Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje:
Saved in:
| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Lithuanian |
| Published: |
Kaunas
Vytauto Didžiojo Universitetas
1998
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T: Russian censorship in Lithuania in the middle of the XIX century |
| Physical Description: | 301 S. Ill. 20 cm |
| ISBN: | 9986501288 |
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Record in the Search Index
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TURINYS
ÍVADAS / 5
CENZUROS ORGANIZACIJA / 18
Institucinés sandaros susidarymas / 18
Leidiniij aprobavimo tvarka. Cenzüru aibé / 35
Tcisinis cenzüros pagrindas / 67
Cenzoriij darbo kontrolé / 74
Éinybinis cenzoriaus portretas / 85
BENDRIEJI CENZÜROS REIKALAVIMAI RUS1JOS IMPERIJOJE / 101
Monarcho valdzios nelieciamumas / 104
Pagarbos krikscioniskiems tikéjimams reikalavimas / 123
“Padorumo” reikalavimas / 126
Asmens garbés gynimas / 132
Reikalavimai periodinei spaudai / 134
Reikalavimai liaudies knygoms / 138
CENZÜROS SPECIFIKA LIETUVOJE / 147
Teritoriniai veiklos ypatumai / 147
Nepriklausomybés idéja ir jos korekcijos / 162
Lietuvos visuomenés aukléjimas / 166
Nepasitenkinimo idéjij moduliacijos / 173
Istoriniii faktij interpretacija / 177
Lenkiskojo patriotizmo apraiskos / 183
Kova su pavergéjais / 192
Demokratinés idéjos / 194
Religiniij idéjij pervarta / 198
Michailo Muravjovo priemonés pries spaudq lenkij kalba / 204
LIETUVlSKV KNYGÜ CENZÜRAVIMAS / 217
Katalikiskq idéjvj vengimas / 232
Pagarba valdziai ir jos tamautojams / 247
Socialinio protesto elemental / 253
Blaivybés draugijij veiklos koregavimas / 256
Istorinés reminiscencijos / 262
Moraliniai rasti} kanonai / 270
ISVADOS / 272
SUMMARY / 282
PANAUDOTy FONDy SARASAS / 293
SALTINIAI IR UTERATÜRA / 293
SUTRUMPINIMAI / 297
ASMENVARD¿iy RODYKLÉ / 298
ZITA MEDIS A U SKIENÈ
RUSSIAN CENSORSHIP IN LITHUANIA
IN THE MIDDLE OF XIX CENTURY
Summary
After the rebellion of 1830—1831, which has demonstrat-
ed a clear aim of the gentry of the Kingdom of Poland and of the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania to restore an independent state, Russia started to
review its policy in the “recovered territories”. Censorship became an
important instrument for implementation of this policy, which in historio-
graphy is called “Russification”, denationalization”, “depolonisation”,
“ideological leveling”. The purpose of the censorship was to clean the
press circulating in Lithuania out of any perilous and unhandy ideas.
Censorship requirements reflected the main objectives of the Russian
policy towards the Lithuanian society.
The purpose of this book is to describe the whole of the censorship
policy applied in Lithuania without illustrating the circumstances of
approbation or banning of specific publications, that is — to elucidate
those ideas, conceptions, opinions, valuables, which the Russian power
was striving to eliminate from the communication process and at the
same time from the life of the society, and this way to influence the
development of the Lithuanian society.
Vilnius Censorship Committee (functioning from 1804 under Vilnius
University) was restructured in accordance with the Censorship Law of
1826 so as to implement the new objectives of the ruling of Nicholas I,
and in a short while was again reorganized on the basis of Censorship
Statute of 1828, and has retained its structure and manner of activities
without any significant changes therein until 1865. In the beginning, it
operated under the Vilnius University, and in 1832, when the University
was closed,— under Byelorussian Educational District (starting from
1850 — under Vilnius Educational District). The activities of the Com-
mittee were directed by the Curator for Educational District, except for
the years 1850 to 1855, when this function was passed over to the
Governor General of Vilnius.
