Problema orientală: 1856 - 1923
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| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Romanian |
| Published: |
Iaşi
Ed. Junimea
2009
|
| Series: | Bibliotheca historiae universalis
12 |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Paralleltitel: The Eastern question (1856 - 1923) |
| Physical Description: | 259 S. |
| ISBN: | 9789733713487 |
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| 500 | |a Paralleltitel: The Eastern question (1856 - 1923) | ||
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Record in the Search Index
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|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
Introduction
............................................................................. 7
I. Implications of the Crimean War on the juridical status of the
Romanian Principalities, as part of the Eastern Question
(1853-1856).......................................................................... 43
II. The issue of the Straits between the Congress of Paris
(1856)
and
the Congress of Berlin
(1878)................................................... 66
III. Statu-quo
(1878-1911)............................................................ 110
IV. On the eve of and during the great world conflagration
(1911-1918).
Convention of Straits from Lausanne
(24
July
1923)................ 132
V. Summary
................................................................................... 157
Appendiches
.......................................................................... 177
Abstract
................................................................................... 237
Index
..................................................................................... 251
Cuprins
Introducere
............................................................................. 7
I.
Implicaţii ale Războiului Crimeii asupra statutului juridic al
Principatelor Române, ca parte integrantă a problemei
orientale
(1853-1856) ........................................................... 43
II.
Problema Strâmtorilor, între Congresul de pace de la Paris
(1856)
şi Congresul de la Berlin
(1878) ............................... 66
III. Statu-quo
(1878-1911)............................................................ 110
IV.
în ajunul şi în timpul Marii Conflagraţii Mondiale
(1911-1918).
Convenţia Strâmtorilor de la
Lausanne (24
iulie
1923)........ 132
V.
Recapitulare
............................................................................. 157
Anexe
..................................................................................... 177
Rezumat
................................................................................. 237
Indice
..................................................................................... 251
Abstract
Introduction
A new approach on the evolution of the Eastern Question, with
the emphasis on one of its essential components, the Straits
problem, which concerned, for a long time, and continues to
concern universal historiography, which produced a vast and varied
literature, has justified the important place they have held since the
XVIII*
century, the dynamics of international relations.
If the history at the evolution of the Eastern Question, and
consequently, of the problem of Straits, ended in XVIIIth century by
a „misalliance between Russia and Turkey, on
23
December
1798
/3
January
1799,
faced in fact against French troops who unload to
Egypt, under the command of Gen. Napoleon Bonaparte, at
1
July
1798,
her beginning next century has been put under the same
zodiac phenomenon. Of the three Russian-Turkish alliance, which
marked the route of Eastern Question in the first four decades of the
nineteenth century more precisely that of
21
March
1800,
aimed to
establish the legal status of the Republic Ionian Islands, the
Russian-Turkish Treaty of
11/23
September
1805,
only the Unkiar-
Iskelessi Treaty of
8
July
1833,
had the strongest impact on two of
the essential components of Eastern Question, namely to maintain or
not the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire in Europe and the
legal regime of Straits
Bosfor
and Dardanelles which is, in question,
the issues on which insisted to approach in historiography.
A methodological clarification, which I considered it abso¬
lutely necessary is that we intend to develop a stand-alone
monograph of the Eastern Question and its multiple connections
with the most important events that have unfolded in that time
which I refer to in this work, as it were, for example, First World
238____________________
PROBLEMA
ORIENTALĂ
(1856-1923)________________________
War, but only to follow the methods used to analyze two essential
components of Eastern Question, already mentioned, in the
European diplomacy, especially in the most important international
legal acts, elaborated after the Congress of Peace from Paris in
1856,
until the one from Lausanne of
1923.
It is undertaking that in
this
historiographie
approach we intended to show some of the
issues we could surprise, studying the sources of information that I
had access, the evolution of the eastern problem and, subsequently,
of the problem of Straits, in the time period between two major
military events, namely the Crimean War, whose results marked as
well we know, the political configuration of Eastern Europe, and
then to the global, such as the First World War. So, I tried to follow
the manner in which faded the Eastern Question as European
problem, in which, as I already mentioned, the legal status of Straits
was considered the head poster .
