Critical thinking: an appeal to reason
Saved in:
| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New York [u.a.]
Routledge
2011
|
| Edition: | 1. publ. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XIV, 442 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9780415997133 9780415997140 |
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MARC
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Record in the Search Index
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|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
Acknowledgments for Reasoning Test Questions
xiv
1
Critical Thinking
1
1.1
What is critical thinking?
4
1.2
What is critical thinking not?
6
1.3
Why is critical thinking important?
8
1.4
Why do we typically not think critically? (why do we need a
course in critical thinking?)
12
1.5
Template for critical analysis of arguments
16
Review of terms
18
Thinking critically about what you see
18
Thinking critically about what you hear
18
Thinking critkaHy about what you read
19
Thinking critically about what you write
19
Thinking critically when you discuss
19
Reasoning test questions
19
2
The Nature of Argument
21
2.1
The nature of argument
23
2.2
Recognizing an argument
23
2.3
Identifying implied conclusions and unstated premises
(assumptions)
33
2.4
Circular
arguments (an error in reasoning)
43
GONTENTS
2.5
Counterarguments
46
2.6
Identifying the issue of contention
49
2.7
The burden of proof
53
2.8
The appeal to ignorance (an error in reasoning)
55
2.9
Facts and opinions
56
2.10
Deductive and inductive argument
61
Review of terms
66
Thinking critically about what you see
67
Thinking critically about what you hear
67
Thinking critically about what you read
67
Thinking critically about what you write
72
Thinking critically when you discuss
73
Reasoning test questions
78
3
The Structure of Argument
81
3.1
The structure of argument
83
3.2
Convergent, single
83
3.3
Convergent, multiple-separate
85
3.4
Convergent, multiple-linked
88
3.5
Divergent
90
3.6
Multi-structured arguments
93
Review of terms
101
Thinking critically about what you see
101
Thinking critically about what you hear
102
Thinking critically about what you read
102
Thinking critically about what you write
Ю7
Thinking cr rtkalJy when you discuss
107
Reasoning test questions
107
4
Relevance
108
4.1
Relevance
110
4.2
Errors of relevance: considering the source of the argument
instead of the argument itself
113
4.2.
1 Appeal to the person
(ad hominem}
113
4.2.2
Genetic fallacy
120
4.3
Errors of relevance: appealing to an inappropriate standard
124
VI
CONTENTS
4.3.1 Appeal
to inappropriate authority
124
4.3.2
Appeal to tradition or past practice
127
4.3.3
Appeal to custom, habit, or common practice
130
4.3.4
Appeal to moderation (or lack of)
132
4.3.5
Appeal to popularity (or lack of
j
136
4.3.6
Two wrongs
140
4.4
Errors of relevance: going off-topic
143
4.4.2
Paper tiger (also called the straw man fallacy)
143
4.4.2
Red herring
146
4.4.3
Non sequitur
148
4.4.4
Appeal to emotion
150
Review of terms
155
Thinking critically about what you see
155
Thinking critically about what you hear
156
Thinking critically about what you read
156
Thinking criticaHy about what you write
і
63
Thinking critically when you discuss
164
Reasoning test questions
165
5
Language
168
5.1
Clarity
170
5.1
J
Precise diction
170
5.1.2
Precise grammar
174
5.1.3
Repetition
177
5.1.4
Detail
179
5.1.5
Beware of manipulation
182
5.2
Neutrality
183
5.2
Л
Loaded language
183
5.2.2
Visual effects
188
5.2.3
Aural effects
193
5.2.4
Other effects
195
5.3
Definition
196
5.3.1
Genus and species
197
5.3.2
Necessary and sufficient conditions
199
5.3.3
Inclusiveness and exclusiueness
200
5.3.4
Equivocation (an error in reasoning)
204
¥11
CONTENTS
Review
of terms
208
Thinking critically about what you see
208
Thinking critically about what you hear
209
Thinking critically about what you read
209
Thinking critically about what you write
213
Thinking critically when you discuss
214
Reasoning test questions
215
Truth and Acceptability
216
6.1
Truth and acceptability
219
6.1.1
Truth
219
6.1.2
Acceptability
220
6.2
How do we define truth? (theories of truth)
226
6.2.2
Subjectivism
226
6.2.2
The coherence theory
227
6.2.3
The correspondence theory
228
6.2.4
Pragmatism
229
63
How do we discover truth?
