Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat: czasy kultury łużyckiej
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| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Polish |
| Published: |
Warszawa
Wydawn. "Trio"
2009
|
| Edition: | Wyd. 1. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Poland three thousand years ago Includes bibliographical references and index |
| Physical Description: | 333 p. Ill., Kt. 25 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788374362139 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Dąbrowski, Jan |d 1934-2023 |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)140246886 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat |b czasy kultury łużyckiej |c Jan Dąbrowski |
| 250 | |a Wyd. 1. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Warszawa |b Wydawn. "Trio" |c 2009 | |
| 300 | |a 333 p. |b Ill., Kt. |c 25 cm | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
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| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Poland three thousand years ago | ||
| 500 | |a Includes bibliographical references and index | ||
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte 1900 v. Chr.-400 v. Chr. |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Lausitz culture / Poland | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Excavations (Archaeology) / Poland | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Funde | |
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| adam_text | Summary
Poland three thousand years ago:
the
Lusatian
Culture and its times
The idea for this book grew from a series of lectures given by the author over
the years. Its goal is to present a branch of the Urnfields Cultures which
occupied the territory of Poland from the early Period III of the Bronze Age
until the end of Halstatt
D
(about
1300
to
400
ВС)
(table
1).
The study is divided
into three parts. The first concerns key concepts and methods applied in the
study of archaeological sources, the research background and a discussion of
archaeological cultures with the strongest impact on our territories. The second
part is strictly a study of sources, providing brief characteristics of the
Lusatian
Culture and cultures immediately preceding it. The third and last part presents
the people and various aspects of their life
-
economy, beliefs and other. The
purpose of such an arrangement is to give readers an idea of how the presented
conclusions were reached and on what grounds. Naturally, the view given here
is the effect of my own studies carried out over more than fifty years of research.
At the end of the book, readers will find an appendix containing brief
characteristics of
19
sites and groups of sites (map
18).
It gives an idea of the
appearance and the nature of the information provided by different kinds of
sites like cemeteries, settlements, hoards and cult centers.
Among the concepts discussed in chapter one, archaeological culture takes
precedence. The term is understood as an assemblage of different material
characteristics present conjointly in a given time and area (fig.
1).
These cha¬
racteristics need not be limited to just one assemblage. The concept is by no
means identical with an ethnic definition or a specific form of social organiza¬
tion. Also discussed is the difference between absolute chronology, which
applies objective measures of time, and relative chronology. The latter measures
time by human activity, constaicting systems based on manmade artifacts. By
archaeological source I understand all traces of human activity, left intentionally
as well as unintentionally. They are thus the object of study by many different
disciplines of science, augmenting the work of the archaeologist. Key to an
understanding of archaeological sources is determining individual function,
cultural attribution and dating. With this in mind I discuss dating methods like
typological analysis, isotope C dating and dendrochronology. Experimental
312
SUMMARY
archaeology constitutes a useful tool in learning about the function and manner
of usage of an artifact. Research must also include a reconstruction of the natural
environment, which is accomplished in cooperation with geologists and pa-
lynologists. Anthropological studies contribute data on individual burials, but
also in support of broader paleodemographic analyses. There are many other
kinds of examinations and analyses which bring significant information for the
archaeologist. In the end effect, however, the archaeologist s goal is not
a collection of analyses but a coherent picture that can be formed on the basis
of the results of such analyses. Research into human motives and actions is the
domain of the humanities. It is the archaeologist s responsibility to take into
consideration the effects of such studies in creating his reconstructions.
The next chapter presents the history of research on
Lusatian
Culture, how
it was distinguished and how the various local groups of this culture were
identified. The continuous discussion of the issues involved serves to illustrate
the complexity of the subject. The first exploration of a cemetery of the
Lusatian
Culture took place in Poland in I4l6. It was then that King Ladislaus
Jagiełło
ordered that it be seen whether pots really grow in the ground. In the 19th
century, whilst Poland was under occupation, Polish scientific research was
limited and even banned. Once the country regained independence in
1918,
scientific institutions in Poland had to be developed from the basics. Of
fundamental importance for studies on
Lusatian
Culture was the discovery of
Biskupin.
The ethnic sources of this culture remained a moot point. In
1945,
after the end of World War II, everything had to be started again virtually from
nothing. Rapidly growing ranks of researchers aided in the development of local
research centers. Field surveys for the Polish Archaeological Record increased
significantly the source base. Many studies of Polish material, as well as of the
links with other territories, were written and published.