Vilnius Censorship Committee was engaged in preventive censor-
ship: inspection of publications before they are publicized, inspection of
those brought from abroad before issuing a permission for dissemination
thereof. Its existence in Russia was based on the archaic principle: it is
only the emperor and the government who know the truth. Whereas,
individuals due to their sinful origin are likely to make mistakes and to
282
take over “bad” ideas. The “lower the stratum” that an individual belongs
to, the more ignorant and more prone to the evil he is. Therefore, the
duty of the government was to safeguard its subjects against “bad” ideas
by eliminating every possibility of a contact with them.
The target of the preventive censorship was all kinds of printed
material (save for official publications) published in the Russian Empire,
as well as all publications brought into it in any ways whatsoever. Thus,
all literate citizens of Russia, as well as of Lithuania, fell under the
sphere of influence of the censorship. Introduction of censorship of
Catholic sermons in Lithuania in 1850 meant that government’s control
had covered a part of verbal communication which was of a particular
significance to illiterate and semi-literate citizens.
Censorship activities in Lithuania were, first of all, based on the
general law regulating the work of sensorial institutions of the whole
empire, i. e. on Censorship Statute of 1826, which was in force in the
period from 1826 to 1828, then on Censorship Stature of 1828 — from
1829 to 1861, and on Provisional Censorship Regulations — from 1862
to 1864. Requirements of the basic censorship law were commented,
detailed, and what is the most important, adapted to the political circum-
stances of the period by the Emperor’s ordinances, instructions and
decrees of the ministers of education and interior and of the Directorate
of the Censorship.
Neither the Censorship Statute of 1826 nor that of 1828 contained
any special articles defining particularities of sensorial requirements in
Western provinces. In the end of the fifth decade and in the beginning
of the sixth one, instructions given by sensorial authorities on separatistic
national ideas, which were popular in Western provinces, were inspired
by the national movement in the Ukraine and addressed, first of all, to
it. The first general instructions to the whole censorship department on
“Poland’s Independence Idea” or “Polish nationality” were given only in
1861, and stressed the need to prevent these ideas from spreading nation-
wide. Most probably, the concrete sensorial policy in Lithuania was
mainly formed by the local government, i.e. Governors General of Vil-
nius and Curators of Byelorussian (Vilnius) educational districts, some-
times — on the pretext of individual sensorial cases — by the ministers
of education or interior, the priority nevertheless being given to opinion
and decisions of the local government.
Activities of censors of Vilnius were mainly controlled also by the
local government as well as by gendarmes and agents of Corps of
Gendarmes deployed in Lithuania, though the cases initiated by the latter
are not numerous. Central control bodies — Third Department of His
Imperial Majesty’s Own Chancery as well as the Committee of the 2nd
of April — taking care first of all of the Russian press (especially
periodical), and lacking employees who know Polish, and especially
Lithuanian — had the most influence on the overall censorial atmosphere
in the whole empire, which was echoed in Lithuania, as well.
283
Censors to Vilnius Censorship Committee were recruited from
professors and adjunct professors of universities, and after there were left
no universities in Vilnius — from teachers and inspectors of high schools.
Starting from 1850, it was required that these officers were Russians or
at least originating from other than Western provinces. From 1851,
special part-time censors were appointed to censure Lithuanian books and
give opinions of advisory nature. Censors in the society were judged not
by the functions that they performed, but by their personal characteristics
and their attitude towards their work. Lack of clarity in censorial regu-
lations, their discrepant nature and continuous alteration provided room
for biased attitude; therefore, their personalities and views also had a
certain significance for censorial process. Some censors of Vilnius, such
as Kajetonas Pavlovskis, Jonas Vaskevicius, Pavelas Kukolnikas, al-
though they, however disposed towards literature and its authors they
were, were not able to safeguard books and the writers against strict
requirements of the censorship, safeguarded them at least against tyranny
and caprices of censors.
