Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave: od antike do kraja 18. veka
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| Format: | Book |
| Published: |
Beograd
Muzej Grada Beograda [u.a.]
2007
|
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | In kyrill. Schr., serb. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Metal tools from the Belgrade fortress |
| Physical Description: | 158 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9788680619422 9788680093499 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave |b od antike do kraja 18. veka |c Perica Špehar |
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| 500 | |a In kyrill. Schr., serb. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Metal tools from the Belgrade fortress | ||
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Record in the Search Index
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| adam_text | 117
The Belgrade fortress lies on the right bank of the River
Sava,
on the hill above the
point where this river flows into the Danube. Located in a strategically important
and extremely favourable position, throughout history it played an important de¬
fensive role as a frontier fort from where further conquests were often launched.
The earliest traces of settlement in this area go back to prehistoric times, whereas
the earliest proof of fortification having existed here dates from the period of Roman
domination, when ancient Singidunum came into being in this area. After the turbu¬
lent events that marked the 5th century, the fortress was reconstructed during the
rule of Justinian I
(527-565).
The later settlement of the Slavs in the central Balkans,
among other things, resulted in the creation of Belgrade on the location of the former
Singidunum, which developed inside the ramparts under the rule of different peoples
during medieval times. The significance of the fortress did not wane even when the
town spread beyond its defense walls, given that the administrative seat survived
long after, within the city s walls.
The importance of the Belgrade fortress and the role it played in events throughout
several centuries, which left a deep imprint on the history of Europe as a whole, drew
the attention of research workers even in the previous century. Apart from the dis¬
covery of rampart remains, traces of a settlement and a necropolis, a vast amount
of archaeological material was unearthed during excavations that took place in the
course of several decades and, in a large measure, they shed light on the past of the
Belgrade fortress. A significant portion of the movable inventory, among other things,
consists of specimens of metal tools and utensils.
The said finds have not been treated as a unified ensemble so far, except in the
graduation thesis by M.
Ristić,
but they have been published in papers dealing with
individual archaeological sites. Thus, a small study exists that deals with a hoard of
118
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
ся
ВЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
tools from the end of the 17th century, unearthed in the area of the Inner fort, while
individual specimens collected in the area of the Belgrade fortress were published
within a two-volume monograph on the large body of tools discovered in the terri¬
tory of the Balkans. Finally, one should single out a monographic publication dedi¬
cated to the area of the Danube slope, in which specimens of metal tools and
utensils feature prominently in terms of the number of finds, as well as in the re¬
presented types.
Given that only some of the finds of metal tools and utensils were published, a
complete survey of their representation in the archaeological material and their
variety is not possible. By unifying all the finds of this type of material and its functi¬
onal classification, it becomes possible to gain a deeper insight into the economic
activities and the development of the economic and social structure of the inhabi¬
tants of the Belgrade fortress throughout the ages. Therefore, this paper encompas¬
ses the tools discovered in the area of the Belgrade fortress during archaeological
excavations until the year
2000.
The collected specimens of tools and utensils primarily originate from the area of
the Inner fortress, the complex of the Metropolis, the area of the Lower town and the
Western suburb, where they were unearthed within the cultural layers (Fig.
1).
Apart
from that, a certain number of finds came from closed ensembles, such as those
found in a trench-hole dating from the fifth decade of the 4th century, discovered
at the foot of the Danube slope, and a hoard of tools from the second half of the
1
7th
century, which was buried in the precincts of the Inner fortress. Finally, we should
mention that a considerable number of tools, most probably originating from the
area of the Upper town, were unearthed in the embanked layers above the palace.
Based on the appropriate analogies and parallels, these specimens were chronologi¬
cally classified in the cases where this was possible.
Based on the generally accepted divisions, the metal tools and utensils found in the
area of the Belgrade fortress were classified, according to their function, into several
basic groups. Thus, according to the type of activity, we single out agricultural tools,
woodworking tools, tools for the processing of wool, leather and textiles, metal and
stone working tools, building tools, tools for processing food, and knives. Each of the
mentioned groups, except the knives, covered certain types of tools, which were then
typologically classified according to their shape.
This functional classification should, however, be viewed with some reservation,
given that a number of tools could have been used for several purposes. Thus, apart
from hoeing, hoes could have been used for mixing mortar, mattocks and pick-axes for
digging canals or foundations, while axes may also have been used by builders. It is
interesting to note that knives, in fact, were a kind of handy, universal tool, which, it
would seem, primarily had more similarities with tools intended for processing food.
The differences in the number of preserved finds, according to the chronological
phases, depended on several factors. The first was the degree of damage of the layers,
which was much more visible in the older layers, considering that they had been
exposed to different forms of devastation over a lengthier time. Namely, seeing that
the surface the Belgrade fortress occupies changed in the course of history, certain
layers were largely damaged or destroyed during military conflicts, in the process of
lowering or raising the level of the terrain, construction works, etc. On the other hand,
the enlargement of the surfaces the Belgrade fortress occupied accompanied the
increase in the population, and hence, the larger number of tools that were used.
The collected material is attributed to a broad span of time, lasting from the pe¬
riod of Roman domination till the 18th century. In order, more easily to survey the
classified finds and register the changes in the structure of the population s economic
О РУТ)
E
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
119
Tablei
Representation of
typologically similar
groups of tools
according to historical
periods
types of tools
3rd_7th century
14th-15th century
1
6th—
1
8th century
without dating
agricultural tools
3 (23.08%)
2(5.13%)
40 (21.62%)
2 (8%)
woodworking tools
4 (30.77%)
5 (12.82%)
47 (25.41%)
4(16%)
tools for the processing
of leather, wool, and textiles
1 (7.69%)
6 (15.38%)
11 (5.95%)
1 (4%)
metal working tools
2 (5.13%)
19 (10.27%)
4(16%)
stone working tools
23 (12.43%)
1 (4%)
building tools
3(1.61%)
tools for processing food
5 (12.82%)
11 (5.95%)
2 (8%)
knives
5 (38.46%)
19 (48.72%)
21 (11.35%)
11 (44%)
tools of unknown purpose
10 (5.41%)
TOTAL
13
39
185
25
120
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
activities, the discovered specimens of tools were chronologically classified into three
basic phases. The earliest was the period of Roman domination, Late Antiquity and
Early Byzantium, dating from the 3rd to the beginning of the 7th century, given that
during the said period there were no essential changes in the economic activity of
the population in the Belgrade fortress. The next phase, which can be linked to
finds of metal tools and utensils, is dated to the 14th and 15th centuries, whilst the
Graph
1.
