beads are also a clear indicator of this relation.
Apart from the routes already mentioned, in the early decades of the 11th
century the southern continental route gained prominence, corresponding with
the routes of military penetration into central Serbia. The most immediate cul¬
tural influence coming from the native areas of Byzantium is reflected by the
findings of luxurious items of jewellery, above all rings, those with glass inserted
in the bezels (figs.
79—82)
and those with bezels formed in the shape of a cone or
calotte including an ornament in the shape of petals, done with the filigree tech¬
nique (figs.
83—85),
as well as a bracelet with two semi-cylindrical pieces, hinged
together (fig.
55),
during this period appearing only in the areas of Kosovo and
Metohija,
which are territorially closest to their source. This, as well as jewellery
from the already mentioned deposits found in the area of central Danube Basin
i-i ti
кіт н
Srbiji
area, interpreted as the work of travelling craftsmen and done with great crafts¬
manship, attests to the sporadic presence of craftsmen trained in centres which
had a tradition of jewellery making, abandoning their workshops for, most likely,
economic reasons. Based on these findings a somewhat different economic develop¬
ment of communities in the immediate vicinity of the territory of Byzantium
proper can be presumed.
However, present results of archaeological exploration do not provide a more
reliable and complete picture of the character of the material culture during the
1
1th century, given that the area of central Serbia is not sufficiently explored. The
available data point to the conclusion that there is no difference between the craft
styles used in the areas under the Byzantine authorities, and in those outside the
system of themes, which serves as an additional confirmation that economic
channels remained largely unchanged. From the content of cultural layers from
the
1
1th century it can be observed that the level of cultural development within
that whole area was quite uniform. The jewellery, most of which was discovered
in necropolises, is simply made, intended for mass consumption, modelled after
Byzantine jewellery, although with somewhat different decorative elements, more
pronounced on rings. Motifs on rings represent ornaments which are closer to an
older Slavic understanding of decoration, while the religious templates, typical
for Byzantine jewellery of the
1
1th century, are almost completely absent. The cor¬
respondence of Byzantine forms, based on the legacy of Roman jewellers, with
ornaments of linear-geometric type whose meaning is impossible to determine
with certainty, and with the sporadic appearance of Byzantine stylized spirals and
tendrils, can be found throughout the Balkan peninsula, which supports an earlier
view that the origin of the specific style of jewellery should be sought in an earlier
period, the centuries preceding the establishment of Byzantine rule. In rare cen¬
tres which served as important strongholds, such as Naissus, Sirmium, Belgrade
and
Ras,
certain differences in the types and quality of jewellery can be observed,
which at the present level of exploration remain merely a vague indication.
The general impression is that the great majority of items of jewellery were
made in several regional centres, by more or less skillful jewellers. Findings from
the area of Danube Basin which are to a large extent uniform in terms of shape
and decoration seern to support this. Sporadic specimens thought to have been
made in one of the more developed artisan centres represent only occasional
individual appearances, therefore not reflecting newly-established trade contacts.
Such is the set which consists of a necklace and an earring from
Čezava (fíg.
50),
a pendant from the fortress of
Kostol
(fig.
51/5),
as well as grape-like and rosette
earrings from Gamzigrad (figs.
14/1, 2, 7, 8, 18/6).
However, in the period around
the middle of the
1
1th century, a clear indication of economic change is perceptible
by the appearance of amphorae which are the earliest indicator of the deployment
184
\
n
rik
і
τ
u S ry/
і і
of Byzantine military in the fortresses of the Danube Basin region, and thus of
the establishment of trading links between the metropolis and the frontier.
This data, gathered from the analysis of archaeological findings, to a certain
extent complements the conclusions of historical research of, on the one hand,
the weak influence of Byzantium, given the general internal crisis of the Empire,
and on the other of the changes in the Church organization during this period,
which laid the foundation for a large-scale cultural influence. Also significant for
the first decade of the Byzantine rule is the appearance of items of personal piety
—
one-piece cross-pendants and reliquaries. Findings of relics do not refute the
previously stated view in connection with pilgrimages to the Holy Land, which
were renewed in the European countries during that same period. The impor¬
tance of Balkan roads in linking the West with the East was established during the
period of Roman domination, and even in the Middle Ages they were the quick¬
est route to destinations in the Christian East, even though Roman roads were
neither well kept, nor safe. The largest number of cult items was found precisely
at crossroads
—
in the vicinity of larger centres such as Naisuss and Sirmium, spo¬
radically in certain villages, with by far the largest number of them uncovered in
Gamzigrad.