Chapter
3
contains brief descriptions of cultures from outside Polish territory
which had the greatest impact on what was happening in our region. In times
immediately preceding the existence of the
Lusatian
Culture, Baltic amber used
to reach as far as the Mediterranean basin thanks to the
Otomani
Culture. Other
culture groups presented in this chapter include the Tumulus Cultures, the
Trzciniec-Komarov-Sosnica Cultures and the Nordic Circle. A discussion of the
origins of the Urnfields Cultures touches on the question of the raiding Sea
Peoples and thus places us within the sphere of Mediterranean events. Of the
Urnfields Cultures, the
Piliny
and
Gava
Cultures have been treated in more
detail. The Nordic Circle has also been taken into consideration, especially the
impact that the Urnfields Cultures had on its transformation. A characteristic of
the Halstatt sites and Halstatt Culture brings out the question of the amber trade.
The chapter closes with some general information on the Scythians, including
the results of research at
Ryžanovka.
The author takes the opportunity in this
chapter to digress briefly on two issues of importance for understanding past
events. Firstly, it should be kept in mind that one culture can take over the
SUMMARY
313
achievements of another culture only if it does not differ much from it in its
development. Secondly, there should be no separation into sacrum and pro-
fanum with regard to these times. Thus, all human actions of the time were
not only basically rational, but also irrational, if considered from our modern
point of view.
Part II brings a brief characteristic of the cultures inhabiting the territory of
Poland. Chapter
4
is devoted to earlier cultures (map
8).
The West Poland
Tumulus Culture, earlier known as the Pre-Lusatian Culture, existed in Silesia
and part of Great Poland. It is known mostly from the exploration of barrows
characterized mainly by an inhumation funeral rite. Products of metallurgical
centers are widespread in this culture;
82
percent of the metal objects are
ornaments. This proves the importance of flint and stone tools, which have
been shown by experimental archaeology to be no worse than those of bronze.
Most of the territory of Poland was occupied by the Trzciniec Culture. Its
settlements are greatly varied, beside the big and long-term ones, there are also
short-lived seasonal ones. Traces of plowing can sometimes be seen under the
barrows (fig.
29).
In contrast to the West Poland Tumulus Culture, these graves
were furnished abundantly with pottery and seldom with metal objects. Crema¬
tion burials were frequent. Husbandry is believed to have dominated over
agriculture. It is only recently that evidence of the
Otomani
Culture has been
discovered in southern Poland. The stronghold in Trzcinica is a key site of this
culture. Analyses have shown that more than
80
percent of bronze artifacts in
Polish lands contain copper from the territory of this culture. Its strong impact
is explained by the participation of this culture in the amber trade along the
Vistula. In
Pomerania
there is a culture that appears to be heavily influenced
by the Nordic Circle.
Chapter
5
bears the title The shortest characteristic of
Lusatian
Culture and
contains only basic information about the sources. A more detailed discussion
of the issue appears in Part III and in the Appendix. To describe the fourteen
groups of
Lusatian
Culture occurring in the five periods (map
9)
would have
burdened the presentation excessively without aiding in sketching a general
picture of the development of this culture.
The emergence of
Lusatian
Culture in Poland was not a uniform process
and its formation lasted around
300
years. The cremation funerary rite became
common in the territories of the West Poland Tumulus Culture, but graves of
the
Kietrz
type, which are a continuation of earlier forms of burial and in which
burned bones were scattered inside wooden coffins, occurred as well (fig.
35).
The metallurgical centers continued operations and bossed pottery became
popular. The population group using this kind of pottery moved into the vicinity
of
Kraków.
The transitional phase from Trzciniec Culture is better investigated.
It is characterized by pottery featuring both
Lusatian
and Trzciniec cultural traits
(fig.
36),
clearly differentiated regionally. The cremation rite gradually penetrated
into
Pomerania
along with
Lusatian
bronze objects and pottery. Two groups of
314
summary
Lusatian
Culture emerged here at the end of Period III of the Bronze Age.
Populations of this culture streamed into northeastern Poland from neighboring
territories at the beginning of Period IV of the Bronze Age.
Many local groups of
Lusatian
Culture have been distinguished (map
9),
differentiated mostly by the pottery (fig.
41).
Stability resulted in big settlements
and big cemeteries. Strongholds did not appear in Poland before Period V of
the Bronze Age, but even the open settlements had to be protected somehow
against wild animals, especially in winter. More can be found on the settlements
in chapter
7.
The biggest excavated cemetery holds
4000
graves
(Kietrz).
Both
urn and pit graves occur here, while barrows are encountered mostly in northern
Poland (fig.
43).
The grave inventory changes with pottery becoming the major
component. At the close of the Bronze Age, biritual cemeteries appeared over
a small area. The pottery assemblage seldom includes vessels that are charac¬
teristic of a single local group. The pottery also reveals the influence of
neighboring cultures (fig.
113).
Bronze metallurgy demonstrates strong Nordic
influences in
Pomerania
and southeastern ones in eastern Little Poland (map
10).
A large number of hoards are known from Period V of the Bronze Age in
Pomerania,
as are also products of the Nordic baroque style, distinctly reflecting
phenomena taking place in the Nordic Circle. Cimmerian impact was weak.
