Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863):
Saved in:
| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Polish |
| Published: |
Poznań
Instytut Historii UAM
2008
|
| Series: | Publikacje Instytutu Historii UAM
82 |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The Great Emigration in the British Isles 1831-1863 |
| Physical Description: | 337, [1] s. il. 25 cm. |
| ISBN: | 9788389407429 |
Staff View
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| 490 | 1 | |a Publikacje Instytutu Historii UAM |v 82 | |
| 500 | |a Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The Great Emigration in the British Isles 1831-1863 | ||
| 648 | 4 | |a Geschichte 1800-1900 | |
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte 1831-1863 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Geschichte | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Migration | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Intellectuals |z Poland | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Polish people |z Great Britain |x History |y 19th century | |
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| 651 | 4 | |a Großbritannien | |
| 651 | 4 | |a Polen | |
| 651 | 4 | |a Great Britain |x Emigration and immigration | |
| 651 | 4 | |a Great Britain |x Relations |z Poland | |
| 651 | 4 | |a Poland |x Emigration and immigration | |
| 651 | 4 | |a Poland |x Relations |z Great Britain | |
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1826680287972556800 |
|---|---|
| adam_text |
SPIS TREŚCI
Wstęp
. 9
Rozdział
1.
Wybór. Liczebność
i geografía
wspólnoty
. 17
Uwarunkowania wyboru Wielkiej Brytanii
. 18
Liczebność emigracji polskiej. Drogi i sposoby docierania na Wyspy
. 24
Geografia rozproszenia
. 31
Podsumowanie
. 40
Rozdział
2.
„Azyl narodów"
. 42
Polityka imigracyjna i status prawny uchodźców w Anglii
. 43
Wsparcie materialne dla Polaków
. 49
Nadzór nad emigrantami
. 65
Podsumowanie
. 82
Rozdział
3.
Aktywność polityczna
. 86
Uwarunkowania ogólne
. 87
Periodyzacja i ramy organizacyjne
. 94
Charakterystyczne treści, cechy i formy
. 107
Podsumowanie
. 134
Rozdział
4.
Życie naukowe, kulturalne i religijne
. 137
Oświata i nauka
. 139
Życie kulturalne i twórczość
. 153
Życie religijne
. 170
Podsumowanie
. 183
Rozdział
5.
Wychodźcza codzienność
. 185
Źródła utrzymania
. 186
Warunki materialne i poziom życia
. 196
Rodziny, życie towarzyskie i rekreacja
. 205
Zdrowie, choroby i śmierć
. 214
Podsumowanie
. 225
Rozdział
6.
Patologie
. 227
Patologie w granicach prawa
. 229
Naruszenia porządku prawnego i statystyka przestępczości Polaków
. 234
Emigracja wobec zachowań patologicznych
. 255
Podsumowanie
. 262
Rozdział
7.
Emigracja w obliczu niechcianego trwania
. 264
W kręgu stereotypów i narodowych wizerunków
. 265
Dalsze scenariusze. Asymilacja, wyjazd czy walka o tożsamość?
. 281
Podsumowanie
. 294
Uwagi końcowe
. 297
Bibliografía
. 302
Wykaz skrótów
. 321
Wykaz ilustracji
. 322
Wykaz tabel
. 323
Indeks osób
. 324
The Great Emigration in the British Isles
(1831-1863)
(Summary)
. 337
The Great Emigration in the British Isles
(1831-1863)
Summary
First insurgents of the failed Polish insurrection against Russia began to arrive in Western Europe in
the autumn of
1831.
After some early heralds of the defeat, ever more politicians and soldiers decided to
emigrate, as they declined to depend on the mercy of the tsar and planned to continue their struggle for
the independence of Poland. For various political, cultural and financial reasons the vast majority of them
went to France where several thousand Poles settled permanently. Others took refuge in the German
states, Belgium, Switzerland, Turkey and USA, yet during the 1830s the second largest Polish Diaspora
(after France) was the one in Britain.
This study is a history of the British branch of the Great Emigration. In the Polish historiography the
term is usually used to describe more than
15 000
refugees who left Poland between the defeat of the
November uprising in
1831
and the beginning of the January uprising in
1863.
The author estimates that
about
2600-2700
of the insurgents or their family members stayed in the United Kingdom for some time,
though their number never reached that figure at any particular time. Until
1834
there were only several
dozen of Polish refugees in the UK, though the number increased later and fluctuated between
450
and
800
persons within a year.