At the beginning of the second century of Byzantine rule the economic situ¬
ation greatly changed. The archaeological inventory of findings confirms the in¬
clusion of these peripheral areas in the streams of regular trading, which reached
its height in the period around the middle and during the second half of the 12th
century, at the time of the greatest Byzantine activity in the Balkans, during the
reign of the emperors from the Comnenus dynasty, John II and Manuel I.
Numismatic material, deposits, and individual findings of coins clearly confirm
the significance of this area for Byzantium, or rather of the areas in which Byzan-
tinisation reached its fullest, namely the Danube Basin and the area along the
central road, near the rivers
Morava
and Ibar. However, the means of supplying
troops is just one segment of the study of the Byzantine presence on the territory
of Serbia. Another, equally important segment, is focused on the import of goods
for everyday use and of luxury items, which in fact created a broader basis for the
penetration of Byzantine culture and the arts. The period of the 12th and the first
decades of the following century is the time during which products manufac¬
tured in workshops set up in the areas of Byzantium proper, mostly pottery,
arrived to our areas. Unlike pottery, specimens of jewellery which can be considered
imported goods are more difficult to single out. Apart from rare gold earrings,
for silver products, such as rings with glass inserted in the bezel and certain types
of earrings, it was not possible to determine their place of origin with certainty,
although even among them can be observed specimens of exquisitely fine crafts¬
manship, which could have originated in some of the centres in the core areas of
ішкіг н
Sivi
і
>
Byzantium. The discovered quantity of silver jewellery, as well as bronze, which
is considered valuable only because of its material worth is quite large, which led
to the assumption that it was, to a large extent, produced regionally. The same
opinion was held for the monochrome glass bracelets, a frequent item in the
necropolises and, somewhat more rarely, in 12th century settlements.
The data provided by the archaeological inventory of findings belonging to
the cultural layers of the 12th and the first decades of the 13th century leads to cer¬
tain general conclusions about the character of the material culture on the terri¬
tory of Serbia. The immigration of a new population and relations with their
homeland resulted in great changes in the economy and culture. The establish¬
ment of trading links led to firmer mutual connections between spheres which
had a specific development, and which also had an impact on the directions of
cultural development. Acceptance of Byzantine products also meant, in a broad
sense, acceptance of the Byzantine way of life and customs, which according to
archaeological traces was manifested through the need for possessing luxury items.
What represents a peculiarity, not only on the territory of Serbia, but also in
other areas in the Balkans, is the way in which the penetration of craftwork was
achieved. It can be best followed through the appearances on the jewellery, which
is the most numerous type of archaeological finding. Based on the analysis of
shape and decoration (technique and motifs), Byzantine-style jewellery was
almost completely adopted. It is evident that the shapes of earrings and rings, as
well as bracelets and certain pendants, which originated in a much earlier pro¬
duction of goldsmith's works, that of Roman and Early Byzantine periods, had
not suffered greater changes. That is most clearly visible in rings, their morpho¬
logical development being limited due to the very place in which that kind of
ornament was worn. The differences in comparison with chronologically earlier
specimens can be seen through the decorative motifs of floral, zoomorphic and
figurai
style, which also appear on our findings almost simultaneously with those
in the centre of Byzantium. A phenomenon which has not been noticed in the
core areas of Byzantium, but which can be seen in the large part of the Balkan
peninsula, are the linear motifs and hatched fields in many different combinations,
which represent an autochthonous tradition, pronounced on rings and metal
bracelets (figs.
54, 88).
The widespread fashion of wearing large ornaments, best represented by the
type of earrings with wreaths and rosettes (figs.
30—34),
along with very popular
rings with glass inserted in their bezels (figs.