229
6.3.1
Innate ideas and/or experience and/or reason?
229
6.3.2
Random personal experience
231
6.3.3
Methodical investigation: the scientific process
234
6.4
How do we evaluate claims of truth?
241
6.4.1
Evaluating personal testimony
242
6.4.2
Evaluating studies (surveys, experiments, numbers)
244
6.4.3
Evaluating sources
261
6.4.4
Evaluating images
265
6.5
Errors of truth
267
6.5.1
The either/or fallacy
270
6.5.2
The fallacy of composition
271
6.5.3
The fallacy of division
272
6.5.4
The gambler s fallacy
273
Review of terms
277
Thinking critically about what you see
278
Thinking critically about what you hear
278
VIII
CONTENTS
Thinking critically about what you read
278
Thinking critically about what you write
282
Thinking critically when you discuss
282
Reasoning test questions
282
7
Generalization, Analogy, and General Principle
283
7.1
Sufficiency
285
7.2
Generalization
287
7.2.1
Over generalization (an error)
291
7.2.2
Insufficient sample (an error)
293
7.2.3
Unrepresentative sample (an error)
295
7.3
Analogy
296
7.3.1
Weak or false analogy (an error)
300
7.4
General principle
303
7.4.1
Misapplied general principle (an error)
306
Review of terms
310
Thinking critically about what you see
311
Thinking critically about what you hear
311
Thinking critically about what you read
311
Thinking critically about what you write
317
Thinking critically when you discuss
318
Reasoning test questions
319
8
Inductive Argument: Causal Reasoning
322
8.1
Causation
325
8.1.1
Correlation and causation
327
8.1.2
Cause, time, and space
328
8.1.3
Direct and indirect causes
328
8Л
A Necessary and sufficient causes
330
8.1.5
Mill s methods
331
8.2
Explanations
335
8.2.1
Alternative explanations
335
8.2.2
Good explanations
337
IX
CONTENTS
8.3
Predictions, plans, and policies
345
8.4
Errors in causal reasoning
349
8.4.1
Mistaking correlation for causation
349
8.4.2
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
350
8.4.3
Failing to consider a common cause
352
8.4.4
Failing to consider additional causes
353
8.4.5
Reversing cause and effect
354
8.4.6
Failing to consider a reciprocal causal relation
356
8.4.7
Slippery slope
357
Review of terms
361
Thinking critically about what you see
362
Thinking critically about what you hear
363
Thinking critically about what you read
363
Thinking critically about what you write
366
Thinking critically when you discuss
366
Reasoning test questions
366
Appendix
1
Extended Arguments for Analysis
369
1.
The new know-nothingism: five myths about immigration,
by David Cole
370
2.
Rap and hip-hop s negative impact on society,
by Joshua Smith
372
3.
In defense of negative campaigning, by
William G.
Mayer
375
4.
Television and violent crime, by Brandon S.
Centerwall 378
5.
A crime by any other name, by Jeffrey H. Reiman and
Paul Leighton
379
6.
Does society have the right to force pregnant drug addicts to
abort their fetuses?, by George Schedler
381
7.
Condoms: the new diploma, by Rush Limbaugh
384
8.
It s OK to vote for
Obama
because he s black,
by Gary Kamiya
388
9.
The argument for an obligation to assist, by Peter Singer
391
10.
All the reasons to clone human beings, by Simon Smith
396
11.
Why people watch reality TV, by Steven Weiss and
James Wiltz
400
12.
If a tree fails
...,
letters by John Palmer and Eugene Tan,
and The economics of extinction, by Kent A. Peacock
402
13.
House of Representatives debate on the Personal Responsibility
in Food Consumption Act
407
CONTENTS
14.
Who is Peter Singer and why should you care about him?,
by Daniel G. Jennings
414
15.
Twitter nation has arrived, by Alexander Zaitchik
419
16.
Put on your bras, shave your armpits and quit your bitching,
Maddox (www.thebestpageintheuniverse.net)
424
Appendix
2
Errors of Reasoning
427
Glossary
433
Index
440
Xi
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