Censorial requirements in Lithuania, like in the whole Russian
Empire, were based on odeology of autocracy, concisely expressed in
Uvarov's three-part formula — Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Nationality, and
intended to enforce a political and social status quo of the Russian
Empire. The task of the censorship was to eliminate all ideas, concep-
tions and valuables which were not in compliance with the truths pro-
claimed by this ideology.
The idea that was most cherished by the censorship was the idea
of autocracy. This means that any negative utterances about the Russian
emperor and his family, Russian ex-leaders (starting from Peter I, inclu-
sive), leaders of allied states, were strictly forbidden. No criticism of
monarchic ruling, no propagation and analysis of as well as information
on non-monarchic political systems, their typical institutions, public struc-
ture was allowed. This regulation also concerned the political system and
public organization of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, especially when
these were considered superior to and were opposed to that of Russian.
Any negative comments on the state of Russia, its order, state institutions
and the Russians themselves were prohibited. Anti-Russian spirits were
especially severely eliminated in Lithuania.
The censorship also forbade any criticism of state institutions of
any level, of their activities and of civil servants (especially in publica-
tions intended for the general public). Criticism, i.e. the very principle of
criticism, was hardly tolerated (even criticism on literature) and was
suppressed, and this, on its turn, formed a non-critical society which thus
became open to any ideology.
The Russian emperor, having concentrated all the power in his own
hands, did not approve of the society participating in the management of
the country. Therefore, censorship strictly prohibited any debates on any
284
political, state, most significant public problems, and restricted any pub-
lic or individual initiative which was not authorized by the government.
Thus, the possibility for society of Lithuania to analyze its own develop-
ment, to try to influence it, was much burdened. Prohibition of public
problematics resulted in the analysis of public problems being shifted to
belles-lettres literature. Few spheres were left open for a more free self-
expression of Lithuanian society, namely art, economic improvements, to
some extent — charity, “harmless” scientific researches, in the essence —
spheres of leisure and economic life, that reminded of a model of life in
a close manor, which was so popular in the Russian province. Finally, in
Lithuania, where the higher portion of the gentry society was raised in
the spirits of civic-mindedness, active involvement in political and public
life of the state, attempts to turn them merely into targets of activities of
state institutions, into passive observers and executors of instructions,
were destructing the traditional model of the society’s stand.
Censorship, being obligated to ensure stability of the current social
structure, restricted publication of works on social problems. It was
categorically forbidden to raise an issue of abolishment of the serfdom,
to criticize serfdom relations, instigate peasants against landowners. Even
when the reform on abolishment of the serfdom was being prepared and
discussions of projects on abolishment of the serfdom were allowed^
they were not supposed to trespass beyond the framework of the state
program.
In Lithuania, despite the doubtful political loyalty of the local
gentry, a requirement of “social peace” was applied. Therefore, it was not
allowed (without any exception, however rare it may be) to discuss and,
what is even more so, to condemn serfdom relations, to state a difficult
position of serfs, to express pity for them, as it was feared that the
actually existing deplorable position of the serfs may obtain a kind of
written approval and “legalization”. Patronage of the social relations of
that time was started to be abandoned only approximately in 1863 on the
initiative of Governor General of Vilnius — Muravjov, when after abol-
ishment of the serfdom, the government gained the possibility to directly,
without any help from landowners, govern peasants’ communities, and
started to escalate the conflict between “Polish landowners” and “Lithua-
nian peasants”. At that time, prohibition of Polish publications propagat-
ing peaceful getting on of the gentry and the peasantry was introduced.
However, even in such a situation, all social motives in “Rastai Lietuvis-
ki” (Lithuanian Writings) by Azukalnis, which were approved to be to
printed in the Russian alphabet, were removed.
Pro-landowner policy of the Russian government in Lithuania much
limited the criticism of the gentry or a part thereof — aristocracy, which
was quite frequent in the Polish literature of Lithuania of the period.