Flint mining was still operational.
Halstatt influence is concentrated in the basin of the Oder River. At the close
of the Bronze Age, iron inserts put in an appearance and objects of poor quality
iron are recorded starting from Halstatt C. In the next period they became
commonplace throughout Poland. Local products were manufactured of im¬
ported blocks of the raw material (fig.
91).
Imported fibulae and luxury objects
are found next to tools and weapons. Glass beads are common. Painted pottery
appears in Silesia and part of Great Poland (pi.
11).
Halstatt impact on beliefs
is signaled by the appearance of tombs with wooden burial chambers (fig.
54).
The cult center on
Ślęża
is discussed in chapter
10.
The role of horseback
warriors clearly grows.
Numerous objects of Scythian origin occur in the assemblages with personal
ornaments being predominant in the east of Poland and weapons in the west.
These were imports and local imitations, but there is also evidence of Scythian
raids (map
12)
in the 6th century
ВС.
Various sites were destroyed or attacked
with characteristic Scythian arms. The hoard from Witaszkowo (fig.
55)
was
found near the stronghold in Wicina overcome by the Scythians; it was surely
booty taken off a vanquished Scythian chief.
The Halstatt Period witnessed a flourishing of
Lusatian
Culture. Strongholds
appeared in some parts of Poland and
Biskupin
is naturally the most famous
of these (fig.
70).
Few strongholds are similar to this one and of the others the
early ones are distinct, reaching
30
ha in area. Cult features are rare in the
strongholds (fig.
103).
Traces of such a structure have recently been discovered
also in an open settlement. The latter are more frequent than strongholds. House
SUMMARY
315
urns can be found over a small area from the end of the Bronze Age (fig.
58).
Artifacts of bronze are still common and widespread beside iron objects (map
17).
Investigations at
Biskupin
and Sobiejuchy have yielded numerous macrore-
mains of cultivated plants and collected edible and medicinal plants, as well as
numerous animal and fish bones (chapter
8).
It is at this time that the climate
changed, as discussed in chapter
7.
Territory occupied by the
Lusatian
Culture shrank gradually (map
11).
Two
post-Lusatian Cultures emerged, the Pomeranian and the Cloche Grave Culture.
Both originated from the
Lusatian,
differing practically only in grave form and
funerary ceramics (fig.
59)·
In northeastern Poland, there appeared the West
Bait Barrows Culture featuring many
Lusatian
elements. A few sites in western
Pomerania
represent early phases of the Jastorf Culture, while a small area in
the east was occupied by the
Milograd
Culture. Still later, the
La Tene
Culture
appeared in Poland.
Part III brings information about everyday life, beginning with a character¬
istic of people inhabiting Polish lands at the time. Anthropological examination
of burned bones, pioneered in Poland more than
80
years ago, has yielded
many thousands of determinations and it is only the representativeness of the
data that is at issue here. Ethnographic and statistic data for some regions of
Europe in the 19th century indicate a child mortality rate of
50
percent. The
data for
Lusatian
Culture are not as high (table
3).
This is due to the procedure
of adding the estimated number of children to the number determined. The
statistical average life span (e 0) was about
25
years at the time and individuals
twenty years old had a statistical chance of living another
16.7
years (table
4).
The mortality rate of young women was much higher than that of men. Apart
from poor life conditions, malnutrition, natural catastrophes and wars, the cause
of death was in many cases the female devil s circle . Sexual maturity is known
to precede physical maturity in man. A short average life span coupled with
high infant and child mortality rates led to early marriages for girls as the only
means of ensuring group reproduction. Early pregnancies weakened both
mothers and children, resulting in higher mortality rates. Male height is estimated
between
157
and
174
cm, female between
145
and
156
cm. Bones reveal proof
of numerous ailments suffered in life: dental cavities, osteoporosis, rheumatism,
vitamin deficiency and rickets. Remains of about
20
medicinal plants have been
identified. Traces of successfully completed difficult operations, like skull trepa¬
nation and setting of the clavicle, have been recorded.
In agricultural societies, the group which is economically capable of survival
needs to exceed in number
30
individuals. Genetic conditioning is important.
To avoid the ill effects of marriages between the closest kin, the group of
individuals capable of reproduction should be more than
300,
actually twice
that. Estimates of the number of inhabitants in settlements indicates a continuous
need for marital interchange among many populations. The smallest group is
the family which consisted of two generations and numbered
4-5
individuals
316
SUMMARY
(table
3).
There are different ways of estimating group size making use of
a cemetery and in our case it is usually determined at about
120
people.
Estimates of the overall population of Poland around
1200
ВС
set the number
between
252 000
and
306 000
people, and
800
years later between
309 000
and
374 000,
counting all of the different cultures existing at the time.