The Great Emigration has for a long time attracted the attention of scholars and many of its
important aspects have been discussed in details. Most researches, however, have concentrated on the
French branch of the Emigration and those who investigated the Poles living in Britain focused almost
exclusively on their political life. In this work, the author has attempted to look at the Polish community
in Victorian England in a more comprehensive manner. The first chapter deals with the motives and
circumstances which directed Polish refugees to Great Britain and with the geography of their dispersion
in the Isles. The second chapter comments on the conditions offered to the exiles by the British authorities
and the society, including their legal status, financial assistance and surveillance under which their were
placed. The next chapter analyses the phenomenon that most strongly determined the character of the
Great Emigration, ie its political activity. In chapter four intellectual and religious life of the refugees is
described. The next two chapters are dedicated to the problems of emigrants' everyday life
-
the fifth
chapter analyzes their standard of life and health and chapter six outlines the pathologies and social
dysfunctions among the refugees' ranks. The last chapter outlines the emigrants' reactions to ever
diminishing chances of their triumphal comeback to Poland and reconstructs mutual stereotypes of Poles
and Britons in the 1830s, 1840s and 1850s. All chapters have short summaries at the end with some
additional comparative material.
Although opinions that there were no restrictions imposed upon foreign exiles in Britain are dubious,
Victorian England was surely an exceptional asylum. The main reason for that was liberal political course
taken by subsequent HM governments and almost unquestioned consent as to the value of civil liberties
and rights in Britain. It is noteworthy that many Poles arriving to the UK had been expelled on political
grounds from other European countries. The United Kingdom was the last sheet anchor for them in
Europe and they took full advantage of the opportunities for continuing their political life there.
The emigrants' living conditions in Britain were a bit harder than on the Continent
-
especially after
1848.
The relatively high cost of living was at the roots of most of the troubles and complaints of the
Polish newcomers. It should be remembered, however, that considerable number of exiles received
allowances from the British government or different charity organizations and more than
232 000
pounds
337
were spent to cover their needs between the years
1831
and
1862.
In the laissez-faire atmosphere of
Victorian England some refugees were better, some worse off. Many of them
-
particularly those of noble
or even aristocratic origin
-
had to accept quite new social roles. In
1858
Literary Association of the
Friends of Poland gathered information about more than
300
refugees working in the UK and
127
of them
worked as unskilled workers,
125
were artisans, contractors or small businessmen, and only
55
re¬
presented highly qualified jobs, such as teachers, engineers, clerks, doctors, priests or artists.
The Polish emigration of
1831-1863
is usually called „Great Emigration" not because of its size but
due to its social make-up and intellectual achievements. Three quarters of the
émigrés
came from Polish
aristocracy and landed gentry (in Polish:
szlachta)
and there were disproportionately many army officers,
parliament members, journalists, scientists, writers and poets among them. This observation is true as far
as the whole emigration is concerned. The British branch of the Polish Diaspora had clearly less of this
elite character. In
1834
over
200
former private soldiers of the Polish Army landed in Portsmouth and
after the revolutions of the late 1840s a new wave of refugees coming from middle or lower classes joined
the Polish community. There was also no one in England who could be compared with the exiled Polish
authors staying in France, such as Adam
Mickiewicz
and
Juliusz Słowacki.
Although their intellectual
legacy is surprisingly diverse, the achievements of Poles in Victorian Britain are not of particularly high
level. Polish translations of Shakespeare by
Stanisław
E.
Koźmian
and Leon
Ulrich, a
poetry of
Tomasz
A. Olizarowski, some historical essays of
Walerian Krasiński
and the journalism of
Stanisław Worcell
should be mentioned among the most outstanding achievements. Literary and scientific output of
emigrants had some influence on the Polish culture, but owing to its particular character it passed almost
unnoticed in England.
No wonder that the greatest part of the refugees' activity was related to politics and they had some
ups
and a lot of downs in this field. The escape from Poland gave the insurgents personal safety and quite
new possibilities for political activity. They took that chance and for almost three decades became the
genuine centre of Polish politics and in some sense represented Polish interests in Europe. The Poles
living in Britain had their merits in all that and in some aspects
—
like the rise and the development
of the early Polish socialism
-
they even played a key role. But they also shared most important failures
of the Great Emigration. Like their compatriots in other countries they hoped and strived in vain for the
reconstruction of independent Poland. Although they did what they could, the political map of Eastern
Europe in the 19th century remained unaltered. Another painful failure was that in the course of time the
emigrants gradually lost the ability of sensing and regulating the political pulse of their homeland. It was
reflected by the cold reception that the appeals of Polish democrats from London were met with in Poland
in the
18503.