Criticism of aristocracy, the authors of which were mostly small and
medium gentry, was a part of phenomenon already observed in histori-
ography: attempts of the small and medium gentry to assume those
285
functions which in Western European countries, before dawn of the new
times, were performed by petty bourgeois. Thus, prohibition of criticism
(publicistic, first of all) of both aristocracy and gentry in general or even
of other social groups (petty bourgeois) prevented the new social groups,
which were slowly emerging, from understanding themselves, from form-
ing their interests, and this, first of all, would take place by distinguish-
ing oneself from the others, opposing oneself to the others. At the same
time, this demonstrated the attempts of the government to preserve the
feudal structure of the society.
In the sphere of religion, censorship protected all Christian reli-
gions against heresies and distortions, and the clergy — against criticism
and disrespect. Free-thinking and atheism was completely prohibited. It
was only ¿he “leading” Orthodox church that had the right to spread its
beliefs among those who professed other religions. Therefore, publica-
tions of all other Christian religions, which entered into polemics with
the beliefs of other religions and propagated their own religion among
those who followed other beliefs (especially Orthodox), were forbidden.
Instigation of religious discord, that may be traced in manifestations of
religious intolerance and descriptions of people’s riots on religious grounds,
was also prohibited. No critical or unfavorable utterances about Ortho-
doxy, Orthodox Church or Orthodox-believers were allowed.
The period of 1839—1839 was a kind of margin indicating a bit
different and much stricter attitude towards Polish religious literature in
Lithuania. It is in these years that censorship of Polish Catholic prayer-
books was first strengthened by removing not only “patriotic” psalms and
prayers, but also the names of Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of
Lithuania. In 1839, an attitude of the local government towards certain
truths of the Catholic belief was identified, that is — towards those truths
which were recognized as “improper” in Lithuania and as contradicting
the aims of the government in this region. These truths were the follow-
ing: dogma and encouragement of the Pope of Rome — God’s vicegerent
to Earth — to obey the power of the Pope, statement that the Catholic
belief is the only true, real, leading to salvation, as well as the require-
ment to be loyal to this belief. In the middle of the sixth decade, or
maybe even earlier, the very name of the Catholic Church was started to
be deleted from Polish religious publications. Such changes in censorial
policy most probably have formed a part of the measures directed against
the Catholic Church in Lithuania, one of the measures being connection of
the uniates to the Orthodox Church. The Russian government, consider-
ing the Catholic Church as one of its main obstacles in attaining its goals,
employed censorship in order to reduce the influence of this church and
Catholic priests on the secular life of the emperor’s subjects-Catholics, to
soften those dogmatic differences which distinguish the Catholics from
the Orthodox-believers and oppose them one against the other. This
could enable to ensure religious tolerance stated in legislation and to
mitigate hostility towards the Russians and the Orthodox-believers.
286
Censorial requirements, while protecting autocratic political sys-
tem, feudal social structure, patriarchal morality and preventing innova-
tions unauthorized by the government, enforced conservative valuables,
and thus created favorable conditions in Lithuania for manifestation of
traditionalism which had taken strong roots here.
Periodical press, due to its problematics, effectiveness and accessi-
bility, had to meet special requirements. Autocracy treated it only as its
political instrument, otherwise censorial requirements applied to period-
ical publications were very strict and the number of publications was
limited.
In Western provinces, only those periodical publications were al-
lowed which were official and directly controlled by the government,
while Polish private periodical publications were not licensed at all. In
addition, periodic publications intended for people were also prohibited
in the whole empire. Serial publications, which were supposed to replace
periodic press in Lithuania, due to their scarce periodicity and, what is
most important, restrictions as to their contents (no continuos and con-
sistent recording of public life, economy, science and culture, directing
towards historic reviews of previous periods; no continuos criticism on
literature, no polemics, bibliography), could not possibly become a com-
plete instrument of the public self-observation, expression and formation
of the public views. In Western provinces and in Lithuania, specifically,
by prohibiting Polish, Lithuanian or Ukrainian periodic press, process of
national consolidation of these nations was impeded and hindered.