Therefore, establishing and respecting the legal status of Straits
by all powers, inspite of the power they had in the European
political system, has been a major concern of the European
diplomacy since the first half of the
XIX
century. Since it was
assumed that a European power, in particular, would have awarded
solely on Straits control, then that power would have acquired even
the control of Constantinople and, consequently, would have the
control of the whole territory of the Ottoman Empire, situation that
it would have caused a dramatic disorder in the European political
system which could be have brought predictable consequences,
primarily for Europe.
That s the reason the universal historiography fried to solve the
mechanisms that have governed the evolution of the legal status of
Straits, including for the timeline that we proposed to browse in the
pages of this monograph. There was a vast literature, as numerous,
as number of works and very diversified in terms of interpreting the
sources of documentation used in the latter case, depending on the
objectives of each of the authors who approached, incidentally, and
particularly the issue of legal regime of Straits. Therefore, I find
absolutely important at least a brief overview of the problem in
historiography, in order to highlight, as much as possible, the level
ABSTRACT
239
of research in this area. Naturally we grouped works into two
categories-general works and special works. Obviously, we cannot
affirm that this works are the most representative there, surely
many others exist, but we haven t had access to them. However, we
believe that the works analyzed and those that have not been at
issue in this framework, but we ve used in the process of drafting a
paper to which I added information collected documentation of a
series of collections of documents published in the country or
abroad, but that we have not found work by the authors mentioned
that I used and documents from the archives of English and
Swedish, are sufficient to constitute the basis on which to rely a
conclusion of an inquiry that we have developed a problem in the
Eastern Question history, that representing the research tag .
I have to mention that the idea of a new approach of the
Eastern Question and, consequently, of that of the Straits, in the
chronological framed in this research is realized by the few docu¬
ments that I have attached to this work as Appendices. Whether in
tenns
of documents retrieved from the Swedish archives quality is
certainly original, we don t have the same certainty regarding the
English archives. Objections are required by the fact that they are in
the form of drafts, their final form may be found in other funds
archive, investigated, possibly, by other researchers that they could
use it in various works. We don t know, however, if they have been
published in full in a collection of documents. It s also the reason
why we included in the Appendices, we hope to surprise some
aspects of the issues that I approached in these pages, whose
knowledge is necessary for widening the investigation horizon of
the Straits problem in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Adding to these we reproduced, the text of the Sevres Treaty, as
well as the text of Convention of Lausanne. Much more helpsful for
to the investigator of the problem would have been to study the full
texts of these important documents, not only the authors comments
that I made refered, which can eventually
transpase
into their own
vision; naturally from the point of view of the political and military
developments that have generated all have been emphasized in
contents
ofthat
chapter.
240____________________
PROBLEMA
ORIENTALĂ (î
856-1923)________________________
I. Implications of the Crimean War on the juridical status
of the Romanian Principalities, as part of the Eastern
Question
(1853-1856)
One of the essential aspects of the oriental crisis, triggered at
the start of the second half of the nineteenth century, is the legal
status of the Romanian Principalities. Therefore, the tzar Nicholas I,
starting from wrong assumption on the conditions already created
by the dissipation of the Ottoman Empire, tried to adjust it
according to the objectives of the problem in eastern Russia.
Accordingly, he imagined a script under which Russia would take
in charge Constantinople and, of course the Straits. As a result, it
would become possible the changing of the political landscape in
the Lower Danube, by removing the Turkish jurisdiction of
Moldavia, Walachia and Serbia and to transform them into
independent countries, conditioned under Russian protection.
The accomplished of such a program, meant in fact the
dissipation of the Ottoman Empire, which have lost, to Russia, the
most important strategic points from Europe. Analyzing the major
implications on the configuration offerees in the European political
system which could involve the tzar projects were rejected by
England, France, and Austria, although the latter, was considered
by Nicholas I as a partner in his planned dissipation of the Ottoman
Empire, because the government in Vienna had different objectives
regarding the Eastern Question. This resulted from the need for a
sustained economic expansion meant to ensure the conditions for
the development of its political influence. However, on the
direction of economic expansion, and political, of the Austrian s
were the Romanian Principalities, that s why their legal status has
been a permanent concern of Austrian diplomats. Therefore, the
previous period the Crimean War triggered there were tensions in
the Austro-Russian Balkan s relations.