50-
Representation of
45
typologically similar
40
groups of tools
35
:
according to historical
30
periods
25
20
15
;
10
5 :
0
3rd-7th
century
t./
t.
.^
Π
16th—
1
8th century-
third group consists of specimens of tools originating from the layers of the 16th to
the 18th century.
Viewed in terms of percentages, the least number of finds originated from the
ensembles that were attributed to the period from the 3rd to the 7th century,
whereas the number of preserved tools linked to the layers of the 14th and 15th
centuries is somewhat larger. In contrast to this, the majority of the tools belong to
the latest period, i.e. the horizon of the 16th to the 18th century (Table
1 ;
Graph
1 ).
Horizon of the 3rd to the 7th century
The era from the 3rd to the 7th century, which encompasses the Roman, Late Antique
and Early Byzantine periods has been treated as a single stratum in the paper. The
knives
38.46%
tools for processing
leather, wool and textiles
7.69%
agricultural tools
23.08%
woodworking tools
30.77%
reason for this lies in the fact that this horizon can be viewed from the economic aspect
as a unified ensemble, given that the forms of economic activity remained unchanged.
Based on the few specimens of tools that originate from this period (Graph
2),
we
may conclude that the basic form of economic activity was agriculture, to which almost
a quarter of the total number of finds belonged
(23.08%).
The high percentage of
the representation of agricultural tools corresponds to the importance of tilling the
soil, which was the basis of the economy, i.e. the primary economic branch during
the period of Roman domination.1 Farming retained its significant role during the
Early Byzantine period, which is illustrated by data in the written sources,
according to which, during the siege by the Avars, the population of Singidunum
was busy labouring in the fields, and when the Avars launched their attack, it was
successful mainly because the ramparts were left without any defenders (Theoph.
Simoc. hist. I
3-4, 46-47:
Византиски извори
1,
105-106).
On the other hand, wood processing tools constitute
30.77%
of the finds of tools
from this period (Table
1 ).
Therefore, the unearthed specimens of axes and gimlets
(Table
2)
point to wood as the basic construction material as well as to the signifi¬
cance of woodworking.
Besides these tools, we have the discovery of arched, one-piece scissors, which,
on the one hand, directly testifies to wool processing
( 8%)
and, on the other, they in¬
directly point to the existence of sheep rearing, which went on outside the ramparts,
as well as five specimens of knives. Finally, one should mention that knives, accor¬
ding to representation percentage-wise
(35.46%),
represent the most numerous group
of tools from this period, which, it seems, were primarily used for processing food.
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
I
._.
ТВРЂАВЕ
I
121
Graph
2.
The representation
of typologically similar
groups of tools from the
3rd to the 7th century
1
Cf.
Henning 1987.
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
I
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
122
ТВРЂАВЕ
The horizon of the
1
4th to the
1
5th century
After the fall of the limes in the northern parts of Illyricum due to the incursions
by the barbarians at the end of the 6th and beginning of the 7th centuries, the area
of the Belgrade fortress most probably lost its importance. After several centuries
of stagnation, the fortress re-gained significance at the start of the 12th century
(Поповић
2006:48-72).
Seeing that in our investigations so far, no tools have been
discovered that originated from this period, we can only follow life in the fortress
through these types of material from the period of the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the first decade of the 15th century, life in the Belgrade fortress once again
began to flourish because, as soon as despot Stefan Lazarevic had seized control of
it, he proclaimed it the capital of the Serbian state, renewing and building the urban
settlement with a trading centre, in the desire to make as much use of its strategic
position as possible
(Калић-Мијушковић
1974:159).
Parallel to the growing impor¬
tance of the fortress, progress was made in the economic activity of its inhabitants.
Moreover, while farming had constituted the basis of the economy during the
period of Antiquity, from the
1
5th century one can clearly perceive distinctions in
the social structure of the inhabitants, who, besides agriculture, also went in for
commerce, as well as different crafts and trades
(Бикић
1995: 84-85).
Therefore, in
the first decades of the 15th century, plying their trades in the precincts of the Bel-
Graph
3.
Representation of
typologically similar
groups of tools
during the 14th
and 15th centuries
knives
48.72%
agricultural tools
5.13%
tools for
processing food
12.82%
woodworking tools
12.82%
tools for processing
leather, wool and textiles
15.38%
metalworking
5.13%
grade
fortress were blacksmiths, carpenters, stonemasons, armourers, shipbuilders,
shoemakers, potters and goldsmiths, etc
(Калић-Мијушковић
1974a:
285-286).
In this period, judging by the representation of agricultural tools
(5.13%),
the
significance of agriculture had declined. The same applies to the finds of tools
intended for woodworking, which constitutes slightly over a tenth of the total
number of tools
(12.82%).
The drastic reduction in the importance of agriculture
and woodworking, in the economic activities of the local inhabitants during this
period, could have been the result of accelerated urbanisation, although one should
not exclude the possibility that the fewer tools found for this kind of activity was
due to the scale of excavations of the horizon dating from the 14th and 15th centu¬
ries (Graph
3).
Compared to the period from the 3rd to the 7th century, the unearthed tools indi¬
cated novelties among the occupations of the population in the Belgrade fortress,
and these were two trades, leather processing and tailoring
(15.38%),
and metal-
working
(5.13%).
Namely, dating from the 14th to the 15th century was a larger quan¬
tity of leather processing knives (Cat.
Nos.
108-114),
which points to the signifi¬
cant use of leather, while a find of a pair of scissors (Cat. No.
123)
testifies most
likely to the gradual introduction of textiles. On the other hand, though we are
certain of its existence earlier,2 direct evidence of metalworking in the area of the
Belgrade fortress, was only discovered in the finds of punches (Cat.
Nos.
142-146)
and an anvil (Cat. No.
129)
dating from the 14th and the 15th century (Table
1 ).
From these two centuries, there are also specimens of tools used for food
processing. This involves the find of a mortar and a pestle, which served for milling
wheat (Cat.
Nos.
180-186).
Knives could also be attributed to this group of tools
(Graph
3),
which note an increase in terms of percentages, compared to the period
from the 3rd to the 7th century
(78.72%).
The horizon of the 16th to the 18th century
After the Turkish conquest in
1521,
we record the further development of the Belgra¬
de fortress and thereby the social differentiation of the population. Thus, in
1536,
in
Belgrade, among other things, we find that there were five tailors, two bakers and three
butchers, etc. In the same year, there is mention for the first time of a guild association
which attests to the strengthening of the middle class
(Шабановић
1974: 349-350).
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
ся
ВЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
123
2
The discovery of
the
roman workshoop
for
producing swords with
600
swords already made, testify
to this.
Cf.