Without local press which would express and represent the inter-
ests of Lithuanian society (except for a short period of existence of
Kurier Wilenski edited by Kirkor), Lithuanian society had nothing else
but either be satisfied with the conservative pro-Russian Tygodnik Pe-
tersburski, or turn to the periodical publications of the Kingdom of
Poland, which would have resulted in higher integration into the cultural,
intellectual, public life of the Kingdom of Poland and adaptation of ideas
coming from there. This way, the Russian government indirectly stimu-
lated integration of the Lithuanian gentry into developing modem Polish
nation, thus into polonisation.
On the other hand, due to prohibition of private periodic press,
Lithuania was deprived of important cultural organizational centers, which
were usually represented by newspaper editorial-houses, as well as of one
of the possible sources of formation of inteligencia. Thus, contribution
was made in preserving the old forms of cultural life, the centers of
which were manors and saloons, as it used to be before.
The focus of attention of Vilnius Censorship Committee was the
concept of Poland or the concept of independent Poland. The most
important central theme — independence of Poland (or a vague hope for
independence), necessity to restore it and invitation to the fight for this
aim — was removed from all publications without any exception. Themes
287
that were prohibited were quite numerous: attempts to prove illegality of
the Russian power, analysis of experience gained in fights for indepen-
dence — rebellions of 1794, 1830—1831, invitation of people of an-
nexed territories to resist the annexers, fights with tyrants, apotheosis of
revenge as the ultimate weapon of the subjugated. Considerations about
the causes of the downfall of the Republic, negative and positive chara-
cteristics of the former state system, especially when this was related to
the tasks of the society of the period and to discussions on its stand with
respect to the Russian power, were also considered as targets of prohi-
bition Dissatisfaction with the existing situation, pessimism, statement of
degradation of public life, not to mention any allusions to non-freedom,
oppression, in other words, any “murmur”, which could indicate a silent
resistance to the Russian power, was unwelcome from the censorship’s
perspective.
Much attention of the censors was directed towards indications of
“the Polish patriotism”. The Russian government considered its aim to
infuse the consciousness of people of the “annexed provinces” with “the
real patriotism”, that is — to make them get accustomed to the idea that
their native country is Russia, and that they are loyal subjects of the
Russian emperor. With the view to implement this aim, censorship had
to help eliminate the main “obstacle” — “false patrioism”, that is — love
and loyalty to the motherland, spiritual motherland, which united the
memory of the former independent Two-Nation Republic and hope for
future independence. Therefore, efforts were put to clear texts of litera-
ture (including religious psalms), which had the greatest impact on read-
er’s emotions, out of the word ojczyzna which denoted spiritual mother-
land, words ziomki and rodak which stressed the spiritual commonness
and at the same time distinction from the Russians, the word narodowy
reminding of the Polish nationality, while religious psalms were cleared
out even of the names of the Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of
Lithuania. It was also tried to eliminate from literature, scientific, reli-
gious, historic texts the whole range of emotions relating an individual
to its motherland, such as love for it, loyalty, sacrifice, care for its future,
fight for its freedom. Attempts were made to eradicate the sense of pride
in one’s motherland, nation, history, sense that stimulates the desire to
belong to the society unified by the concept of Poland. In the essence,
censorship’s task was to prevent Polish civil self-consciousness from
being promoted.
Concept of Poland was based on a historic principle, that is — on
memory of the state which once existed and on hope to restore it.
Therefore, the historic memory occupied a special position in the process
of spreading this concept and thus in censorial policy, as well. The basic
requirement applied to descriptions of different historic events was that
they were not supposed to be an instrument for promotion of “Polish
patriotism”. Historic works were considered inapt and were prohibited as
soon as historic rudiments would start to dominate in them, and as soon
288
as historic events would become a pretext for promotion of civil, military
or moral characteristics of the Lithuanian or Polish gentry, for highlight-
ing positive features of political structure and separate political and social
institutions of the Republic, for glorification of past days. The govern-
ment was not satisfied with such history of Lithuania and Poland —
history which was necessary to the society most, history which preserved
the national self-consciousness and promoted patriotism, history which
provided the enslaved nation with dignity, self-confidence and belief in
its future.