Meanwhile, Russia has tried to convince the Ottoman Empire
to concede to protect on its Christians, subjects the right, as well as,
to control the political situation in the Romanian Principalities. This
requests clearly could have engaged the start of the Eastern
Question, triggering by a Russian-Turkish war, due to possible
ABSTRACT
241
military occupation of the Principalities by Russia, prospect that
was not approved by none of Austria, France or England. However,
the troops of the tzar have occupied the Principalities between
4
and
25
July
1853.
So, started as a diplomatic war between France and England,
on one hand and Russia on the other hand, highlighted once more
the importance of the legal status of the Romanian Principalities in
the context of Eastern Question. Soon after, took place the war
between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, breaked out by the
Ottoman Empire at
4/16
October
1853,
known as the Crimean War,
in which were trained France and England, as belligerent parties,
while Austria conducted only diplomatic actions.
Therefore, the Russian occupation was installed in the
Romanian Principalities, which the light of measures taken by the
Russian authorities, tend to rum into an annexation to the Russian
Empire. The concerns of England and France, have increased, they
could not tolerate the increasing of the Russian power. As a result,
on
12
March
1854,
France and England have concluded a treaty of
alliance with the Ottoman Empire, and on March
28
the same year,
England declared war to Russia. The next step was the signing of
the Protocol Conference in Vienna on April
9 1854,
which
confirmed the state of war between western powers and Russia, due
to its refusal to evacuate the Romanian Principalities.
In turn, Austria and Prussia stipulated in the second article of
the Convention Austro-Prussiene, of
20
April
1854,
that the
Russian occupation of the two Principalities constituted a threat to
the political, moral and material interests of the German Confe¬
deration.
Until the spring of
1854,
the Russo-Turkish war was conducted
on the Romanian Principalities territory and animated the hopes of
the Romanians politicians to defeat Russia, essential to changing
the legal status of the Principalities and achieving on this grounds
of reforms vital for the prosperity of the Romanian people. The
Romanians attempts to achieve that goal through a partnership with
the Ottoman Empire, have failed. Among the causes was the
opposition of Austria, whose troops were already in the Romanian
Principalities.
242____________________
PROBLEMA
ORIENTALĂ
(1856-1923)________________________
The implications of the Crimean War on their legal status were
discussed in the European diplomacy, conducted against the
background of developments in military events, which maintained
in attention the Romanian question, now a European problem. One
of this regarded the review of the legal status of the Principalities,
by removing Russian protectorate and replacing it with a guarantee
collective of the European great powers. Also at the Peace
Conference in Vienna, whose works were held in March
1855,
at
the initiative of French diplomacy, the proposal of the Principalities
union, under a hereditaiy prince Romanian or foreign, but
maintaining the suzerainty of Ottoman Empire on them.
The idea of Unification Principalities was not, neither approved
nor rejected, explicitly at the Conference of Vienna, which valued a
true recognition of the validity of this principle. The Romanian
problem, as part of the Eastern Question, was reinstated in to the
discussion during the Congress of Peace in Paris which has opened
the work in February
1856,
and ending on the
30
March the same
year. Discussing, in particular, the issue of confirming once again
that the legal status of the Romanian Principalities constituted an
important aspect of the Eastern Question. But if the Congress of
Paris which ended the Crimean War, has not solved the Romanian
problem in turn, has created the conditions which have facilitated the
achievement of their Union, a few years later, on
24
January
1859.
II. The issue of the Straits between the Congress of Paris
(1856)
and the Congress of Berlin
(1878)
The complication of the Eastern Question as a result of the
advance of Russia in the Black Sea led to the tension between her
and United Kingdom. This process took on the whole nineteenth
century because of the possibility that British interests in India have
been hindered by Russia. How by the end of this century, the two
imperial powers had no direct contacts and no territorial conflicts,
the rivalry between them was consumed at the point where
expansion and Russia s military power was considered more
dangerous, namely the area of Straits, because here both powers
had interests in the Ottoman Empire domination. In addition,
ABSTRACT
243
Bosfor
and Dardanelles were access routes to the major shipping
and trade lines exchange of both countries. Due to this fact within-
nineteenth centuiy were made in Russia ambitious plans aiming at
awarding domination of the whole area of straits, including
Constantinople or only
Bosfor.