Кондић
1974.
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
ся
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
124
ТВРЂАВЕ
Graph
4.
Representation
of typologically similar
groups of tools
during the 16th
to the 18th century
tools for
processing food
6.29%
building tools
1.71%
stoneworking tools
13.14%
metalworking tools
10.86%
knives
12.00%
agricultural tools
77
с
woodworking tools
26.86%
tools for processing leather, wool and textiles
6.29%
Agricultural tools during the period from the 16th to the 18th century represent
almost a quarter of the tools from this period
(21.62%),
which indicates the re¬
newed importance of agriculture in the economy of the population in the Belgrade
fortress (Graph
4).
After a notable decline in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries,
woodworking experienced a fresh revival, judging by the finds of the relevant tools,
which constitute
26.86%
of the total number of tools from this period (Graph
4).
The large number of different types of axes, which make up the majority of the
discovered finds, indicates the significance of these kinds of occupations during the
16th to the 18th century.
Trades that had begun to develop at a swift place during the previous phase be¬
came even more flourishing, though in an altered form. In this period, leather pro¬
cessing, it appears, began to decline, given that we have only one find of a leather-
working tool (Cat. No.
115).
However, the use of textiles, to all intents and purposes,
was represented in a much greater measure, and this is illustrated by five finds of
pairs of scissors (Cat.
Nos.
118-122).
Metal-working, which was no longer connected
with producing items made of iron, given that finds of diverse tools were discovered
(anvils, goldsmiths hammers) for processing gold (Cat.
Nos.
129, 135, 137),
once
again became important so that tools intended for this kind of activity now consti¬
tuted a tenth of the total number of tools
(10.86%).
The period from the
1
6th to the
1
8th century in the Belgrade fortress was marked
by the appearance of new types of tools intended for processing stone. In this area,
about
20
finds of tools connected with stone-working
(13.14%)
were discovered.
q p y
γ, ρ
They mainly belonged to hoards of tools discovered in the Inner fortress, and can
ол
lfJAJlA
reliably be dated to the second half of the 17th century (Cat.
Nos.
155-167,169,171)
тв
¿abb |
125
(Бајаловић-Хаџи-Пешић
1983:59-68).
Characteristic of the tools for stone working
was not only the large number of unearthed specimens but also the diversity of the
types, so that one can safely assert that there was a significant use of stone through¬
out this period, primarily as construction material.
Between the 16th and the 18th century, the Belgrade fortress was an area where
construction was a lively occupation. In view of the fact that in this period the
fortress was frequently under siege, the volume of works clearly indicates that
frequent damage occurred and that there was a change in the method of warfare
(Поповић
2006:165-275).
Although we know for certain that large-scale construc¬
tion works were undertaken in the area of the Belgrade fortress during this period,
the number of tools that can be linked to them directly is very small
(1.71%).
Other
than trowels (Cat.
Nos.
179-180),
we know of no other find of this type. However,
the scale of construction can be registered indirectly by means of the already men¬
tioned numerous finds of tools for processing wood and stone, with which the
required material was obtained and prepared for building (Table
1 ).
Among the tools intended for preparing food
(6.29%),
there were many diffe¬
rent tools that primarily indicate the existence of the baker s (Cat.
Nos.
187-192)
and butcher s trades (Cat.
Nos.
194-195).
The finds of knives, which we can also
include in these tools, were the least represented in this phase, given that they con¬
stituted only
12.00%
of the tools discovered.
* * *
In observing the representation of certain types of tools in the Belgrade fortress, as
well as their typological development between the 3rd and the 17th century, one may
learn a great deal about the chief occupations of its inhabitants, as well as their
social stratification.
On the basis of the dated finds, the said period is divided into three different
phases, whereby there is a gap of several centuries between the first (3rd-7th century)
and the second phase (14th-15th century). Owing to the penetration of barbarians,
the crash of the Byzantine rule at the beginning of the 7th century certainly had
126
types
of tools
3rd-7th century
14th-15th century
16th-18th century
without dating
number of tools
hoe
2
6
1
9
digger
6
6
mattock
4
4
pick
20
20
prooning-hook
1
1
1
3
sickle
1
2
3
scythe
2
2
grapple
2
2
axe
3
4
39
3
49
claw-hammer
2
1
3
saw
1
1
plane
2
2
gimlet
1
1
1
3
tanner knife
3
4
7
scissors
1
3
6
1
11
awl
1
1
cast spoon
1
1
anvil
1
1
2
hammer
7
1
8
tongs
3
1
4
punch
2
3
5
rasp
4
1
5
pick-axe
1
1
peg
1
1
chisel
20
20
hamer
for stone working
1
1
2
compass
1
1
trowel
2
2
mortar
CO
ГО
pestle
3
3
1
7
scraper
5
5
rotary cutter
1
1
shovel
1
1
hack
2
2
knive
5
19
21
11
56
tools of unknown purposse
10
10
TOTAL
13(4.96%)
39(14.89%)
185(70.61%)
25 (9.54%)
262
significant effect on the further life and development of the city. However, Belgra¬
de is mentioned as the Episcopal seat in the year
878,
which points out to the fact
that the city gain again its significance. Archaeological finds from the 9th to the 11th
century, among them the bone tools, represent testify to the said fact
(Марјановић-
Вујовић
1978: 7-14;
Бикић
1994: 31-44;
Поповић
2006: 49-54,
with the said lite¬
rature). The return of the Byzantine empire on the River Danube, during the second
half of the 11th century, brings Belgrade fortress back into the centre of the atten¬
tion, since it reapers, attesting primarily by the pottery
(Бикић
1994:44-62),
as the
important conterminal fortress
(Popović
2006: 61-84,
with the said literature).
Thereby, the
non
existence of any metal tools from the period between the 7th and
14th century represents, above all, the result of the exploration extent of said layers,
which most probably were destroyed during the numerous building projects.
Agriculture was the mainstay of economic life in the Belgrade fortress during
the first
(
3rd-7th century) and the third phase
( 1
6th-l 8th century)
,
seeing that agri¬
cultural tools were the most numerous during the said periods (Table
1 ).
On the other
hand, the composition of the tools used for this purpose, indicates that the tools for
digging, i.e. mattocks and hoes were chiefly used, whereas tools for harvesting,
reaping and vine growing i.e. sickles, scythes and pruning hooks were represented
in a lesser measure (Table
2).
This ratio coincides with the „urbanisation of the
Belgrade fortress and the cultivation of cereals and vineyards in the more distant
neighbourhood.