81—82),
is a characteristic of great
importance in research on the scope of Byzantization during the 12th century,
given that the large size jewellery is relatively weakly represented in the core areas
of Byzantium. Compared to prototypes and contemporaneous specimens, earrings
have a larger, and sometimes thicker hoop, while the main ornament was fixed
м
а кіт
и
Srbi
ii
with coiled filigree wire, which occupies a larger part of the hoop than was ne¬
cessary to keep granulated wreaths or rosettes in a certain position. In that respect,
it was only the earrings with one biconic bead that remained almost equal in size,
and in the style of decoration, compared to their models from the 6th century.
Some other items from this group are smaller and decorated with traditional
Byzantine floral patterns, although even those beads are somewhat larger and
more ornate in comparison with the earlier production phase (provided the
opinion is accepted that they belong to the development line of earrings with
oval beads from the 9th—10th centuries). Perhaps the most obvious example when
it comes to the enlargement of ornaments in the Comnenus period is a group of
rings which have a rich ornament around the cassette for glass or stone, in which
not only the granules, but the whole model is enlarged. These characteristics,
although noticed during the very early stage of examining the jewellery, have still
not been fully explained, nor have the causes of this phenomenon, or the region
from which they could have originated. The incomplete findings from our area
do not provide the elements which could help explain the said style of ornament.
Rings with a granulated crown and inserted glass are grouped in the central Danube
Basin area, but that information should be met with a degree of skepticism, since
other areas have not been as thoroughly archaeologically explored. However, the
circumstance which should not be neglected is that the rings discovered in the
areas of
Morava
valley and
Metohija
show greater similarity with the Byzantine
ones, because of their lower cassettes and less pronounced ornament around the
frame and on the neck. Furthermore, if the beaded earrings from the same
regions are compared, similar impression can be gained, although this remains
questionable precisely because of scarce recorded findings outside the Danube
Basin region. Whether the enlargement of jewellery happened due to insufficient
technological knowledge, or due to a growth in demand for more massive orna¬
ment still remains insufficiently explained.
On the basis of the types of imported items, as well as the style of regional
products patterned after Byzantine models, one can get the impression that the
directions of the penetration of byzantinisation remained unchanged when com¬
pared to the previous period. The strongest influence was achieved in the larger
area of the Danube Basin, which was a direct result of the significant scope of
trading links established mainly for the purpose of supplying troops in the border
areas. A similar kind of influence, although significantly smaller in scope, can also
be seen in the area of present-day Srem, partially due to the circumstance that the
area was also in the domain of the active Byzantine policy. The second direction
of influence matched the route of the most important Balkan roads, via militaris
and via egnatia, which were used for the transport of goods from Byzantine centres
to the Serbian interior. Especially important for the central Balkan areas is the firm
li
f
link
with one of the great craft and trade centres of the time
-
Thessalonika, the
second most important city of the Byzantine Empire. The emission of cultural im¬
pulses from that source was partially confirmed by the appearance of a specific style
of jewellery ornamentation (figs.
70/4,
96c). It is also presumed that Thessalonika
can be seen as a collection centre for those goods that were transported and sold
in the Balkan interior. Byzantine cities in eastern
Dalmaţia
also had an influence
on this area, although in this period this is not expressed with sufficient clarity to
leave more substantial material confirmation, as was the case in previous centuries,
since the core of Serbian lands had moved deeper into the Balkan interior.
In the last decades of the 12th and for the early 13th century events and changes
took place which signified a watershed not only in political and spiritual life, but
also in the economic development of the territory of Serbia. What marked this
period was state independence, enlarged borders, and the independence of the
Serbian Church, but further development was also marked by Byzantium, which
served as a model for the organisation of both the state and the Church admini¬
stration. The power of Byzantine influence on the early Serbian state has its
direct confirmation in the seals of
župan
Stefan Nemanja and his brother Stefan
Stracimir which are of a Byzantine type, confirming that the Byzantine model of
state administration was completely adopted. The weakness of Byzantium to
maintain its positions in the Balkans did not have an impact on the trade or the
circulation of arts and crafts, which were kept intact. This is confirmed by the
content of archaeological layers of that period, in which the findings have the
same forms as those from the period of Byzantium's most active presence in the
area. Along with all the already mentioned indicative types of findings, the begin¬
ning of the fourth decade of the 13th century was also marked by the beginning
of Serbian coinage, patterned after the typological and stylistic models from the
Empire of Thessalonika, which was a result of byzantinophile policies during the
reign of king Stefan
Radoslav.