The fear of a confrontation with a
major European coalition, led Russian political circles to seek a
peaceful settlement about the legal regime of Straits. It was
considered a commitment which had to provided for Russia free
passage through the Straits of its ships of war while they were
closed for similar shipping vessels of other powers, like as United
Kingdom. If it could achieve such a goal, Russia would have been
first protected from any danger of being attacked in the Black Sea of
British naval force, and on the other, would have created the possibi¬
lity that any Russian fleet that stand in the Black Sea could undertake
to foray in the Mediterranean, with the purpose to create difficulties
in the security lines of British communication with India.
And just ensuring that security was the main concern of the
United Kingdom. That s way they searched for a compromise
solution to avoid any military complication that resulted in the
closure Straits updating of all vessels of war, in time of peace,
principle stipulated by the Convention of the Straits signed at
London on
13
July
1841,
and the international act that consecrated
the principle was the Convention of the Straits which was an
integral part of the general peace treaty signed in Paris on
30
March
1856.
To take any opportunity of Russia to circumvent the stipu¬
lation of the convention the winning powers of the Crimeea War
required to neutralize the Black Sea, covered by Article XI of the
treaty of peace, forbidden to maintain such a navy in the Black Sea,
prohibition stipulated in Russian-Turkish agreement which enshrine
the neutralization of the Black Sea, and also attached to the Treaty
of Peace.
During the nineteenth centuiy European great powers were
concerned about the possibility of the collapse of the Ottoman
Empire, due to the great disputes that would be trained to produce
the power vacuum in the Middle East. Therefore the general
opinion was convinced that the Ottoman Empire had to continue its
244____________________
PROBLEMA
ORIENTALĂ
(18S6-1923)
________________________
existence despite the straggles which disrupted inside. As the
United Kingdom, Austria and France have concluded on
15
April
1856
an agreement to guarantee the independence and territorial
integrity of the Ottoman Empire, regarding being Russia, which
expansionary policy had stopped. An act which has never been
implemented, reason why it was considered that there was already a
dead letter, from the beginning it was conceived.
However after
1856
Russia has focused diplomatic efforts to
determine both the repeal of this convention and that of the
neutralization of the Black Sea. Which she succeeded after better a
decade and a half. Taking advantage of a favorable international
conjuncture resulted in starting the Franco-Prussian war on
19
July
1870
and especially the categorical defeat suffered by the French at
Sedan
1-2
September the same year he unilaterally denounced the
two international acts. And one of the detemiining factors who
rushed the starting of the Russian diplomatic offensive regarding
the cancellation neutralization of the Black Sea was the unification
of the Romanian Principalities in
1859.
The cancellation of jure of
the convention regarding the neutralization of the Black Sea was
established by the Convention of the Straits concluded in London on
March
13 1871,
which reaffirmed the principle of closing the Straits
in times of peace to all shipping vessels of war. The Sultan was still
able to open them in time of peace and war to the military vessels
of the allied powers and friends if it was necessary to ensure to
fulfill the stipulation of the peace treaty signed at Paris since
1856.
The stipulation of the Strait convention concluded in London
on
13
March
1871
remained in force, in theory at least, until the
Convention of Straits signed at Lausanne on
24
July
1923.
The changes in the European political system after the year
1871
had influenced the attitude of the great powers regarding the
Eastern Question, in generally, and than of the Straits, in parti¬
cularly, aspect analyzed in detail in this chapter.
The break-out of the major oriental crises in
1875
in which a very
important moment was the start of Russo-Turkish war on
24
April
1877
would mark a new stage in the evolution of the eastern
question and as a consequence of the Straits too. The peace treaty
ABSTRACT
245
imposed on Turkey by Russia at
San Stefano
on
3
March
1878
caused a strong reaction from the European powers that it felt like
being in flagrant contradiction with all existing international acts
regarding the political configuration of he Eastern Europe.