When writing about the Poles in Victorian Britain it is difficult to refrain from comparing them with
other exiles there. In many aspects they perfectly resembled each other. A sharp internal conflicts
harassed the Poles, Italians, Frenchmen, Germans and Hungarians alike. None of these communities
stayed clear of social pathologies outlined in chapter six. Many patterns of their political, professional and
recreative activity seem to belong to the same model of behaviour of political refugees in the 19th century
Britain. Far from being unique and special, the British branch of the Great Emigration had some
characteristic features. The abundance of the forms of national life and prolonged existence so much
dependent on the situation in Poland are just two main examples. Together with other factors they shaped
a specific type of a Polish
émigré
-
often indolent and idle but always patriotic and ready to fight for
freedom. And it was in this way that they were predominantly perceived in Great Britain.
Translated by
Tomasz
Wiňski |
| adam_txt |
SPIS TREŚCI
Wstęp
. 9
Rozdział
1.
Wybór. Liczebność
i geografía
wspólnoty
. 17
Uwarunkowania wyboru Wielkiej Brytanii
. 18
Liczebność emigracji polskiej. Drogi i sposoby docierania na Wyspy
. 24
Geografia rozproszenia
. 31
Podsumowanie
. 40
Rozdział
2.
„Azyl narodów"
. 42
Polityka imigracyjna i status prawny uchodźców w Anglii
. 43
Wsparcie materialne dla Polaków
. 49
Nadzór nad emigrantami
. 65
Podsumowanie
. 82
Rozdział
3.
Aktywność polityczna
. 86
Uwarunkowania ogólne
. 87
Periodyzacja i ramy organizacyjne
. 94
Charakterystyczne treści, cechy i formy
. 107
Podsumowanie
. 134
Rozdział
4.
Życie naukowe, kulturalne i religijne
. 137
Oświata i nauka
. 139
Życie kulturalne i twórczość
. 153
Życie religijne
. 170
Podsumowanie
. 183
Rozdział
5.
Wychodźcza codzienność
. 185
Źródła utrzymania
. 186
Warunki materialne i poziom życia
. 196
Rodziny, życie towarzyskie i rekreacja
. 205
Zdrowie, choroby i śmierć
. 214
Podsumowanie
. 225
Rozdział
6.
Patologie
. 227
Patologie w granicach prawa
. 229
Naruszenia porządku prawnego i statystyka przestępczości Polaków
. 234
Emigracja wobec zachowań patologicznych
. 255
Podsumowanie
. 262
Rozdział
7.
Emigracja w obliczu niechcianego trwania
. 264
W kręgu stereotypów i narodowych wizerunków
. 265
Dalsze scenariusze. Asymilacja, wyjazd czy walka o tożsamość?
. 281
Podsumowanie
. 294
Uwagi końcowe
. 297
Bibliografía
. 302
Wykaz skrótów
. 321
Wykaz ilustracji
. 322
Wykaz tabel
. 323
Indeks osób
. 324
The Great Emigration in the British Isles
(1831-1863)
(Summary)
. 337
The Great Emigration in the British Isles
(1831-1863)
Summary
First insurgents of the failed Polish insurrection against Russia began to arrive in Western Europe in
the autumn of
1831.
After some early heralds of the defeat, ever more politicians and soldiers decided to
emigrate, as they declined to depend on the mercy of the tsar and planned to continue their struggle for
the independence of Poland. For various political, cultural and financial reasons the vast majority of them
went to France where several thousand Poles settled permanently. Others took refuge in the German
states, Belgium, Switzerland, Turkey and USA, yet during the 1830s the second largest Polish Diaspora
(after France) was the one in Britain.
This study is a history of the British branch of the Great Emigration. In the Polish historiography the
term is usually used to describe more than
15 000
refugees who left Poland between the defeat of the
November uprising in
1831
and the beginning of the January uprising in
1863.
The author estimates that
about
2600-2700
of the insurgents or their family members stayed in the United Kingdom for some time,
though their number never reached that figure at any particular time. Until
1834
there were only several
dozen of Polish refugees in the UK, though the number increased later and fluctuated between
450
and
800
persons within a year.