Chapter
7
discusses settlement issues. The concept is ill defined, the most
lapidary definition indicating the three most important aspects perhaps originat¬
ing from the Book of Genesis (I,
28):
occupation, settlement and development
of the land. Settlement processes are a factor of Man s interaction with the
natural environment. The Subboreal climate which shaped the environment in
the Bronze Age was a continental climate. Summers were warmer and slightly
drier than today, winters more chilly. The
Lusatian
Culture flourished in a late,
warm and dry phase of the Subboreal. A mixed and deciduous forest prevailed
with pinewoods growing on the worse soils. Forest clearance represented the
predominant human intervention, leading to greater soil erosion. The Sub-At¬
lantic climate gradually took over starting in the 8th century
ВС;
overall it
brought cooler and more humid weather with gentler winters. Palynological
diagrams indicate a drop in the share of deciduous trees in favor of pine and
birch, and an increase in herbaceous plants. The water table rose significantly,
creating favorable conditions for the emergence of peat bogs
(Biskupin).
Buildings were erected on the ground or sunk into it.
Biskupin
has provided
the best evidence (fig.
65).
Huts contained hearths and rarely an oven. They
were built in timber framework or mortice-and-tenon techniques (fig.
66).
The
Biskupin
houses covered up to
89
m2, but there was no space for any domestic
structures in the settlement. Other houses usually fall between
10
and
25
m2.
Ovens were either sunk into the ground or domed. Settlements feature many
pits of mostly unknown purpose. Food storage is one possibility. Some could
have been used for smoking or tar-making. Others may have been intended
for pickling plants or softening bone and horn. Wells were timbered in a variety
of ways.
Remains of farmsteads, sometimes fenced, have been recorded in the settle¬
ments (fig.
68).
Traces of simple defensive features have also been noted in the
open settlements. These settlements and the strongholds were situated in
naturally defensive places. The settlements occasionally attained a considerable
size, occupying more than
3-5
ha. Seasonal settlements existed as well, occupied
solely for the purpose of producing salt. Sometimes they were organized around
a central common space (fig.
69).
Strongholds differed substantially in size and
layout. Much of the area could be left open (fig.
71).
The fortifications included
ramparts, mostly constructed in the timber framework technique (fig.
72),
reinforced with a variety of palisades, ditches and other features.
It is commonly assumed that the settlement microregion consists of three
zones (fig.
73).
The first is the exploitation zone within a radius of
5
km from
the settlement and it contains fields, meadows, the cemeteiy and most of the
SUMMARY
317
seasonal settlements. Its size is determined by the need to protect the fields
from wild animals and by limitations on transport. Second is the penetration
zone made up mostly of forests and meadows, and seasonal pasturing camps.
Finally there is the third, security zone, restricting access to the settlement. It
disappears with more intensive settlement in a given region. Estimates of the
size of these zones run from
20
to
250
km2. Groups of settlements forming
macroregions are noted in the archaeological record (map
15
and table
6).
The
smallest of these seem to cover about
200
km2, the biggest more than
2000
km2.
These macroregions presumably reflect some sort of social units.
Chapter
8
is dedicated to a presentation of ways of procuring food. The
Bronze Age witnessed an uniformization of agriculture in Europe, including tools
(fig.
76),
traction plowing, winter crops and fallowing of the fields. Crops
included wheat, barley, oats and rye. Seeds of weeds occurring together with
grain indicates harvesting just above the ground. The biggest increment in
consumption mass per unit of ground surface was assured by turnips and peas,
as well as horsebeans, starting from the Halstatt. Poppy and flax were also
cultivated. Papilionaceous plants were gardened using hoes of horn. Fields were
prepared by forest burning. They were planted until complete impoverishment
of the soil, but a fallowing system was also in use. Without fertilization, the soil
became barren quickly. The cultivated area could not have been big; experi¬
mental archaeology demonstrates
200
hours of work needed to harvest grain
from one hectare. Ards of two kinds are known from
Biskupin (fig.
77, 78).
They do not turn the soil, but make grooves for sowing seeds, set
20-30
cm
apart. Under such conditions the harvests could not have been excessive.
The bones of domesticated animals from the settlements make up more
than
90
percent of the osteological material. Cattle is the most common (table
7).
The animals were small and did not give milk the year round. Changes in bone
appearance indicate yoking. Second in number are goat/sheep or pig. Horses
were used for riding, harnessing and as beast of burden; horse meat was also
consumed. Dogs were usually big. The hen makes an appearance in the Halstatt.
Gathering sufficient fodder for the winter was a significant and insurmountable
problem.
Gathering edible plants, fruit, mushrooms and nuts naturally supplemented
the diet. Analyses of the stomach content of the few well preserved corpses
confirm this view. One should mention goosefoot, knotgrass, son-el and many
others. Hunting was common, for meat but also for fur (otter, beaver, ermine).