Another very important requirement was that involvement of Rus-
sia in historic events should not be interpreted in such a way which was
unfavorable to Russia, which would insult Russia and the Russian nation
and its dignity; therefore, descriptions of historic events should not contain
any anti-Russian spirits. Image of Russia, its history and policy in the
eyes of the Lithuanian society had to be only positive, ignoring the his-
toric truth. The situation which caused most difficulties in this respect was
the subdivisions of the Republic, where the Russian's stand was far from
that of the righteous one. Therefore, it was tried, as far as possible, to keep
silent about those events and to not remind of them, or, what was consi-
dered the best option — to present their official Russian interpretation.
In the territory of the former Two-Nation Republic, especially in
the ethnic Polish territory, and among the Great emigration in the middle
of the XIX century, modern national ideology was actively developed.
This ideology, putting a special emphasis on the linguistic unity (as well
as religious and that of customs, traditions and history), took over certain
elements of self-political consciousness of the Polish nation, and what is
most important — the concept of restoring an independent Poland. In this
respect, this ideology, especially strongly expressed in publications pub-
lished abroad, was dangerous to the Russian power, therefore it was
prohibited by the censorship. A radical, though ambivalent, barrier to the
spreading of this ideology was supposed to take form of prohibition of
publishing Polish publications in Lithuania which was implemented by
Muravjov and Kaufman. This measure was in force only till 1869.
However, even afterwards the prohibition to print periodic publications
and textbooks in the Polish language, like, by the way, still applicable
strict censorship of Polish publications, forced the Lithuanian gentry fall
into the arms of press printed in the Kingdom (of the censored one as
well), but managed to at least partially isolate the Lithuanian peasantry
from the influence of this ideology.
In the Russian censorial policy, a principle of social classes was
applied, which resulted in additional requirements for publications in-
tended for the people. These requirements were especially clearly formu-
lated only in the beginning of the sixth decade, having taken account of
the experiences of “The Spring of Nations” and after social aspects were
strengthened in the internal policy of Russia. Their essence was to pub-
19. 817
289
lish only those publications intended for the people which were designed
for elementary teaching, religious practices, economic education, as well
as examples of folk art. Periodic publications were completely prohibited
for the people. This ban was canceled only in 1862. Publications inten-
ded for people were subjected to especially strict censorship, particularly
with regard to respect for the Emperor, for belief and church as well as
for civil servants, “social peace” and decency.
Before 1851, censorship of Lithuania books was rather casual and
was mainly relied upon opinion of spiritual censors. From 1851, Lithua-
nian books, which were usually treated as people’s books, were started
to be very closely and captiously censured not only against general
requirements applicable to this category of books, but also taking account
of peculiarities of censorial policy in Lithuania.
Lithuanian books, like any other publications intended for people,
were unconditionally cleared by the censorship out of any unfavorable
hints about the emperor or his ruling, any allusions to political oppres-
sion, condemnation of extremities of absolute power, criticism of civil
servants and their actions. A complete political loyalty to Russia and
goodwill towards Russians was insisted upon. It was prohibited to speak
about abolishment of the serfdom in the books intended for people.
Moreover, fragments containing a clearly social moment — from social
protest to social pessimism — and fitted into the formula “instigation of
social classes”, were being eliminated. Censorship was watching to it that
the written language did not stimulate the tension between the social
classes which was already existing. General censorial regulations also
covered moral requirements applied to Lithuanian publications, though
these requirements were not that significant due to prevalence of books
of religious contents: in most cases, requirements of moral truths pro-
claimed by the Catholic Church and “patriarchal moral” coincided. Only
in rare cases, censors had to “bridle” a somewhat rough folk humor or
unrefined moral evaluations found in secular works.