Therefore, Russia was determined to accept the revision of the
treaty, operation that was done during the Congress of Berlin in the
summer of
1878.
The issue of the Straits held in the actual debates of the
congress shortly because it had been discussed in advance by the
Russian Government with the British one. The
LXIII
article
provided the confirmation of the related clauses of the general
peace treaty of
30
March
1856
and the London Convention of
13
March
1871.
Instead the Congress of Berlin stressed the fact that
there has been a significant change in the proportion of forces on
the continent, centered on the rising of a new power, namely
Germany. Also appreciated in the literature that the Eastern
Question has changed in the sense that the principle of territorial
integrity of the Ottoman Empire, one of its essential components
has become a polite fiction . As Turkey, the Balkan states have
become a counterweight to the great balance of forces on the
continent.
III. Statu-quo
(1878-1911)
The last decades of the
XIX
century and the first decade of the
following experienced deep changes in the European political
system. Germany rising to the rank of great power and worsening
contradictions between the interests of big powers on the continent
and outside have led to the formation of two major military blocs
and political rival who had to dominate international relations by
theendofWorldWarl.
Released again on the European stage Germany was faced with
the need to create a system of political and militaiy alliance that
would offer the opportunity to promote its foreign policy. This
explains, therefore, the conclusion of bilateral treaties, as with the
Austro-Hungary, in October
1878,
or the neutrality of the Austro-
Hungary-Russian-German, of
18
June
1881
which renewed the so-
246____________________
PROBLEMA
ORIENTALĂ
( 1856-1923)________________________
called League of the Three Emperors or Dreikeiserbund formed in
1873.
As the previous alliance and this was a pact of neutrality in
case one of the signatory powers had been attacked by a fourth.
From the topic addressed in these pages noteworthy the second
article of the contracting parties in which they recognize the
European significance of the principle of closure the Straits
Bosfor
and Dardanelles and the need for Turkey to not allow any exception
to this rale.
The patronage of German alliance has been enlarged by the
formation in
1882,
on
20
may of the Triple Alliance of which
belonged Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy against France and
Russia, alliance which was renewed in February
1887.
The fall of the Dreikeiserbund which Bismarck failed to renew
it in June
1887
and the conflicts for Bulgaria and Egypt have
promote a diplomatic revolution resulted in the Franco-Russian
alliance since
1894.
The most remarkable phenomenon which has been set down at
the beginning of the twentieth century, based on the disintegration
of the Ottoman Empire and on the policy of force promoted by
Germany, was the polarization of political forces on the continent
after forming the second pole, namely the Triple Agreement or
Antanta,
formed on August
31 1907,
and including Britain, France,
Russia, namely the two major coalitions that have faced during the
First World War.
During this period the Straits problem also continued to remain
a constant presence in the European concerns who advanced
various formulas to resolve them, of course, from the perspective of
the interests which they had defended or imposed in the Middle
East, and the evolution of the political situation in Europe.
For its part Russia has militated, due to its weakness of its
naval forces to maintain status quo in the legal regime of Straits in
the idea to avoid, with the Sultan approval, so he continued to pass
through the Straits with vessels of military cargo.
Russia s efforts to open the Straits for its vessels of war were
offset however by the British to open in equal measure, for all the
war vessels of all states. Without result also Russia made an
ABSTRACT
247
attempt in
1909
to obtain the cooperation of Italy for its projects
relating to the Straits, in exchange for supporting the interests of
Italians in Tripolitania.
IV. On the eve of and during the great world conflagration
(1911-1918).