Considering the grave difficulties in which Byzantium
found itself after
1204,
it is realistic to assume that it was precisely Thessalonika
—
the new capital of the Romaioi state on the European soil
—
that had the deci¬
sive role in continuing the strong cultural influence on Serbia.
The following century, up until the middle of the 14th century, is usually
characterised by researchers of our medieval past as the period of total strength¬
ening of the Serbian state
-
its political positions, economic growth, and large
advances in culture and the arts. Monumental buildings, paintings and sculpture,
as well as manuscript books testify to the fact that Serbia of that period was one
of the birthplaces of Orthodox art. However, archaeological records provide very
little data not only on the state of artistic crafts, but also on the material culture
in general. From the present archaeological point of view, bearing in mind the
level of exploration of sites and the small quantity of uncovered items, that was
188
I
uftkìTH Siviii
the time of the establishment of the Serbian culture, which should be confirmed
by findings from the layers of the following period
-
the final stage of the mate¬
rial culture in the Serbian state. In that respect, data from the other stated sources
complement the missing archaeological material from this transitional period
and provides an explanation for the ensuing phenomena, confirms the incentives,
models, and influences for the genesis and development of the Serbian culture.
At the beginning of the second half of the
1
3th century a wider basis for eco¬
nomic development was laid, which was the result of the renewed mining activity.
Mineral resources in the region of central and western Balkans were known and
exploited in classical antiquity, but organised mining ceased during the restless
times prior to the Slavic immigration. It has been presumed that Slavs in the area
exploited deposits of copper and lead, although only to a small extent, given that
their level of ore processing technology was quite low. Later, during its short-
term (or nominal) rule, Byzantium did not have the strength to renew produc¬
tion, hence it remained weak throughout the period. Advances in mining were
introduced by the Saxons, during the reign of Stefan
Uroš
I
(1243—1276),
and
thanks to their knowledge of technological achievements in discovering deposits
of precious metals, as well as an advanced organisation of digging and ore pro¬
cessing, a level of production was reached which exceeded domestic needs. The
demand for silver on the European market had an influence on the trade, which
also increased, extending to other items. The development of trade led to a clos¬
er connection between the settlements within Serbia, as well as with the cities in
the coastal area, namely
Dubrovnik
and
Kotor.
During that same period certain
cities began to gain importance as markets
(trg)
also
benefitting
from the circu¬
lation of goods. Besides the communication lines from the previous periods, cer¬
tain routes gained prominence by taking over the role of trading routes, which
gave importance to the settlements along those routes and helped them establish
closer mutual relations. Settlements near the mines experienced the fastest over¬
all progress. However, the development of way stations along the trading routes,
although slower in comparison with the mining ones, also proved more enduring.
The beginning of the creation of the core of an urban way of life and economy is
connected precisely to the markets on the intersections, i.e. on the routes on which
the goods were transported, and these are the places that first evolved into trading
centres to equip the areas in their immediate and further vicinity with goods.
Another characteristic of the 13th century was reliance on Byzantine sources,
which, along with the import of goods, also created the wider basis for adopting
decorative patterns on craft products. The increase in trade with the coastal area,
however, led to the appearance of Romanic decorative elements, which can best
be traced through the motifs on luxurious fabrics which were imported from Italy.