Hooks, net sinkers and tools for their tying have been preserved. Fishing was
extensive and included catches of catfish weighing around a hundred kilograms.
Honey was taken not only from beehives in logs or trees; the wooden body
of a manmade beehive was found in Berlin-Lichterfelde. Salt was obtained
by evaporation in the Kujawia region, in northern Great Poland and around
Kraków (fig.
83).
It was undoubtedly a coveted item and one that was difficult
to obtain.
318
SUMMARY
The data as a whole, as well as the list of ailments, points to chronic
malnutrition. Agriculture was ineffective and each year of crop failure, drought
or animal plague resulted in hunger. Lack of food was coupled by the lack of
necessary ingredients in sufficient quantities. All estimates lead to the conclusion
that ensuring the proper amount of food was extremely difficult in those times.
Chapter
9
concentrates on various crafts, obviously being more informed
where the sources are less prone to destruction. Unfortunately, these are often
of lesser importance overall. The economy was practically self-sufficient at the
time and all the tools essential in a household were produced at home of
commonly available materials. There also existed a specialized production
intended for sale, the origins of which lay in a neighborly barter of services.
Wholesale trade exchange was needed in case of bronze which could not be
produced for lack of raw materials. These systems were interrelated (fig.
99).
Metallurgy is the first great economic process necessitating comprehensive
changes in production and distribution. Bronze is the first artificial raw material
in the history of mankind. The best quality alloys contain from
7
to
13
percent
of tin.
Antimon-,
arsen-
and lead- bronzes are all known from Polish territory
(lead may have been exploited in Silesia). Melting damaged items naturally led
to the mixing of various alloys. Molds are a frequent find (map
16).
Both the
lost-wax technique and casting in permanent molds of stone, clay or bronze
were employed. A primitive molding mass was used. Hoards, graves of
metalworkers (fig.
121)
and sets of moulds from settlements demonstrate con¬
siderable limitations of the range of items one metallurgist could produce.
Poor-quality iron is present starting with Halstatt C, first as products, then as
raw material processed on the spot. Meteorite iron has also been recorded. In
the territory of the
Lusatian
Culture, gold was mined in the Czech lands, reaching
Poland in the form of ornaments. Bars of gold from the
Eberswalde
hoard
suggest that the metal could have been worked not only directly at the mines.
Vessels were made of clay tempered with stone grit, the mean size and
quantity of the temper determined by the size and intended function of the pot.
Only some of the painted pottery and the casting moulds were made without
the temper. Objects were made of parts put together (rattles, figurines),
hand-formed from a lump of clay or constructed of rolls applied to a hand-
formed bottom (fig.
93)·
These rolls were flattened after constructing the pot
shape or else ready-flattened rolls were applied. Vessel surfaces were smooth-
ened, producing a characteristic burnished effect when a hard tool was used.
Much of the pottery was rusticated with a variety of techniques. The pots were
then decorated in different ways. In the Halstatt Period in some territories an
engraved ornament was filled with a white mass produced from clay and
powdered burned bones or shell. Pottery was painted with white, red, brown
and yellow paint. Some pots were given a black color by firing in a reduced
atmosphere. After drying in the air vessels were fired in temperatures from
6(X) C
to
HOí/ C,
which can be attained in an open fire. Itie pots were porous by
SUMMARY
319
nature and had to be sealed tight by blacking, coating with resin or greasing
by cooking fat in them.
Worked wood is known chiefly from
Biskupin.
Some objects are deceptively
like present-day ethnographic items (fig.
95).
The layout of the settlement in
Biskupin
and the construction of fortifications on marshy ground are palpable
proof of the skills of their builders (fig.
70, 128).
Flint continued to be mined in various places through the end of the Bronze
Age. Simple flint tools are present in most households beside the specialized
products like sickles and arrowheads. Ancient tools of the kind were used
indiscriminately as well. Stone was used to make querns and axes, as well as
for casting moulds.
Tools were also made of the bones of wild animals considered as more
durable. Bones were selected to match the shape of the required tool. In the
same way, the natural shape of a horn was taken advantage of in the
manufacture of hoes (fig.
97).
Bone and horn had to be softened first in milk
or sorrel; evidence of this can be found in the settlement. Of note is a Pan-pipes
musical instrument composed of nine bone pipes (fig.
120).
Settlements have yielded finds of spindle-whorls and loom weights which
are proof of the use of vertical warp-weighted looms (fig.
98).
Two kinds of
weave have been identified in the impressions of textiles found on ceramics.
Felt-making was also known.
The existence of various economic systems must have necessitated different
forms of trade. Neighborly barter was the easiest form. A form of exchange
must have existed between producers (e.g. metalworkers) and recipients.