Like agriculture, trades were attested during all three phases although percen¬
tage-wise, these economic activities were the most prominent in the period of the
14th and 15th centuries. The finds of tools used for these economic activities appear
in various numbers and forms, depending on the trades for which they were inten¬
ded. Accordingly, one can perceive a change in the structure of the population,
which, as new occupations emerged, slowly grew into a middle-class society.
The basic trades were woodworking and making clothes from fabric, which
appeared during a broader span of time from the 3rd to the 18th century. Conside¬
ring that in both cases, the number of the types of tools intended for these activities
increased, we might speak of the appearance of new trades. We can follow this
process, which was stipulated by the appearance or frequent use of specific fabrics
in the production of clothing, best from the tools intended for processing wool,
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
127
Table
2.
A review
of the representation
of the basic groups
of tools according
to historical periods
128
ОРУЂ
E
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
leather and cloth. Thus, judging by the tools discovered in the first phase, wool was
commonly used. During the 14th and 15th centuries, it was replaced by leather,
whereas from the 16th century fabric was used most often.
The further development of the middle class was directly linked to the
appearance of new trades, such as metalworking, which was attested by the finds
dating from the 14th to the 15th century, and stone working, which can be followed
from the 16th to the 18th century. In time, metalworking branched out into several
sub-groups of occupations, given that in addition to processing iron, which we
know from the finds dating from the period of the 14th and the 15th centuries, and
the goldsmith s trade appeared during the 16th to the 18th century (Table
2).
Building represented a particular occupation of the inhabitants of the Belgrade
fortress. Unfortunately, this is difficult to follow on the basis of the discovered
tools, which can definitely be linked to this type of activity (Table
1 ).
However, the
quantity of typologically diverse tools linked to the working of wood and stone
(Table
1 )
indirectly points to the scale of building itself, in the particular phases.
The final type of activity attested in the area of the Belgrade fortress was the
preparation of food. Based on finds of the relevant tools and utensils, this type of
activity is known to have existed in the period between the 14th and the 18th centu¬
ry. Given that, since it was almost inconceivable that finds of this type did not exist
during the period of Antiquity, in the group of food processing tools we included
the finds of knives, which, besides their manifold purposes, primarily served for
processing food.
The classified finds of tools and utensils made of metal shed light on some of the
activities in the Belgrade fortress during the period from the 3rd to the 18th century
and represent only one aspect of the activities its inhabitants were engaged in. A
future analysis of all the available materials, from historical sources to the archae¬
ological artifacts, of which the mentioned finds represent only one segment, will
offer a clear picture about the development of the economy in one of the important
strategic fortifications in the Danube River basin.
LIST OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
Fig.
і
.
Belgrade
fortress,
zones
with the higest concentration of tools
τ
вТђав^
і
129
Fig. 2.
Traian s column, detail (after
Поповић
1988:
T.
XLVI/l)
Fig. 3.
The Gospel from Prizren: The fight between the winegrowers (after
Радојчић
1966:
T.
XV)
Fig,
4.
Hoe (Cat. No.
1)
Fig.
5.
Hoe (Cat. No.
4)
Fig.
5.
Hoe (Cat. No.
5)
Fig.
7.
Pick (Cat. No.
36)
Fig.
8.
Pick, detail (Cat. No.
36)
Fig.
9.
Decani Monastery, the north wall of
naos:
Noah processing the vineyard (after
Тодић, Чанак-Медић
2005:
ел.
270)
Fig. 10. Ravanica
Monastery, the drum of the main dome: Prophet Zachary the Young
(after
Благојевић
1973:
T.
6)
Fíg.
11
Sickle (Cat. No.
43)
Fig.
12.
Pecka Patrijaršija
Monastery, the tympanum of the biforis in the churche of
st. Demetrius: Prophet Zachary the Young (after
Благојевић
1973:
T.
4)
Fig,
13.
Decani Monastery, Paraclesios of st. Nicolas: St. Nicolas subverts the idols
(after
Благојевић
1973:
T.
2)
Fig. 14.
Axe (Cat. No.
68)
Fig. 15.
Axe (Cat. No.
72)
Fig. 16.
Axe (Cat. No.
81)
Fig. 17.
Axe (Cat. No.
82)
Fig.
í
8.
Axe (Cat. No.
83)
Fig.
19.
Axe (Cat. No.
84)
Fig.
20.
Axe (Cat. No.
85)
Fig.
21.
Axe (Cat. No.
88)
Fig.
22.
Claw-hammer (Cat. No.
100)
Fig.
23.
Studenica Monastery, King s church, north-west pendentive: Evangelist Luke
(after
prema
Бабић
1987:
ел.
89)
Fig. 24.
Scissors (Cat. No.
118)
Fig.
25.
Mum scissors (Cat. No.
118)
Fig.
26.
Anvil (Cat. No.
128)
CONTENTS
Увод
Историјат истраживања
3
7
Пољопривредно
оруђе
_12
Мотика
_13
Ашов _18
Будак _19
Пијук _21
Косир _25
Срп _27
Коса _29
Алат
за обраду дрвета _32
Чакља _33
Секира _34
Кесер
-47
Тестера _48
Стругач за дрво
-49
Сврдло
-50
Алат за обраду
коже,
вуне
и текстила _52
Кожарски нож
-53
Маказе
-56
Шило -61
Оруђе
за обраду метала
_62
Ливачка кашика
,63
Наковањ
_64
Чекић
за обраду метала
_65
Машице
_69
Пробојац
_71
Турпија
_72
Алат за обраду камена
_74
Крамп-секира
_75
Клин
_76
Длето
л
Чекић
за обраду камена
_82
Грађевински
алат
_84
Шестар
_86
Мистрија
_86
Алат и прибор за обраду хране
_88
Аван и тучак
Стругач
_89
_92
Закључна
размі
Радла
_93
Metal Toais
fro
Лопата
_94
Summary
Сатара
_94
Нож
_95
Библиографија
Апят нрппчнятр нямрнр
104
Табле
.106
116
132
140
|
| adam_txt |
117
The Belgrade fortress lies on the right bank of the River
Sava,
on the hill above the
point where this river flows into the Danube. Located in a strategically important
and extremely favourable position, throughout history it played an important de¬
fensive role as a frontier fort from where further conquests were often launched.
The earliest traces of settlement in this area go back to prehistoric times, whereas
the earliest proof of fortification having existed here dates from the period of Roman
domination, when ancient Singidunum came into being in this area. After the turbu¬
lent events that marked the 5th century, the fortress was reconstructed during the
rule of Justinian I
(527-565).
The later settlement of the Slavs in the central Balkans,
among other things, resulted in the creation of Belgrade on the location of the former
Singidunum, which developed inside the ramparts under the rule of different peoples
during medieval times. The significance of the fortress did not wane even when the
town spread beyond its defense walls, given that the administrative seat survived
long after, within the city's walls.