Also, by hiring masons and
façade
decorators from the coastal areas, the Romanic
кіт н
'Srh'
ii
18$
style caught on more quickly. This combination of Byzantine and Romanic ele¬
ments, which is generally a feature of the art of the Mediterranean, originated as
a direct effect of relations between powers in this area, i.e. the strengthening of
the Latins. The dual character of arts in Serbia is part and parcel of the same phe¬
nomenon which clearly delineated the future development of applied arts, espe¬
cially the style of jewellery making which in this period was in its initial stage. The
same features remained even after the conquest of certain parts of the Byzantine
territory in the final decades of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century,
during the reign of king
Milutin
(1282—1321),
since similar cultural changes also
happened in that territory. Stronger byzantinisation of the ruling class in Serbia
of that period, as written sources testify, does not have significant archaeological
confirmation, which should not be taken as a final conclusion at the present level
of examination.
Archaeological findings from the cultural layers of the 14th and the first half
of the 15th century provide quite a clear view of aspects and the scope of Byzan¬
tine influence in the period marked as a phase of production. At that time the
items intended for everyday use, also luxury items to a lesser extent, were manu¬
factured in regional centres in Serbia, partially in the coastal area, in a Serbian
way, jewellery in particular. While the Byzantine influence on jewellery, another
numerous group of findings in the cultural layers from 14th and 15th century,
remains significant, it manifests in a somewhat different way. Earrings and rings,
as indicative types, closely follow the developmental directions of the epoch in
which they originated. In the production of that time, the return to earlier
Byzantine models was fashionable, along with using new types and decorative
templates originating in central and western Europe. The shapes of earrings fully
confirm the connection to earlier Byzantine types: they are mainly crescent-
shaped, followed by those with rosettes and granulated wreaths. Rings made
according to Byzantine models appear in two aspects: classical Byzantine types,
modified according to the late medieval fashion in respect of mass and the
emphasis placed on neck, contain elements of decoration of the same cultural
circle, such as inscriptions, running spirals and palmettes, while the bezel surface
contains representations of fantastic animals or birds. These same traditionally
Byzantine patterns are also used to decorate the hoops of central European rings,
although with a somewhat different
stylisation,
still not too distant from the pro¬
totypes. The enlarged shape of the signet ring of a sharper design belongs to
Romanic—Gothic artistic creation, as well as heraldic motifs, lily, and heart-
shaped zigzag lines. Also typical for this period is the use of classical gemstones,
especially in the workshops of
Novo Brdo.
Typological diversity of late medieval
jewellery is only to a lesser extent confirmed in findings by archaeological means,
since it was rarely placed in graves. Inventories of jewellery deposited as pawn in
1Θ0
I iifikiT
и
Sr'uiìì
Dubrovnik provide
a more important
testimony to the value of the ornaments
owned by the gentry, which completes our knowledge of the style and value of
the Serbian jewellery. The general feature of the jewellery of the second half of
the 14th and of the 15th century is the international character of its ornaments,
present throughout Europe due to the common source of motifs, while the
styli¬
sation
of certain elements can tell us more about the region from which the
model originated. The jewellery found on the territory of Serbia possesses a signi¬
ficant Byzantine component, which is, however, in decline due to much stronger
trading links with the central and western Europe, via
Dubrovnik
and Venice.
Byzantine influence in Serbia, whose strengthening is connected with the
reign of king
Milutin,
reached its zenith in the universal empire of the Serbs and
the Greeks of the king-emperor Stefan
Dušan
(1331—1355).