The Great Emigration has for a long time attracted the attention of scholars and many of its
important aspects have been discussed in details. Most researches, however, have concentrated on the
French branch of the Emigration and those who investigated the Poles living in Britain focused almost
exclusively on their political life. In this work, the author has attempted to look at the Polish community
in Victorian England in a more comprehensive manner. The first chapter deals with the motives and
circumstances which directed Polish refugees to Great Britain and with the geography of their dispersion
in the Isles. The second chapter comments on the conditions offered to the exiles by the British authorities
and the society, including their legal status, financial assistance and surveillance under which their were
placed. The next chapter analyses the phenomenon that most strongly determined the character of the
Great Emigration, ie its political activity. In chapter four intellectual and religious life of the refugees is
described. The next two chapters are dedicated to the problems of emigrants' everyday life
-
the fifth
chapter analyzes their standard of life and health and chapter six outlines the pathologies and social
dysfunctions among the refugees' ranks. The last chapter outlines the emigrants' reactions to ever
diminishing chances of their triumphal comeback to Poland and reconstructs mutual stereotypes of Poles
and Britons in the 1830s, 1840s and 1850s. All chapters have short summaries at the end with some
additional comparative material.
Although opinions that there were no restrictions imposed upon foreign exiles in Britain are dubious,
Victorian England was surely an exceptional asylum. The main reason for that was liberal political course
taken by subsequent HM governments and almost unquestioned consent as to the value of civil liberties
and rights in Britain. It is noteworthy that many Poles arriving to the UK had been expelled on political
grounds from other European countries. The United Kingdom was the last sheet anchor for them in
Europe and they took full advantage of the opportunities for continuing their political life there.
The emigrants' living conditions in Britain were a bit harder than on the Continent
-
especially after
1848.
The relatively high cost of living was at the roots of most of the troubles and complaints of the
Polish newcomers. It should be remembered, however, that considerable number of exiles received
allowances from the British government or different charity organizations and more than
232 000
pounds
337
were spent to cover their needs between the years
1831
and
1862.
In the laissez-faire atmosphere of
Victorian England some refugees were better, some worse off. Many of them
-
particularly those of noble
or even aristocratic origin
-
had to accept quite new social roles. In
1858
Literary Association of the
Friends of Poland gathered information about more than
300
refugees working in the UK and
127
of them
worked as unskilled workers,
125
were artisans, contractors or small businessmen, and only
55
re¬
presented highly qualified jobs, such as teachers, engineers, clerks, doctors, priests or artists.
The Polish emigration of
1831-1863
is usually called „Great Emigration" not because of its size but
due to its social make-up and intellectual achievements. Three quarters of the
émigrés
came from Polish
aristocracy and landed gentry (in Polish:
szlachta)
and there were disproportionately many army officers,
parliament members, journalists, scientists, writers and poets among them. This observation is true as far
as the whole emigration is concerned. The British branch of the Polish Diaspora had clearly less of this
elite character. In
1834
over
200
former private soldiers of the Polish Army landed in Portsmouth and
after the revolutions of the late 1840s a new wave of refugees coming from middle or lower classes joined
the Polish community. There was also no one in England who could be compared with the exiled Polish
authors staying in France, such as Adam
Mickiewicz
and
Juliusz Słowacki.
Although their intellectual
legacy is surprisingly diverse, the achievements of Poles in Victorian Britain are not of particularly high
level. Polish translations of Shakespeare by
Stanisław
E.
Koźmian
and Leon
Ulrich, a
poetry of
Tomasz
A. Olizarowski, some historical essays of
Walerian Krasiński
and the journalism of
Stanisław Worcell
should be mentioned among the most outstanding achievements. Literary and scientific output of
emigrants had some influence on the Polish culture, but owing to its particular character it passed almost
unnoticed in England.
No wonder that the greatest part of the refugees' activity was related to politics and they had some
ups
and a lot of downs in this field. The escape from Poland gave the insurgents personal safety and quite
new possibilities for political activity. They took that chance and for almost three decades became the
genuine centre of Polish politics and in some sense represented Polish interests in Europe. The Poles
living in Britain had their merits in all that and in some aspects
—
like the rise and the development
of the early Polish socialism
-
they even played a key role. But they also shared most important failures
of the Great Emigration. Like their compatriots in other countries they hoped and strived in vain for the
reconstruction of independent Poland. Although they did what they could, the political map of Eastern
Europe in the 19th century remained unaltered. Another painful failure was that in the course of time the
emigrants gradually lost the ability of sensing and regulating the political pulse of their homeland. It was
reflected by the cold reception that the appeals of Polish democrats from London were met with in Poland
in the
18503.