The importance of the Belgrade fortress and the role it played in events throughout
several centuries, which left a deep imprint on the history of Europe as a whole, drew
the attention of research workers even in the previous century. Apart from the dis¬
covery of rampart remains, traces of a settlement and a necropolis, a vast amount
of archaeological material was unearthed during excavations that took place in the
course of several decades and, in a large measure, they shed light on the past of the
Belgrade fortress. A significant portion of the movable inventory, among other things,
consists of specimens of metal tools and utensils.
The said finds have not been treated as a unified ensemble so far, except in the
graduation thesis by M.
Ristić,
but they have been published in papers dealing with
individual archaeological sites. Thus, a small study exists that deals with a hoard of
118
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
ся
ВЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
tools from the end of the 17th century, unearthed in the area of the Inner fort, while
individual specimens collected in the area of the Belgrade fortress were published
within a two-volume monograph on the large body of tools discovered in the terri¬
tory of the Balkans. Finally, one should single out a monographic publication dedi¬
cated to the area of the Danube slope, in which specimens of metal tools and
utensils feature prominently in terms of the number of finds, as well as in the re¬
presented types.
Given that only some of the finds of metal tools and utensils were published, a
complete survey of their representation in the archaeological material and their
variety is not possible. By unifying all the finds of this type of material and its functi¬
onal classification, it becomes possible to gain a deeper insight into the economic
activities and the development of the economic and social structure of the inhabi¬
tants of the Belgrade fortress throughout the ages. Therefore, this paper encompas¬
ses the tools discovered in the area of the Belgrade fortress during archaeological
excavations until the year
2000.
The collected specimens of tools and utensils primarily originate from the area of
the Inner fortress, the complex of the Metropolis, the area of the Lower town and the
Western suburb, where they were unearthed within the cultural layers (Fig.
1).
Apart
from that, a certain number of finds came from closed ensembles, such as those
found in a trench-hole dating from the fifth decade of the 4th century, discovered
at the foot of the Danube slope, and a hoard of tools from the second half of the
1
7th
century, which was buried in the precincts of the Inner fortress. Finally, we should
mention that a considerable number of tools, most probably originating from the
area of the Upper town, were unearthed in the embanked layers above the palace.
Based on the appropriate analogies and parallels, these specimens were chronologi¬
cally classified in the cases where this was possible.
Based on the generally accepted divisions, the metal tools and utensils found in the
area of the Belgrade fortress were classified, according to their function, into several
basic groups. Thus, according to the type of activity, we single out agricultural tools,
woodworking tools, tools for the processing of wool, leather and textiles, metal and
stone working tools, building tools, tools for processing food, and knives. Each of the
mentioned groups, except the knives, covered certain types of tools, which were then
typologically classified according to their shape.
This functional classification should, however, be viewed with some reservation,
given that a number of tools could have been used for several purposes. Thus, apart
from hoeing, hoes could have been used for mixing mortar, mattocks and pick-axes for
digging canals or foundations, while axes may also have been used by builders. It is
interesting to note that knives, in fact, were a kind of handy, universal tool, which, it
would seem, primarily had more similarities with tools intended for processing food.
The differences in the number of preserved finds, according to the chronological
phases, depended on several factors. The first was the degree of damage of the layers,
which was much more visible in the older layers, considering that they had been
exposed to different forms of devastation over a lengthier time. Namely, seeing that
the surface the Belgrade fortress occupies changed in the course of history, certain
layers were largely damaged or destroyed during military conflicts, in the process of
lowering or raising the level of the terrain, construction works, etc. On the other hand,
the enlargement of the surfaces the Belgrade fortress occupied accompanied the
increase in the population, and hence, the larger number of tools that were used.
The collected material is attributed to a broad span of time, lasting from the pe¬
riod of Roman domination till the 18th century. In order, more easily to survey the
classified finds and register the changes in the structure of the population's economic
О РУТ)
E
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
119
Tablei
Representation of
typologically similar
groups of tools
according to historical
periods
types of tools
3rd_7th century
14th-15th century
1
6th—
1
8th century
without dating
agricultural tools
3 (23.08%)
2(5.13%)
40 (21.62%)
2 (8%)
woodworking tools
4 (30.77%)
5 (12.82%)
47 (25.41%)
4(16%)
tools for the processing
of leather, wool, and textiles
1 (7.69%)
6 (15.38%)
11 (5.95%)
1 (4%)
metal working tools
2 (5.13%)
19 (10.27%)
4(16%)
stone working tools
23 (12.43%)
1 (4%)
building tools
3(1.61%)
tools for processing food
5 (12.82%)
11 (5.95%)
2 (8%)
knives
5 (38.46%)
19 (48.72%)
21 (11.35%)
11 (44%)
tools of unknown purpose
10 (5.41%)
TOTAL
13
39
185
25
120
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
activities, the discovered specimens of tools were chronologically classified into three
basic phases. The earliest was the period of Roman domination, Late Antiquity and
Early Byzantium, dating from the 3rd to the beginning of the 7th century, given that
during the said period there were no essential changes in the economic activity of
the population in the Belgrade fortress. The next phase, which can be linked to
finds of metal tools and utensils, is dated to the 14th and 15th centuries, whilst the
Graph
1.
50-
Representation of
45
typologically similar
40
groups of tools
35
:
according to historical
30
periods
25
20
15
;
10
5 :
0'
3rd-7th
century
t./
t.
.^
Π
16th—
1
8th century-
third group consists of specimens of tools originating from the layers of the 16th to
the 18th century.
Viewed in terms of percentages, the least number of finds originated from the
ensembles that were attributed to the period from the 3rd to the 7th century,
whereas the number of preserved tools linked to the layers of the 14th and 15th
centuries is somewhat larger. In contrast to this, the majority of the tools belong to
the latest period, i.e. the horizon of the 16th to the 18th century (Table
1 ;
Graph
1 ).
Horizon of the 3rd to the 7th century
The era from the 3rd to the 7th century, which encompasses the Roman, Late Antique
and Early Byzantine periods has been treated as a single stratum in the paper. The
knives
38.46%
tools for processing
leather, wool and textiles
7.69%
agricultural tools
23.08%
woodworking tools
30.77%
reason for this lies in the fact that this horizon can be viewed from the economic aspect
as a unified ensemble, given that the forms of economic activity remained unchanged.
Based on the few specimens of tools that originate from this period (Graph
2),
we
may conclude that the basic form of economic activity was agriculture, to which almost
a quarter of the total number of finds belonged
(23.08%).