Heightened byzantini-
sation is directly linked with the conquest of parts of Macedonia and Greece and
the political program based on Byzantine traditions. Among the archaeological
findings, coinage very clearly shows the absorption of Byzantine models. The art
ofthat
period shows signs of a return to the models from the Comnenus period,
with the influences of Romanic—Gothic style from the coastal region, which archa¬
eological findings to a large extent confirm, and thus they continued the pheno¬
mena of the previous period. The decline of the importance of the Byzantine
heritage which followed after the loss of Macedonia and the susceptibility to cul¬
tural trends coming from the central and western Europe, also influenced the
character of the material culture, in which from this time on craft products can
be seen shaped in the gothic style. On rings this change is more perceptible than
it was at the beginning of the 14th century. It is a reflection of political and eco¬
nomic circumstances in the time of regional rulers, when the gentry were using
heraldic symbols and coats-of-arms on their signet rings to emphasize their
autonomy. The value of jewellery from the second half of the 14th century is an
indicator both of incentives to economic development, given that jewellery was
used to generate income, and consequently of the strength of the new adminis¬
trative units. Further economic development during the time of the state of the
Serbian despots and the strengthening of trade, created the conditions for the
renewal of artistic practice and the maintenance of high quality of craft products,
while the stay of prominent Byzantines, who were present in Serbia until the fall
of Smederevo in
1459,
provided an incentive for the renewal of the Byzantine
style in craftwork. Monumental art of the period remained inspired by Byzantine
traditions, especially in painting, while the masonry of the
Morava
School repre¬
sents a Serbian artistic creation which unified several different models
—
Byzantine,
Oriental, Romanic
—
but with such original solutions, that a whole new aesthetic
concept was developed. The jewellery synthesized similar influences and patterns,
in which Byzantine elements were very weakly represented, unlike the production
iiakíx-
и
Srbiji
of pottery, where the link with Byzantine heritage remained very strong, both in
terms of shape, and the decorative motifs. With the Turkish penetration, oriental
influences appeared, which were, given the similarity with the traditional Byzan¬
tine templates, quickly and easily accepted. In that way, Byzantine heritage re¬
mained present on the territory of Serbia even after the Turkish conquests.
Since the time of the establishment of Byzantine rule until the collapse of the
Serbian state, cultural influences came from three directions: from the north, south
and southwest. Although limited by the geographic characteristics of the central
Balkans, it was influenced by the almost complete byzantinisation in the initial
period, and diversity
—
symbiosis of the Byzantine and central European models
—
in the second phase. Byzantine influence on the material culture in Serbian
lands of the Middle Ages also manifested in many different aspects. Observed in
the context of political changes, it was undoubtedly strong and all-encompassing.
In the first phase, due to the territory of Serbia being a part of the Byzantine
Commonwealth and, regardless of the fact that its administrative system was
more nominal than substantial, Byzantium used many other, diverse mechanisms
to achieve its influence on the conquered territory, of which cultural ones were
the most efficient. On the other hand, apart from the same religion, there was
also the readiness to adopt Byzantine ways
—
political ideology, administrative
patterns, titles, clothing, artistic styles. In the second phase, when Byzantium was
significantly weakened and torn apart, the exact opposite happened
—
the Serbian
state steered the direction of its development in relation to the Byzantine models,
tying itself much more strongly to Byzantium's cultural heritage. Considering the
fact that Byzantine culture from its very inception itself drew inspiration from
other sources, the same refining was characteristic of the material culture on the
territory of Serbia, which, although strongly leaning towards the Byzantine tra¬
dition, readily accepted impulses from other parts and skillfully adapted them, in
a way which led to the formation of a distinct national cultural character.
Fig. 1.
The wife of aristocrat
Konstantin,
detail from benefactor's composition,
Church of St Nicolas in
Staničenje
(photo:
N.
Borić)
Fig.
2.
Map of central Serbia showing important sites
—
fortresses, settlements,
and necropolises
Fig.
3.
Necropolis around the church of St Panteleimon at
Niš
during the excava¬
tions (photo: documentation from the History of Art Institute)
Fig.
4.
Distribution of earrings from the Bjelobrdo cultural group in the Central
Balkans
nafa'-
н
Svùiìi
Fig. 5.
Typology of earring shapes
Fig.
6.
Typology of rings shapes
Fig.
7.
Typology of bracelets shapes
Fig.
8.
Diadem-wreath, Aleksandrida
(Kovačević
1953,
si.
47)
Fig.
9.
Plaques
—
parts of diadems and wreaths (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
10.
Plaques from Sibnica
Fig.
11.
Pins:
1.
Trgovište;
2.
Novo Brdo
(Scale
2:3)
Fig. 12.
Pin from
Novo
Brdo
Fig. 13.
Grape-like pendant earrings:
1.
Beogradska tvrđava;
2.
Ravna (Knjaževac)
(Scale
2:3)
Fig. 14.
Grape-like pendant earrings (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
15.
Grape-like pendant earrings from the Lower town, Belgrade fortress
Fig.
16.
Grape-like pendant earrings
—
varieties (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
17.