When writing about the Poles in Victorian Britain it is difficult to refrain from comparing them with
other exiles there. In many aspects they perfectly resembled each other. A sharp internal conflicts
harassed the Poles, Italians, Frenchmen, Germans and Hungarians alike. None of these communities
stayed clear of social pathologies outlined in chapter six. Many patterns of their political, professional and
recreative activity seem to belong to the same model of behaviour of political refugees in the 19th century
Britain. Far from being unique and special, the British branch of the Great Emigration had some
characteristic features. The abundance of the forms of national life and prolonged existence so much
dependent on the situation in Poland are just two main examples. Together with other factors they shaped
a specific type of a Polish
émigré
-
often indolent and idle but always patriotic and ready to fight for
freedom. And it was in this way that they were predominantly perceived in Great Britain.
Translated by
Tomasz
Wiňski |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Marchlewicz, Krzysztof 1971- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1197651942 |
| author_facet | Marchlewicz, Krzysztof 1971- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Marchlewicz, Krzysztof 1971- |
| author_variant | k m km |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV035167787 |
| callnumber-first | D - World History |
| callnumber-label | DA125 |
| callnumber-raw | DA125.P6 |
| callnumber-search | DA125.P6 |
| callnumber-sort | DA 3125 P6 |
| callnumber-subject | DA - Great Britain |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)299062376 (DE-599)BVBBV035167787 |
| era | Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1831-1863 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1831-1863 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Großbritannien Polen Great Britain Emigration and immigration Great Britain Relations Poland Poland Emigration and immigration Poland Relations Great Britain Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Großbritannien Polen Great Britain Emigration and immigration Great Britain Relations Poland Poland Emigration and immigration Poland Relations Great Britain |
| id | DE-604.BV035167787 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T22:53:10Z |
| indexdate | 2025-03-15T17:01:13Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788389407429 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016974784 |
| oclc_num | 299062376 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 337, [1] s. il. 25 cm. |
| publishDate | 2008 |
| publishDateSearch | 2008 |
| publishDateSort | 2008 |
| publisher | Instytut Historii UAM |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Publikacje Instytutu Historii UAM |
| series2 | Publikacje Instytutu Historii UAM |
| spelling | Marchlewicz, Krzysztof 1971- Verfasser (DE-588)1197651942 aut Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) Krzysztof Marchlewicz Poznań Instytut Historii UAM 2008 337, [1] s. il. 25 cm. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Publikacje Instytutu Historii UAM 82 Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The Great Emigration in the British Isles 1831-1863 Geschichte 1800-1900 Geschichte 1831-1863 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte Migration Intellectuals Poland Polish people Great Britain History 19th century Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 gnd rswk-swf Exil (DE-588)4015959-0 gnd rswk-swf Großbritannien Polen Great Britain Emigration and immigration Great Britain Relations Poland Poland Emigration and immigration Poland Relations Great Britain Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 gnd rswk-swf Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 s Exil (DE-588)4015959-0 s Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 g Geschichte 1831-1863 z DE-604 Publikacje Instytutu Historii UAM 82 (DE-604)BV010879172 82 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016974784&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016974784&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Marchlewicz, Krzysztof 1971- Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) Publikacje Instytutu Historii UAM Geschichte Migration Intellectuals Poland Polish people Great Britain History 19th century Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 gnd Exil (DE-588)4015959-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4046497-0 (DE-588)4015959-0 (DE-588)4022153-2 |
| title | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) |
| title_auth | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) |
| title_exact_search | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) |
| title_full | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) Krzysztof Marchlewicz |
| title_fullStr | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) Krzysztof Marchlewicz |
| title_full_unstemmed | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) Krzysztof Marchlewicz |
| title_short | Wielka Emigracja na Wyspach Brytyjskich (1831-1863) |
| title_sort | wielka emigracja na wyspach brytyjskich 1831 1863 |
| topic | Geschichte Migration Intellectuals Poland Polish people Great Britain History 19th century Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 gnd Exil (DE-588)4015959-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Geschichte Migration Intellectuals Poland Polish people Great Britain History 19th century Polen Volk Exil Großbritannien Polen Great Britain Emigration and immigration Great Britain Relations Poland Poland Emigration and immigration Poland Relations Great Britain |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016974784&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016974784&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV010879172 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT marchlewiczkrzysztof wielkaemigracjanawyspachbrytyjskich18311863 |