Convention of Straits from Lausanne
The period of relative respite in the Middle East, in general,
and in the area of Straits and Black Sea, in particular, was disturbed
by the major political crisis precipitation recorded in international
relations, with the beginning of the second decade of the twentieth
century, crises that have opened, in fact, a new phase in the
evolution of the Eastern Question, so and in the Straits problem, in
the sense that their legal system has been subjected to increasing
pressure in order to be adapted to new political realities, especially
to those from the continent. The first manifestation of the crisis
occurred on
29
September
1911,
when Italy declared war to
Ottoman Empire. Being possible that military operations to include
the area at the Straits which would have caused blocking them,
Russia tried to ensure his control over
Bosfor
and Dardanelles. So,
she conducted diplomatic actions near the Ottoman Empire, in
order to obtain the right of transit the Straits by its vessels of war,
but maintaining the old principle of prohibition to the war vessels
of other countries to cross. The empire was not yet ready to accept
such a radical change of the legal regime of Straits, which is why
rejected that proposal. Moreover, because the request had been
made by the Russian ambassador in Istanbul, on its own initiative it
was criticized by the foreign minister of Russia which didn t
wanted Russia to enter into conflict with England and France.
Italian-Turkish war ended on
18
October
1912,
but broke out
the following year a new eastern crisis which would retain the
attention of European diplomats on the Straits problem, namely the
Balkan s wars. The more the influence of Germany was
increasingly in Istanbul, which reverberate on the legal regime of
the Straits, reason that triggered the reaction of England, France
and Russia.
248____________________
PROBLEMA ORIENTALA
(1856-1923)________________________
The starting of the
World
War. I affected, but even at the
beginning of his first phase, when the Ottoman Empire decided to
remain neutral, the legal status of Straits. At the insistence of
Germany, the Ottoman Empire disclaimed the neutrality, signing on
2
August
1914,
a treaty of alliance with Germany, after which he
closed Dardanelles and created difficulties for commercial
navigation vessels on
Bosfor.
In October
1914
both Straits were
closed after which followed the declaration on
12
November
1914,
of the Ottoman Empire a war against the powers of Triple
Understanding, joining so the central powers.
With triggering the war, went on record and more pregnant the
Straits importance, especially for Russia. The distance of the
powers of
Antanta,
maked it very difficult to supply its military
with the necessary from the Western Europe. As a result, the
problem of the Straits would take a head poster in the relations
between Russia, on one hand, and England and France, on the
other, hi essence, Russia has seen the entiy of Turkey into the war
as offering them the opportunity, expected for centuries, to come
into possession of the Straits and adjacent areas, for it has requested
its support from allies, England and France. Both gave their consent
under certain circumstances, however, that reflect their interests in
the area and that they wanted to protect the domination of Russia.
Followed, however, and understanding the problem of Straits, Italy
attended after its entry into war, with
Antanta
on
21
August
1914.
Arrangements that ensure the purchase of Russia at the end of the
war, the Straits and Constantinople. However, all these negotiations
relief each time that the purchase of Straits and Constantinople was
the primary objective of the policy problem in eastern Russia.
Complete peace separate from Brest-Litovsk, on
3
March
1918,
put
the end of the aspirations of Russia. The new Soviet state,
organized by the Bolshevik revolution in October
1917,
was to
formulate a new policy on the Straits problem.
The issue of legal status of the Straits have to be, then, an
important point on the agenda of discussions of the Peace Congress
in Paris, which has opened his work on
10
January
1919.
Due to the
conflict of interest, especially between France and Britain, was not,
ABSTRACT
249
however, possible to adopt a viable legislation in this area.
Therefore, solving this issue has been entrusted to the Treaty of
peace from Sevres concluded on
10
August
1920,
between the
Allied powers and Turkey.
First World War has, however, and radically changing the
position of Great Britain in Eastern Question, and so in respect of
the Straits. For this time, the government has advanced English
proposal transformation into free shipping routes without any
restriction. The same position was placed, by the way, and France.
For the reasons exposed in this chapter the Treaty of peace from
Sevres has not resolved, however, no problem of the Straits, since it
came into force. Instead, it has acquired a new wording in the
Article V of the Treaty of Friendship signed by Turkey with Soviet
Russia in Moscow on
16
March
1921.
With the conclusion of the Convention of Straits of Lausanne
of
24
July
1923,
was brought to an end the question of oriental as
European problem, as marked on the one hand, the end of the final
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, and on the other hand, the
Turkish state with stable borders recognized by the entire
international community.