Earrings from necropolis around the church of St Panteleimon at
Niš
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
18.
Earrings with four beads (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
19.
Earrings with four beads (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
20.
Earrings from the deposit the village of
Koštunić
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
21.
Crescent earrings (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
22.
Crescent earring from village of Popovac (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
23.
Earrings from Smederevo
Fig.
24.
Crescent earrings from
Stara Pavlica
monastery (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
25.
Radial crescent earrings from
Markova Varoš
near
Prilep
Fig. 26.
Wife
oí
župan
Brajan,
detail
of the benefactor's composition, White church
(Bela crkva
Káranská),
village of
Karan,
near
Uzice
Fig. 27.
Hollow crescent earrings (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
28.
Hollow crescent earrings from
Novo Brdo
Fig. 29.
Earring-hoops with wire decoration (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
30.
Earrings with one small wreath/rosette (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
31.
Earrings with two small wreaths/rosettes and flat ends (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
32.
Earrings with three small wreaths/rosettes (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
33.
Earrings with a round beads (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
34.
Earrings with beads
Vinca
(photo: Vladimir
Popović)
Fig.
35.
Earring with one bead from
Novog Brda
Fig. 36.
Earring with one bead from
Novog Brda
Fig. 37.
Earrings with one biconical bead (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
38.
Earrings with one biconical bead (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
39.
Earrings with one biconical bead (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
40.
Earrings with one biconical bead (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
41.
Earrings with one biconical bead from the Lower town, Belgrade fortress
:
urtici
v
и
Srbiji
Fig. 42.
Earring with bead from
Čezava
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
43.
Earrings with a cube-shaped bead (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
44.
Earring with two beads (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
45.
Earring with three beads (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
46.
Earring with three beads (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
47.
Earrings with hoops in the shape of a question mark with bead (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
48.
Harrings
with hoops in the shape of a question mark with wire and gra-
aulated decoration (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
49,
Earrings with strung pendants (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
50,
[Neckalce and earring(?) from
Čezave
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
51.
Metal pendants (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
52.
Stone and ceramic pendants (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
53,
Saint,
Sopoćani
monastery
Fig.
54.
Metal bracelets with open ends (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
55.
Metal bracelets with hinge-mechanism (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
56.
Metal bracelets with flat ends (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
57.
Glass bracelets (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
58.
Village of Trnjane, site
Staro groblje,
grave no.
318
(after:
Marjanović-Vujo-
vić
1980)
Fig. 59.
Band rings (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
60.
Band rings (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
61.
Band rings (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
62.
Band rings (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
63.
Fully cast rings with a flat bezel (Scale
2:3); 2.
Ring from the Lower town,
Belgrade fortress
(63/16)
Fig.
64.
Engagement ring of young king
Radoslav
Fig.
65.
Ring from necropolis around the church of St Panteleimon at
Niš
Fig.
66.
Ring from Veliki
Gradac
fortress (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
67.
Fully cast rings with flat bezels and pronounced shoulders (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
68.
Fully cast rings with a raised flat bezel (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
69.
Fully cast rings with a raised flat bezel (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
70.
Fully cast rings with a raised flat bezel (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
71.
Rings with a double/triple hoop (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
72.
Ring from
Novo Brdo
Fig. 73.
Rings with a rolled, wide neck (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
74.
Ring from so-called grave of queen
Teodora,
Banjska
monastery
Fig.
75.
Ring from
Novo Brdo
Fig. 76.
Rings with a raised bezel and accentuated shoulders (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
77.
Ring from the area of
Braničevo
(site Viminacijum
—
Pećine)
Fig.
78.
Rings from the Lower town, Belgrade fortress
194
І иакіт н
Zrùiii
Fig. 79. Rings
with glass set in a cassette
—
group
1
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
80.
Rings with glass set in a cassette
—
group
2
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
81.
Rings with glass set in a cassette
—
group
3
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
82.
Ring from the Lower town of the Belgrade fortress
Fig.
83.
Rings with bezels formed in the shape of a protruding cone or calotte
(Scale
2:3)
Fig.
84.