The high percentage of
the representation of agricultural tools corresponds to the importance of tilling the
soil, which was the basis of the economy, i.e. the primary economic branch during
the period of Roman domination.1 Farming retained its significant role during the
Early Byzantine period, which is illustrated by data in the written sources,
according to which, during the siege by the Avars, the population of Singidunum
was busy labouring in the fields, and when the Avars launched their attack, it was
successful mainly because the ramparts were left without any defenders (Theoph.
Simoc. hist. I
3-4, 46-47:
Византиски извори
1,
105-106).
On the other hand, wood processing tools constitute
30.77%
of the finds of tools
from this period (Table
1 ).
Therefore, the unearthed specimens of axes and gimlets
(Table
2)
point to wood as the basic construction material as well as to the signifi¬
cance of woodworking.
Besides these tools, we have the discovery of arched, one-piece scissors, which,
on the one hand, directly testifies to wool processing
( 8%)
and, on the other, they in¬
directly point to the existence of sheep rearing, which went on outside the ramparts,
as well as five specimens of knives. Finally, one should mention that knives, accor¬
ding to representation percentage-wise
(35.46%),
represent the most numerous group
of tools from this period, which, it seems, were primarily used for processing food.
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
I
._.
ТВРЂАВЕ
I
121
Graph
2.
The representation
of typologically similar
groups of tools from the
3rd to the 7th century
1
Cf.
Henning 1987.
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
I
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
122
ТВРЂАВЕ
The horizon of the
1
4th to the
1
5th century
After the fall of the limes in the northern parts of Illyricum due to the incursions
by the barbarians at the end of the 6th and beginning of the 7th centuries, the area
of the Belgrade fortress most probably lost its importance. After several centuries
of stagnation, the fortress re-gained significance at the start of the 12th century
(Поповић
2006:48-72).
Seeing that in our investigations so far, no tools have been
discovered that originated from this period, we can only follow life in the fortress
through these types of material from the period of the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the first decade of the 15th century, life in the Belgrade fortress once again
began to flourish because, as soon as despot Stefan Lazarevic had seized control of
it, he proclaimed it the capital of the Serbian state, renewing and building the urban
settlement with a trading centre, in the desire to make as much use of its strategic
position as possible
(Калић-Мијушковић
1974:159).
Parallel to the growing impor¬
tance of the fortress, progress was made in the economic activity of its inhabitants.
Moreover, while farming had constituted the basis of the economy during the
period of Antiquity, from the
1
5th century one can clearly perceive distinctions in
the social structure of the inhabitants, who, besides agriculture, also went in for
commerce, as well as different crafts and trades
(Бикић
1995: 84-85).
Therefore, in
the first decades of the 15th century, plying their trades in the precincts of the Bel-
Graph
3.
Representation of
typologically similar
groups of tools
during the 14th
and 15th centuries
knives
48.72%
agricultural tools
5.13%
tools for
processing food
12.82%
woodworking tools
12.82%
tools for processing
leather, wool and textiles
15.38%
metalworking
5.13%
grade
fortress were blacksmiths, carpenters, stonemasons, armourers, shipbuilders,
shoemakers, potters and goldsmiths, etc
(Калић-Мијушковић
1974a:
285-286).
In this period, judging by the representation of agricultural tools
(5.13%),
the
significance of agriculture had declined. The same applies to the finds of tools
intended for woodworking, which constitutes slightly over a tenth of the total
number of tools
(12.82%).
The drastic reduction in the importance of agriculture
and woodworking, in the economic activities of the local inhabitants during this
period, could have been the result of accelerated urbanisation, although one should
not exclude the possibility that the fewer tools found for this kind of activity was
due to the scale of excavations of the horizon dating from the 14th and 15th centu¬
ries (Graph
3).
Compared to the period from the 3rd to the 7th century, the unearthed tools indi¬
cated novelties among the occupations of the population in the Belgrade fortress,
and these were two trades, leather processing and tailoring
(15.38%),
and metal-
working
(5.13%).
Namely, dating from the 14th to the 15th century was a larger quan¬
tity of leather processing knives (Cat.
Nos.
108-114),
which points to the signifi¬
cant use of leather, while a find of a pair of scissors (Cat. No.
123)
testifies most
likely to the gradual introduction of textiles. On the other hand, though we are
certain of its existence earlier,2 direct evidence of metalworking in the area of the
Belgrade fortress, was only discovered in the finds of punches (Cat.
Nos.
142-146)
and an anvil (Cat. No.
129)
dating from the 14th and the 15th century (Table
1 ).
From these two centuries, there are also specimens of tools used for food
processing. This involves the find of a mortar and a pestle, which served for milling
wheat (Cat.
Nos.
180-186).
Knives could also be attributed to this group of tools
(Graph
3),
which note an increase in terms of percentages, compared to the period
from the 3rd to the 7th century
(78.72%).
The horizon of the 16th to the 18th century
After the Turkish conquest in
1521,
we record the further development of the Belgra¬
de fortress and thereby the social differentiation of the population. Thus, in
1536,
in
Belgrade, among other things, we find that there were five tailors, two bakers and three
butchers, etc. In the same year, there is mention for the first time of a guild association
which attests to the strengthening of the middle class
(Шабановић
1974: 349-350).
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
ся
ВЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
123
2
The discovery of
the
roman workshoop
for
producing swords with
600
swords already made, testify
to this.
Cf.
Кондић
1974.
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
ся
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
124
ТВРЂАВЕ
Graph
4.
Representation
of typologically similar
groups of tools
during the 16th
to the 18th century
tools for
processing food
6.29%
building tools
1.71%
stoneworking tools
13.14%
metalworking tools
10.86%
knives
12.00%
agricultural tools
77
с
woodworking tools
26.86%
tools for processing leather, wool and textiles
6.29%
Agricultural tools during the period from the 16th to the 18th century represent
almost a quarter of the tools from this period
(21.62%),
which indicates the re¬
newed importance of agriculture in the economy of the population in the Belgrade
fortress (Graph
4).
After a notable decline in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries,
woodworking experienced a fresh revival, judging by the finds of the relevant tools,
which constitute
26.86%
of the total number of tools from this period (Graph
4).
The large number of different types of axes, which make up the majority of the
discovered finds, indicates the significance of these kinds of occupations during the
16th to the 18th century.
Trades that had begun to develop at a swift place during the previous phase be¬
came even more flourishing, though in an altered form. In this period, leather pro¬
cessing, it appears, began to decline, given that we have only one find of a leather-
working tool (Cat. No.
115).