However, when censuring Lithuanian books, specific requirements
resulting from political goals of Russia in North West territories were
applied. These requirements were mostly concerned with religious and
historic texts. This corresponded to the two basic factors which threa-
tened the government most, namely — influence of the Catholic Church
and political aspirations of the gentry.
One of these specific requirements was to ensure that the idea of
self-dependence of the state based on independent existence of the former
state did not spread in the masses. In this respect, especially unwelcome
was a consistent, persuasive narration of the free and prosperous Grand
Duchy of Lithuania and the Two-Nation Republic for the fear that such
a narration would contribute to the formation of historic consciousness of
the peasantry. Therefore, the censorship, which in the essence did not
prohibit to report historic facts (except for some of them), prohibited to
give such interpretations of these facts which were not in compliance
290
with the official Russian historiography. The censorship’s task was to
provide for some space in the consciousness of the peasantry for propa-
ganda of the Russian Grand Duchy of Lithuania which, owing to its
civilization of the Russian type, would form a “legal” part of Russia,
Another block of censorial prohibitions was related to the Catholic
Church, Catholic belief and Catholic Lithuanian publications which formed
a major part of Lithuanian books in the period from 1851 to 1865.
Interest in Catholic Lithuanian publications was most probably attribut-
able to the influence of the Catholic Church on spiritual life of the
people. However, the Catholic Church in Lithuania was a contra-force to
the Russian power. Thus, one of the directions of censorial requirements
was derogation of the influence of the Catholic Church on the peasantry.
Therefore, it was prohibited to indicate in the books the principle of
domination of spiritual power over secular one. In this respect, especially
undesirable was the dogma of the Pope of Rome — head of the Catholic
Church — which has predetermined a kind of diarchy: Pope of Rome
(head of other than one’s native state) — in the spiritual sphere, Emperor
of Russia — in the secular sphere. In the political sense, such a situation
was not acceptable to autocracy, and attempts were made not to allow
this dogma and the Pope himself to be mentioned in Catholic publica-
tions. Censorial measures were employed in order to hinder the formation
of religious fraternities (especially the Sobriety Fraternity) with a unified
organizational structure which could strengthen the influence of the Ca-
tholic Church and its real power over masses. At the same time, there
were no restrictions as to dissemination of literature propagating or
intended for fraternities operating under individual churches. The so-
called “Catholic fanaticism”, referring to contempt or even hatred disse-
minated by Catholic books and directed towards people of other Chris-
tian beliefs such as Orthodox-believers and Protestants as well as Jews
and Moslems, did not comply with the religious tolerance declared in
Russian legislation, and if speaking impartially, threatened the existence
and harmony of the Russian Empire as a multi-national and multi-confes-
sional state. Censorship of Lithuanian books was not tolerant of either
intolerance of other Christian beliefs and their representatives or its
source — dogma about the Catholic Church as the only true and real
Church and about the Catholic belief as the only one leading to salvation.
On the other hand, such a religious opposition to the Orthodox-believers
inspired a hostility towards Russians which was so unacceptable to the
government. It, by the way, was also stimulated by images of prosecution
of the Catholic Church which, in the eyes of the peasantry of that period,
were closely related to the actions taken by the Russian power. This
hostility must have been also supported by the cult of Catholic Saints
which some time ago fought against Orthodox-believers and^Orthodoxy,
such as Kazimieras, Jozafatas, Stanislovas. At the time, when religious
consciousness performed the functions of both political and public con-
sciousness of the peasantry, such a religious hostility towards Orthodox
Russian equaled to political hostility. Therefore, elimination of catholic
291
19*
hostility towards other beliefs (Christian) from Lithuanian writings meant
attempts to ensure political loyalty of Lithuanians. Censorship also tried
to eliminate dogmas and particularities that differentiated the Catholicism
from other Christian beliefs. This way, it was striven to reduce religious
differences (first of all, in the sphere of dogmas) between Orthodox-
believers and Catholics, and to relax the religious tension existing be-
tween people of different beliefs. On the other hand, this circumstance
could have contributed to dissemination of Orthodoxy and conversion of
Lithuanians into the Orthodox belief, since essential differences between
the two religious in the mind of the peasantry could have vanished
during many years. Taking into account the fact that Catholicism in the
national self-consciousness of the Polish bore much significance, such
elimination of religious intolerance of other beliefs (Orthodox, in partic-
ular) as well as derogation of dogmatic differences of the Catholic belief
and of the very Catholicism formed a part of the process of elimination
of the very Polish character and concept of Poland. Moreover, the people
having retained religious self-consciousness more than the ethnic one in
the middle of the XIX century, emphasis of the Catholicism, insisting on
preservation of the catholic belief, was as important factor retaining the
sense of isolation of Lithuanians from Russians-Orthodox-believers and
the sense of unity with the gentry of the same religion. Thus, eradication
of the Catholicism must have had crucial consequences in the process of
growing of national consciousness of Lithuanian peasants.