Successive exchange called for goods being exchanged between particular
recipients who at the same time served as intermediaries. Finally, there was the
long-distance trade on a bigger scale. Barter is considered one of the principal
motors of progress. Goods are carried by people, who also share their
knowledge of other places, ideas and techniques. Direct contact was the sole
source of learning at the time. Imports from as far away as Egypt and Italy are
also found. People living on the trade routes used to keep new products, getting
rid of older and less fashionable ones by trading them further out. One theory
argues in favor of Komorowo being a trading center on the amber route. Amber
took on importance again as an object of trade in the Halstatt Period, once
a new consumer market had appeared. It is not evident what else could have
been an equivalent for the traded metal, but furs, salt, wax and honey are
a good bet.
The route on the Oder River was of the greatest importance. Metal objects
were traded down it to Polish territories and beyond. The ships sailing on the
Baltic at the time (fig.
100)
could cover the distance from
Koszalin
to
Bornholm
in nine hours. Road surfaces were timbered and finds of wheels and drawings
on vessels (fig.
94, 112)
attest to the use of four-wheeled vehicles. A wooden
chest (fig.
136)
is evidence for the use of pack animals.
320
SUMMARY
Chapter
10
discusses customs, religions and art forms, combining the topics
in one in keeping with the digression presented in chapter
3,
which demon¬
strates the impossibility of determining from our perspective which forms of art
reflected religious beliefs and which were purely aesthetic in nature. Certain
ornamental motifs like bird images are evidently imbued with a pan-European
cultic significance. Even so, not all motifs on imported products need have had
the same meaning for faraway recipients as they did for their makers. Moreover,
some motifs may have lost their initial cultic significance over time.
Cemeteries were established next to settlements (fig.
75)
or at some distance
from them. Occasionally a settlement could have had two cemeteries connected
with it. Cemeteries existing over long periods of time demonstrate respect for
the ancestors. The cremation funeral rite was adopted evolutionally with ashes
being scattered sometimes over the length of a body. Ashes were deposited in
urns, pits or containers made of organic materials (fig.
131).
Judging by the
weight of the burned bones, attention was paid to collecting all of the remains.
Grave goods included pottery, occasionally in big numbers, and rarely metal
objects. The latter become more common in graves of the Halstatt Period.
Artifacts placed in graves frequently carry symbolic meaning
-
they include
fragmented objects of metal and amorphous pieces of flint. Curiosities, like fossils
and pins from earlier periods, obviously found out of context (fig.
138),
were
also placed inside the graves. The stone structures lining graves could be
replaced by symbolic ones, like pieces of clay vessels placed around a grave.
This suggests the sacral character of the grave, not the cemetery as such, but
it seems not to have prevented grave plundering
-
at Przeczyce
30
percent of
the inhumation burials had been robbed. Collective graves are also known and
these are relatively often burials of women and children. Animal graves are
rarer, but human burials often contain parts of animal skeletons, mostly legs
and heads. This brings to mind the myth of Prometheus, who deceived Zeus
when selecting meat offerings. People of the
Lusatian
Culture may have also
consumed the better cuts of meat, explaining the practice in mythical terms.
Unique forms of burial are found not only in the cemeteries. Cultic pits are
of particular interest here (fig.
103);
they contain cremation burials, skeletons,
or human bones and skulls along with animal bones. In one settlement,
skeletons of an adult with truncated legs and two children were found. Burials
of single skulls are not infrequent and at
Słupca
a skull was discovered with
traces of the brain having been removed. Other traces of cannibalism, presum¬
ably of ritual character, have also been recorded. Various objects, including small
standing vessels, are found on the ground between graves. Examinations of the
content (fig.
104)
have indicated the presence of food inside such pots. Such
vessels can occur in concentrated groups, recalling known hoards of pottery.
Separate cult places appear in the Halstatt Period. On
Ślęża,
low stone
ramparts were raised around large areas on the top of the mountain (fig.
106).
Stone figures, believed to be of Celtic origin and marked with an X sign, were
SUMMARY
321
found there. The same mark was observed, among others, on a stone from
the coat of a grave barrow attributed to the
Lusatian
Culture. Therefore, some
of these figures may be evidence of the late influence of Halstatt Cultures.
One should recall the cultic pits and the ornamented clay hearths believed to
be of cultic significance in some of the settlements. Stones were also wor¬
shipped, occasionally with small hollows being pecked in them. Making
offerings in water is relatively common, although the importance of this rite can
be overrated.
Both the pottery and the bronzes attributed to
Lusatian
Culture are richly
decorated. People liked to ornament their bodies as well (fig.
60).
The existence
of wooden statues should be presumed. Painted pottery is proof of a consid¬
erable effort being made to achieve a nice effect. Narrative scenes on vessels
had a cultic significance; for us they are important in that they provide visual
information about everyday life (fig. Ill,
112).
Musical instruments testify to
a passion for art.