However, the use of textiles, to all intents and purposes,
was represented in a much greater measure, and this is illustrated by five finds of
pairs of scissors (Cat.
Nos.
118-122).
Metal-working, which was no longer connected
with producing items made of iron, given that finds of diverse tools were discovered
(anvils, goldsmiths' hammers) for processing gold (Cat.
Nos.
129, 135, 137),
once
again became important so that tools intended for this kind of activity now consti¬
tuted a tenth of the total number of tools
(10.86%).
The period from the
1
6th to the
1
8th century in the Belgrade fortress was marked
by the appearance of new types of tools intended for processing stone. In this area,
about
20
finds of tools connected with stone-working
(13.14%)
were discovered.
q p y
γ, ρ
They mainly belonged to hoards of tools discovered in the Inner fortress, and can
ол
lfJAJlA
reliably be dated to the second half of the 17th century (Cat.
Nos.
155-167,169,171)
тв
"¿abb |
125
(Бајаловић-Хаџи-Пешић
1983:59-68).
Characteristic of the tools for stone working
was not only the large number of unearthed specimens but also the diversity of the
types, so that one can safely assert that there was a significant use of stone through¬
out this period, primarily as construction material.
Between the 16th and the 18th century, the Belgrade fortress was an area where
construction was a lively occupation. In view of the fact that in this period the
fortress was frequently under siege, the volume of works clearly indicates that
frequent damage occurred and that there was a change in the method of warfare
(Поповић
2006:165-275).
Although we know for certain that large-scale construc¬
tion works were undertaken in the area of the Belgrade fortress during this period,
the number of tools that can be linked to them directly is very small
(1.71%).
Other
than trowels (Cat.
Nos.
179-180),
we know of no other find of this type. However,
the scale of construction can be registered indirectly by means of the already men¬
tioned numerous finds of tools for processing wood and stone, with which the
required material was obtained and prepared for building (Table
1 ).
Among the tools intended for preparing food
(6.29%),
there were many diffe¬
rent tools that primarily indicate the existence of the baker's (Cat.
Nos.
187-192)
and butcher's trades (Cat.
Nos.
194-195).
The finds of knives, which we can also
include in these tools, were the least represented in this phase, given that they con¬
stituted only
12.00%
of the tools discovered.
* * *
In observing the representation of certain types of tools in the Belgrade fortress, as
well as their typological development between the 3rd and the 17th century, one may
learn a great deal about the chief occupations of its inhabitants, as well as their
social stratification.
On the basis of the dated finds, the said period is divided into three different
phases, whereby there is a gap of several centuries between the first (3rd-7th century)
and the second phase (14th-15th century). Owing to the penetration of barbarians,
the crash of the Byzantine rule at the beginning of the 7th century certainly had
126
types
of tools
3rd-7th century
14th-15th century
16th-18th century
without dating
number of tools
hoe
2
6
1
9
digger
6
6
mattock
4
4
pick
20
20
prooning-hook
1
1
1
3
sickle
1
2
3
scythe
2
2
grapple
2
2
axe
3
4
39
3
49
claw-hammer
2
1
3
saw
1
1
plane
2
2
gimlet
1
1
1
3
tanner knife
3
4
7
scissors
1
3
6
1
11
awl
1
1
cast spoon
1
1
anvil
1
1
2
hammer
7
1
8
tongs
3
1
4
punch
2
3
5
rasp
4
1
5
pick-axe
1
1
peg
1
1
chisel
20
20
hamer
for stone working
1
1
2
compass
1
1
trowel
2
2
mortar
CO
ГО
pestle
3
3
1
7
scraper
5
5
rotary cutter
1
1
shovel
1
1
hack
2
2
knive
5
19
21
11
56
tools of unknown purposse
10
10
TOTAL
13(4.96%)
39(14.89%)
185(70.61%)
25 (9.54%)
262
significant effect on the further life and development of the city. However, Belgra¬
de is mentioned as the Episcopal seat in the year
878,
which points out to the fact
that the city gain again its significance. Archaeological finds from the 9th to the 11th
century, among them the bone tools, represent testify to the said fact
(Марјановић-
Вујовић
1978: 7-14;
Бикић
1994: 31-44;
Поповић
2006: 49-54,
with the said lite¬
rature). The return of the Byzantine empire on the River Danube, during the second
half of the 11th century, brings Belgrade fortress back into the centre of the atten¬
tion, since it reapers, attesting primarily by the pottery
(Бикић
1994:44-62),
as the
important conterminal fortress
(Popović
2006: 61-84,
with the said literature).
Thereby, the
non
existence of any metal tools from the period between the 7th and
14th century represents, above all, the result of the exploration extent of said layers,
which most probably were destroyed during the numerous building projects.
Agriculture was the mainstay of economic life in the Belgrade fortress during
the first
(
3rd-7th century) and the third phase
( 1
6th-l 8th century)
,
seeing that agri¬
cultural tools were the most numerous during the said periods (Table
1 ).
On the other
hand, the composition of the tools used for this purpose, indicates that the tools for
digging, i.e. mattocks and hoes were chiefly used, whereas tools for harvesting,
reaping and vine growing i.e. sickles, scythes and pruning hooks were represented
in a lesser measure (Table
2).
This ratio coincides with the „urbanisation" of the
Belgrade fortress and the cultivation of cereals and vineyards in the more distant
neighbourhood.
Like agriculture, trades were attested during all three phases although percen¬
tage-wise, these economic activities were the most prominent in the period of the
14th and 15th centuries. The finds of tools used for these economic activities appear
in various numbers and forms, depending on the trades for which they were inten¬
ded. Accordingly, one can perceive a change in the structure of the population,
which, as new occupations emerged, slowly grew into a middle-class society.
The basic trades were woodworking and making clothes from fabric, which
appeared during a broader span of time from the 3rd to the 18th century. Conside¬
ring that in both cases, the number of the types of tools intended for these activities
increased, we might speak of the appearance of new trades. We can follow this
process, which was stipulated by the appearance or frequent use of specific fabrics
in the production of clothing, best from the tools intended for processing wool,
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
127
Table
2.
A review
of the representation
of the basic groups
of tools according
to historical periods
128
ОРУЂ
E
ОД МЕТАЛА
са
БЕОГРАДСКЕ
ТВРЂАВЕ
leather and cloth. Thus, judging by the tools discovered in the first phase, wool was
commonly used. During the 14th and 15th centuries, it was replaced by leather,
whereas from the 16th century fabric was used most often.