Censorial policy enforced in Lithuania had to “adapt” the society
of Lithuania to the political and social structure of Russia, to clear the
way for valuables propagated by the official Russian ideology. Censor-
ship, trying to eliminate any political, national, religious and historic
ideas, which supported the sense of unity between Lithuanian and “Po-
lish societies” and that of isolation from the Russian society, from the
communication process of the public, was striving to ensure a successful
and irrecoverable integration of Lithuania into the Russian Empire. |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Medišauskienė, Zita 1959- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)131564048 |
| author_facet | Medišauskienė, Zita 1959- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Medišauskienė, Zita 1959- |
| author_variant | z m zm |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV039632186 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)45819348 (DE-599)BVBBV039632186 |
| era | Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1795-1918 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1795-1918 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Lithuania / History / 1795-1918 Russland Litauen (DE-588)4074266-0 gnd Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Lithuania / History / 1795-1918 Russland Litauen |
| id | DE-604.BV039632186 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2025-01-07T13:11:48Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9986501288 |
| language | Lithuanian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-024482281 |
| oclc_num | 45819348 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 301 S. Ill. 20 cm |
| publishDate | 1998 |
| publishDateSearch | 1998 |
| publishDateSort | 1998 |
| publisher | Vytauto Didžiojo Universitetas |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Medišauskienė, Zita 1959- Verfasser (DE-588)131564048 aut Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje Zita Medišauskienė Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje devyniolikto amžiaus viduryje Kaunas Vytauto Didžiojo Universitetas 1998 301 S. Ill. 20 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T: Russian censorship in Lithuania in the middle of the XIX century Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1795-1918 gnd rswk-swf Censorship / Lithuania Language policy / Russia / 19th century Russification / Lithuania Geschichte Zensur (DE-588)4067601-8 gnd rswk-swf Lithuania / History / 1795-1918 Russland Litauen (DE-588)4074266-0 gnd rswk-swf Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd rswk-swf Litauen (DE-588)4074266-0 g Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 g Zensur (DE-588)4067601-8 s Geschichte 1795-1918 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024482281&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024482281&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Medišauskienė, Zita 1959- Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje Censorship / Lithuania Language policy / Russia / 19th century Russification / Lithuania Geschichte Zensur (DE-588)4067601-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4067601-8 (DE-588)4074266-0 (DE-588)4076899-5 |
| title | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje |
| title_alt | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje devyniolikto amžiaus viduryje |
| title_auth | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje |
| title_exact_search | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje |
| title_full | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje Zita Medišauskienė |
| title_fullStr | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje Zita Medišauskienė |
| title_full_unstemmed | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje Zita Medišauskienė |
| title_short | Rusijos cenzūra Lietuvoje XIX a. viduryje |
| title_sort | rusijos cenzura lietuvoje xix a viduryje |
| topic | Censorship / Lithuania Language policy / Russia / 19th century Russification / Lithuania Geschichte Zensur (DE-588)4067601-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Censorship / Lithuania Language policy / Russia / 19th century Russification / Lithuania Geschichte Zensur Lithuania / History / 1795-1918 Russland Litauen |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024482281&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024482281&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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