V. Summary
In this chapter of our
historiographie
essay I considered
necessary for broadening the horizon of understanding the
multitude of factors that have governed the evolution of the Eastern
Question in general, and especially, that of Straits, over its main
stages of this evolution in chronological addressed. As we focus on
the most important issues and findings which have emerged from
our exposure, and I also insisted on those that were not addressed
due to methodological reasons, especially in the earlier chapters.
On this occasion we have indicated other sources of information
that may, certain fill the historiography problem, for researcher s
use of this aspect of international relations in the nineteenth century
and the first quarter of the twentieth century. One of the overall
conclusions that can be detached from our research is related to the
confirmation of the one already made into the scientific field, that
250____________________
PROBLEMA
ORIENTALĂ
(1856-1923)________________________
the Eastern Question was one of the phenomena that have
contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. The starting of
this conflict foreshadowed however, an epilogue issue as a
European problem, which held the head of poster of all the combi¬
nations that configured the European political system for two
centuries. The end of the political career has been stated by the
peace treaty of Lausanne of
23
July
1923
which ended the old
existence of the Ottoman Empire, the source of all crises that have
marked the evolution of the problem beginning with the
XVIII
century and set new boundaries Turkish state, recognized by the
international community. There are here, some of the arguments
that justify, once more, this new approach of the history of the
Eastern Question and subsequently the evolution of the problem of
Straits.
Translated by
Adrian-Bogdan
Ceobanu
|
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| era | Geschichte 1900-2000 Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1856-1923 gnd |
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| geographic | Europa - Südosteuropa - Politik - Großmacht - Geschichte 1856-1923 Europe, Central Foreign relations 20th century Europe, Eastern Foreign relations 19th century |
| geographic_facet | Europa - Südosteuropa - Politik - Großmacht - Geschichte 1856-1923 Europe, Central Foreign relations 20th century Europe, Eastern Foreign relations 19th century |
| id | DE-604.BV035538887 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:39:57Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789733713487 |
| language | Romanian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-017594975 |
| oclc_num | 395138231 |
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| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-188 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR |
| physical | 259 S. |
| publishDate | 2009 |
| publishDateSearch | 2009 |
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| publisher | Ed. Junimea |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Bibliotheca historiae universalis |
| series2 | Bibliotheca historiae universalis |
| spelling | Ciobanu, Veniamin Verfasser (DE-588)103435727 aut Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 Veniamin Ciobanu Iaşi Ed. Junimea 2009 259 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Bibliotheca historiae universalis 12 Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Paralleltitel: The Eastern question (1856 - 1923) Geschichte 1900-2000 Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1856-1923 gnd rswk-swf Außenpolitik World politics 19th century World politics 20th century Orientalische Frage (DE-588)4172815-4 gnd rswk-swf Europa - Südosteuropa - Politik - Großmacht - Geschichte 1856-1923 Europe, Central Foreign relations 20th century Europe, Eastern Foreign relations 19th century (DE-588)4135952-5 Quelle gnd-content Orientalische Frage (DE-588)4172815-4 s Geschichte 1856-1923 z DE-604 Bibliotheca historiae universalis 12 (DE-604)BV010317932 12 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017594975&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017594975&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Ciobanu, Veniamin Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 Bibliotheca historiae universalis Außenpolitik World politics 19th century World politics 20th century Orientalische Frage (DE-588)4172815-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4172815-4 (DE-588)4135952-5 |
| title | Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 |
| title_auth | Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 |
| title_exact_search | Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 |
| title_full | Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 Veniamin Ciobanu |
| title_fullStr | Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 Veniamin Ciobanu |
| title_full_unstemmed | Problema orientală 1856 - 1923 Veniamin Ciobanu |
| title_short | Problema orientală |
| title_sort | problema orientala 1856 1923 |
| title_sub | 1856 - 1923 |
| topic | Außenpolitik World politics 19th century World politics 20th century Orientalische Frage (DE-588)4172815-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Außenpolitik World politics 19th century World politics 20th century Orientalische Frage Europa - Südosteuropa - Politik - Großmacht - Geschichte 1856-1923 Europe, Central Foreign relations 20th century Europe, Eastern Foreign relations 19th century Quelle |
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