The further development of the middle class was directly linked to the
appearance of new trades, such as metalworking, which was attested by the finds
dating from the 14th to the 15th century, and stone working, which can be followed
from the 16th to the 18th century. In time, metalworking branched out into several
sub-groups of occupations, given that in addition to processing iron, which we
know from the finds dating from the period of the 14th and the 15th centuries, and
the goldsmith's trade appeared during the 16th to the 18th century (Table
2).
Building represented a particular occupation of the inhabitants of the Belgrade
fortress. Unfortunately, this is difficult to follow on the basis of the discovered
tools, which can definitely be linked to this type of activity (Table
1 ).
However, the
quantity of typologically diverse tools linked to the working of wood and stone
(Table
1 )
indirectly points to the scale of building itself, in the particular phases.
The final type of activity attested in the area of the Belgrade fortress was the
preparation of food. Based on finds of the relevant tools and utensils, this type of
activity is known to have existed in the period between the 14th and the 18th centu¬
ry. Given that, since it was almost inconceivable that finds of this type did not exist
during the period of Antiquity, in the group of food processing tools we included
the finds of knives, which, besides their manifold purposes, primarily served for
processing food.
The classified finds of tools and utensils made of metal shed light on some of the
activities in the Belgrade fortress during the period from the 3rd to the 18th century
and represent only one aspect of the activities its inhabitants were engaged in. A
future analysis of all the available materials, from historical sources to the archae¬
ological artifacts, of which the mentioned finds represent only one segment, will
offer a clear picture about the development of the economy in one of the important
strategic fortifications in the Danube River basin.
LIST OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
ОРУЂЕ
ОД МЕТАЛА
Fig.
і
.
Belgrade
fortress,
zones
with the higest concentration of tools
τ
вТђав^
і
129
Fig. 2.
Traian's column, detail (after
Поповић
1988:
T.
XLVI/l)
Fig. 3.
The Gospel from Prizren: The fight between the winegrowers (after
Радојчић
1966:
T.
XV)
Fig,
4.
Hoe (Cat. No.
1)
Fig.
5.
Hoe (Cat. No.
4)
Fig.
5.
Hoe (Cat. No.
5)
Fig.
7.
Pick (Cat. No.
36)
Fig.
8.
Pick, detail (Cat. No.
36)
Fig.
9.
Decani Monastery, the north wall of
naos:
Noah processing the vineyard (after
Тодић, Чанак-Медић
2005:
ел.
270)
Fig. 10. Ravanica
Monastery, the drum of the main dome: Prophet Zachary the Young
(after
Благојевић
1973:
T.
6)
Fíg.
11
Sickle (Cat. No.
43)
Fig.
12.
Pecka Patrijaršija
Monastery, the tympanum of the biforis in the churche of
st. Demetrius: Prophet Zachary the Young (after
Благојевић
1973:
T.
4)
Fig,
13.
Decani Monastery, Paraclesios of st. Nicolas: St. Nicolas subverts the idols
(after
Благојевић
1973:
T.
2)
Fig. 14.
Axe (Cat. No.
68)
Fig. 15.
Axe (Cat. No.
72)
Fig. 16.
Axe (Cat. No.
81)
Fig. 17.
Axe (Cat. No.
82)
Fig.
í
8.
Axe (Cat. No.
83)
Fig.
19.
Axe (Cat. No.
84)
Fig.
20.
Axe (Cat. No.
85)
Fig.
21.
Axe (Cat. No.
88)
Fig.
22.
Claw-hammer (Cat. No.
100)
Fig.
23.
Studenica Monastery, King's church, north-west pendentive: Evangelist Luke
(after
prema
Бабић
1987:
ел.
89)
Fig. 24.
Scissors (Cat. No.
118)
Fig.
25.
Mum scissors (Cat. No.
118)
Fig.
26.
Anvil (Cat. No.
128)
CONTENTS
Увод
Историјат истраживања
3
7
Пољопривредно
оруђе
_12
Мотика
_13
Ашов _18
Будак _19
Пијук _21
Косир _25
Срп _27
Коса _29
Алат
за обраду дрвета _32
Чакља _33
Секира _34
Кесер
-47
Тестера _48
Стругач за дрво
-49
Сврдло
-50
Алат за обраду
коже,
вуне
и текстила _52
Кожарски нож
-53
Маказе
-56
Шило -61
Оруђе
за обраду метала
_62
Ливачка кашика
,63
Наковањ
_64
Чекић
за обраду метала
_65
Машице
_69
Пробојац
_71
Турпија
_72
Алат за обраду камена
_74
Крамп-секира
_75
Клин
_76
Длето
л
Чекић
за обраду камена
_82
Грађевински
алат
_84
Шестар
_86
Мистрија
_86
Алат и прибор за обраду хране
_88
Аван и тучак
Стругач
_89
_92
Закључна
размі
Радла
_93
Metal Toais
fro
Лопата
_94
Summary
Сатара
_94
Нож
_95
Библиографија
Апят нрппчнятр нямрнр
104
Табле
.106
116
132
140 |
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| author | Špehar, Perica |
| author_facet | Špehar, Perica |
| author_role | aut |
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| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV035171869 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)611816681 (DE-599)BVBBV035171869 |
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| era_facet | Geschichte 200-1800 |
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| geographic | Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad (DE-588)4241131-2 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad |
| id | DE-604.BV035171869 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T22:54:38Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:26:38Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788680619422 9788680093499 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016978789 |
| oclc_num | 611816681 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR |
| physical | 158 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2007 |
| publishDateSearch | 2007 |
| publishDateSort | 2007 |
| publisher | Muzej Grada Beograda [u.a.] |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Špehar, Perica Verfasser aut Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka Perica Špehar Beograd Muzej Grada Beograda [u.a.] 2007 158 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier In kyrill. Schr., serb. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Metal tools from the Belgrade fortress Geschichte 200-1800 gnd rswk-swf Metallfund (DE-588)4128496-3 gnd rswk-swf Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad (DE-588)4241131-2 gnd rswk-swf Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad (DE-588)4241131-2 g Metallfund (DE-588)4128496-3 s Geschichte 200-1800 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016978789&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016978789&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Špehar, Perica Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka Metallfund (DE-588)4128496-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4128496-3 (DE-588)4241131-2 |
| title | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka |
| title_auth | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka |
| title_exact_search | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka |
| title_full | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka Perica Špehar |
| title_fullStr | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka Perica Špehar |
| title_full_unstemmed | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave od antike do kraja 18. veka Perica Špehar |
| title_short | Oruđe od metala sa Beogradske tvrđave |
| title_sort | orude od metala sa beogradske tvrdave od antike do kraja 18 veka |
| title_sub | od antike do kraja 18. veka |
| topic | Metallfund (DE-588)4128496-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Metallfund Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016978789&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016978789&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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