We have no idea of the religious beliefs of the populations inhabiting Polish
territories at the time, but the widespread occurrence of the Urnfields Cultures
suggests agreement with a European-wide model. The solar cult is common
among agriculturalists, connected as it is with fertility rites, as well as other,
older cults. This cult is attested to especially by the cult vehicles connected with
images of the sun s journey. Certain indications of a lunar cult have also been
recorded. It should be assumed that cult rites took place mainly in the family
sphere. Temples and separate cult places are a late and rare invention. The
process of personifying divinities is believed to have been completed by this
time. It is also possible to read from the record evidence for the existence of
priests or shamans (fig.
120).
The last chapter is devoted to society as such at the time. Social evolution
has to be understood as a multi-linear process rather than a unidirectional one.
Differences always exist, being the effect of the different reactions particular
population groups have to a change of their circumstances (of the environment,
for example). Thus, archaeological sources need to be considered in conjunction
with facts from the fields of sociology, ethnology and history. Only then can
an interpretation be put forward.
Family is the most important unit of social organization. It is a basic unit of
group reproduction and social education of its members, being at the same time
an economic and social organism. The weaker the development of social and
political institutions, the bigger the role of the family. Agricultural societies are
commonly patriarchal in nature, but this phenomenon is poorly reflected in
cemetery finds. Certain features, however, point to a patrilineal and patrilocal
society. In the
Lusatian
Culture children are finally accorded the right to
individual burial according to standard funerary rites. It is thought that wider
contacts resulting from the metal trade led to less rigorous
ailes
for inclusion
in a given group. Children naturally benefited from this.
322
SUMMARY
A higher form of organization is the stock from which the inhabitants of
a single settlement may have come. It is difficult to be certain whether groups
of sites (microregions) are actually some sort of tribal counterpart (map
15).
Meriting note in this context is the sociological theory of small social groups
( we-groups ). These are groups of people who remain in continuous contact
with one another and who are aware of their distinctness and thus isolate
themselves from others. Constant control by the group is not conducive to
developing legal restrictions. This characteristic of community life matches very
well the situation encountered in data available on the
Lusatian
Culture.
Manifestations of social differentiation are very weak: there are no separately
standing, richly furnished houses and little, if any, differentiation of grave
inventories. Moreover, the grave goods follow set, if unknown, guidelines. Some
features point to the gradual emergence of the function of priest-shaman
(fig.
120)
and metalworker (fig.
121).
A qualified specialist was needed to
produce something like the spoked wheel. Specialist of this kind must have
drawn on his skills at least in part for his means of subsistence. The age of
professions is thus ushered in. Professional traders are unlikely in favor of
foreigners trading goods they had brought with them, because local production
output precludes exchange on a large scale. Weapons must have been a staple
at this time, the differences lying not so much in quality as in splendor (fig.
125, 126).
Therefore, a weak differentiation of society in the Bronze Age is to
be assumed.
The presentation in this book is hardly complete, the gaps being due to
missing sources and methods not sufficiently precise for the study of existing
ones. But the picture that emerges from it is of a poor society, fighting to ensure
the basic means of subsistence. It was traditional by character, slow to adopt
novelties, but from the beginning firmly established in the overall European
rhythm of development and this ensured its survival.
С
Spis
tresei
Wstęp
7
Część
I.
WIADOMOŚCI OGÓLNE
11
Rozdział
1.
Podstawowe pojęcia, źródła i metody
13
ід.
Podstawowe pojęcia
13
1.2.
Źródła i ich uzyskiwanie
21
1.3.
Analiza źródeł
25
Rozdział
2.
Dzieje poznawania kultury łużyckiej
37
2.1.
Określanie kultury łużyckiej
37
2.2.
Historia polskich badań kultury łużyckiej
41
Rozdział
3.
Europejskie tło procesów kulturowych
48
3.1.
Co było wcześniej?
48
3.2.
Czasy pól popielnicowych
61
3.3.
Hallstatt i
halsztat
69
3.4.
Nadchodzą Scytowie
77
Część
П.
OBLICZE KULTUROWE NASZYCH ZIEM
83
Rozdział
4.
Bezpośredni poprzednicy
85
4.1.
Zachodniopolska kultura mogiłowa (ok.
1600-1300
przed
Chr.) 87
4.2.
Kultura trzciniecka (ok.
1900-1370
przed
Chr.) 91
4.3.
Przybysze z południa, czyli kultura
Otomani
97
4.4.
Skąpe wiadomości o Pomorzu
99
Rozdział
5·
Kultura łużycka
-
najkrótsza charakterystyka
(ok.
1300-400
przed
Chr.) 101
5.1.
Same początki
101
5.2.
Czasy niezakłóconego rozwoju (od środkowej do późnej epoki brązu)
109
5.3.
Inspiracje halsztackie
122
5.4.
Scytowie już u bram
126
ss.
Rozkwit i kres
130
s.d.
Potomkowie, czyli kultury postłużyckie
135
Część
Ш.