Rings with bezels formed in the shape of calotte from area of
Braničevo
(site Viminacijum
—
Pećine)
Fig.
85.
The ring of King Stefan
Prvovenčani
(the Firstcrowned) from Studenica
monastery: Published in: Istorija
srpskog naroda I, Beograd
1981; 2)
re¬
construction of the original appearance after:
Jovanović
V. 1988b.
Fig.
86.
Vukašin
and Vukosava, detail of the benefactor's composition from Rudenica
Fig.
87.
Buttons (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
88.
Group
1 -
linear motifs
Fig.
89.
Group
2 —
crosses and pentagrames
Fig.
90.
Group
3 —
foral
motifs
Fig.
91.
Group
4 —
representations of animals and birds
Fig.
92.
Group
5 —
human figures
Fig.
93.
St
Demetrios,
Kalenie
monastery
Fig.
94.
St
Constantin
and
Jelena, Sopoćani
monastery
Fig.
95.
Bronze pectoral cross from the Lower town, Belgrade fortress
Fig.
96.
Bronze pectoral crosses (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
97.
Ceramic and steatite pectoral crosses (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
98.
Steatite pectoral crosses
Fig.
99.
Mould for jewellery production from the area of Belgrade fortress (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
100.
Moulds for jewellery production from Veliki
Gradac
fortress (Scale
2:3)
Fig.
101.
Rings from the area of Belgrade and
Braničevo
Fig.
102.
Portrait of young woman
»Areta
f«,
The church of St Nicolas in
Staničenje
(photo:
N.
Borić)
Fig.
103.
Wedding at
Cana,
detail,
Kalenic
monastery |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Bikić, Vesna 1963- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1052976409 |
| author_facet | Bikić, Vesna 1963- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Bikić, Vesna 1963- |
| author_variant | v b vb |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV039681360 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)745046185 (DE-599)OBVAC08506162 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Serbien (DE-588)4054598-2 gnd Byzantinisches Reich (DE-588)4009256-2 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Serbien Byzantinisches Reich |
| id | DE-604.BV039681360 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-10-10T18:02:15Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788680093727 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-024530358 |
| oclc_num | 745046185 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 207 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2010 |
| publishDateSearch | 2010 |
| publishDateSort | 2010 |
| publisher | Arheološki Inst. |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Posebna izdanja / Arheološki Institut |
| spelling | Bikić, Vesna 1963- Verfasser (DE-588)1052976409 aut Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe Vesna Bikić Byzantine jewellery in Serbia Beograd Arheološki Inst. 2010 207 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Posebna izdanja / Arheološki Institut 48 PST: Byzantine jewellery in Serbia. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Literaturverz. S. 195 - 207 Schmuck (DE-588)4052945-9 gnd rswk-swf Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd rswk-swf Serbien (DE-588)4054598-2 gnd rswk-swf Byzantinisches Reich (DE-588)4009256-2 gnd rswk-swf Serbien (DE-588)4054598-2 g Byzantinisches Reich (DE-588)4009256-2 g Schmuck (DE-588)4052945-9 s Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 s DE-604 Arheološki Institut Posebna izdanja 48 (DE-604)BV039717423 48 SWB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024530358&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024530358&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Bikić, Vesna 1963- Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe Schmuck (DE-588)4052945-9 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4052945-9 (DE-588)4071507-3 (DE-588)4054598-2 (DE-588)4009256-2 |
| title | Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe |
| title_alt | Byzantine jewellery in Serbia |
| title_auth | Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe |
| title_exact_search | Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe |
| title_full | Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe Vesna Bikić |
| title_fullStr | Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe Vesna Bikić |
| title_full_unstemmed | Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji modeli i nasleđe Vesna Bikić |
| title_short | Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji |
| title_sort | vizantijski nakit u srbiji modeli i naslede |
| title_sub | modeli i nasleđe |
| topic | Schmuck (DE-588)4052945-9 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Schmuck Funde Serbien Byzantinisches Reich |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024530358&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024530358&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV039717423 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT bikicvesna vizantijskinakitusrbijimodeliinasleđe AT bikicvesna byzantinejewelleryinserbia |