ŻYCIE ÓWCZESNYCH SPOŁECZNOŚCI
139
Rozdział
6.
Twórcy kultury łużyckiej, czyli problemy paleodemografii
141
d.i.
Człowiek
141
6.2.
Ludzie
148
Rozdział
7.
Osadnictwo, czyli jak mieszkali
154
7.1.
Warunki naturalne
155
7.2.
Jak były zabudowane osiedla?
157
7.3.
Osiedla wszelkiego rodzaju i rozmiaai
162
.•i. Struktury osadnicze, czyli ich małe ojczyzny
168
Rozdział
8.
Gospodarka: zdobywanie pożywienia
176
8.J. Uprawa roli
176
8.2.
Hodowla zwierząt
180
8.3.
Zbieractwo i łowiectwo
183
8.4.
Warzenie soli
185
8.5.
Wnioski, czyli jak się odżywiali
186
Rozdział
9.
Gospodarka: wytwórczość i wymiana
189
9.1.
Nieco uwag ogólnych
189
9.2.
Metalurgia
191
9.3.
Garncarstwo
198
9.4.
Wytwory drewniane
202
9.5.
Krzemień i kamień
204
9.5.
Obróbka kości i rogu
206
9.7.
Tkactwo
207
9.8.
Wymiana i transport
208
Rozdział
10.
Sfera ducha: obrzędy, sztuka, religia
215
юл.
Rytuał i obrzędy
215
10.2.
Miejsca kultu, czyli gdzie odbywały się obrzędy
222
юз.
Sztuka
225
10.4.
Religia
232
Rozdział
11.
Społeczeństwo
237
ili.
Uwagi ogólne
237
11.2.
Od rodziny do plemienia, czyli grupy społeczne
239
из.
Zróżnicowanie społeczne
243
11.4.
Próba podsumowania
253
Zakończenie
257
Aneks. Ważne stanowiska lub ich zespoły
-
krótkie informacje
2бЗ
Bibliografia
293
Summary
311
Indeks osób
323
Indeks nazw geograficznych
327
Spis tabel
335
Spis map
336
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Dąbrowski, Jan 1934-2023 |
| author_GND | (DE-588)140246886 |
| author_facet | Dąbrowski, Jan 1934-2023 |
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| author_sort | Dąbrowski, Jan 1934-2023 |
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| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV036807009 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)706018934 (DE-599)BVBBV036807009 |
| edition | Wyd. 1. |
| era | Geschichte gnd Geschichte 1900 v. Chr.-400 v. Chr. gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte Geschichte 1900 v. Chr.-400 v. Chr. |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Poland / Antiquities Polen Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Poland / Antiquities Polen |
| id | DE-604.BV036807009 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T22:48:40Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788374362139 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-020723078 |
| oclc_num | 706018934 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 333 p. Ill., Kt. 25 cm |
| publishDate | 2009 |
| publishDateSearch | 2009 |
| publishDateSort | 2009 |
| publisher | Wydawn. "Trio" |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Dąbrowski, Jan 1934-2023 Verfasser (DE-588)140246886 aut Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej Jan Dąbrowski Wyd. 1. Warszawa Wydawn. "Trio" 2009 333 p. Ill., Kt. 25 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Poland three thousand years ago Includes bibliographical references and index Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Geschichte 1900 v. Chr.-400 v. Chr. gnd rswk-swf Lausitz culture / Poland Excavations (Archaeology) / Poland Funde Lausitzer Kultur (DE-588)4166930-7 gnd rswk-swf Poland / Antiquities Polen Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd rswk-swf Lausitzer Kultur (DE-588)4166930-7 s Geschichte z DE-604 Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 g Geschichte 1900 v. Chr.-400 v. Chr. z Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020723078&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020723078&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Dąbrowski, Jan 1934-2023 Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej Lausitz culture / Poland Excavations (Archaeology) / Poland Funde Lausitzer Kultur (DE-588)4166930-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4166930-7 (DE-588)4046496-9 |
| title | Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej |
| title_auth | Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej |
| title_exact_search | Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej |
| title_full | Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej Jan Dąbrowski |
| title_fullStr | Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej Jan Dąbrowski |
| title_full_unstemmed | Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat czasy kultury łużyckiej Jan Dąbrowski |
| title_short | Polska przed trzema tysiącami lat |
| title_sort | polska przed trzema tysiacami lat czasy kultury luzyckiej |
| title_sub | czasy kultury łużyckiej |
| topic | Lausitz culture / Poland Excavations (Archaeology) / Poland Funde Lausitzer Kultur (DE-588)4166930-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Lausitz culture / Poland Excavations (Archaeology) / Poland Funde Lausitzer Kultur Poland / Antiquities Polen |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020723078&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020723078&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT dabrowskijan polskaprzedtrzematysiacamilatczasykulturyłuzyckiej |