Particulate matter science for policy makers: a NARSTO assessment
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| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Cambridge
Cambridge University Press
2004
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Publisher description Table of contents only Contributor biographical information Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | Includes bibliographical references |
| Physical Description: | xxxi, 510 p. ill. (chiefly col.), maps (chiefly col.), 1 port. 29 cm |
| ISBN: | 0521842875 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Particulate matter science for policy makers |b a NARSTO assessment |c edited by Peter H. McMurry, Marjorie F. Shepherd, James S. Vickery |
| 264 | 1 | |a Cambridge |b Cambridge University Press |c 2004 | |
| 300 | |a xxxi, 510 p. |b ill. (chiefly col.), maps (chiefly col.), 1 port. |c 29 cm | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Includes bibliographical references | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Umwelt | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Particles |x Environmental aspects | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Air quality | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Air |x Pollution | |
| 700 | 1 | |a McMurry, Peter H. |e Sonstige |4 oth | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Shepherd, Marjorie F. |e Sonstige |4 oth | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Vickery, James S. |e Sonstige |4 oth | |
| 710 | 2 | |a North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone |e Sonstige |0 (DE-588)5533722-3 |4 oth | |
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| 856 | 4 | |u http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0733/2005299163-b.html |3 Contributor biographical information | |
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| _version_ | 1804138313525755904 |
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| adam_text | Titel: Particulate matter science for policy makers
Autor: Macmurry, Peter Howard
Jahr: 2004
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
LIST OF TABLES xxiii
PREFACE xxvii
Commissioning of the Assessment xxvii
Verifying the Needs of Policy Makers xxviii
Preparing the Assessment xxix
Assessment Co-chairs xxix
Lead Authors xxix
Contributing Authors xxix
NARSTO Staff xxx
Acknowledgements xxx
MEMORIAL TO PROFESSOR GLEN CASS (1947-2001) xxxi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
pm25 mass and composition responses to changing
EMISSIONS 1
LOCAL, REGIONAL, AND CONTINENTAL MANAGEMENT OF PM2 5 2
PREDICTIVE CAPABILITIES 2
COPOLLUTANT INTERACTIONS 3
NEW INSIGHTS FROM IMPROVED MEASUREMENTS AND
MONITORING 3
LINKAGES BETWEEN THE HEALTH AND ATMOSPHERIC
SCIENCE COMMUNITIES 3
TRACKING PROGRESS AND SUCCESS OF AIR-QUALITY
MANAGEMENT 4
SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTIES AND LOOKING FORWARD 4
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY
MAKERS: SYNTHESIS 7
THE INFORMATION FRAMEWORK 7
AIR-QUALITY MANAGEMENT: A POLICY OVERVIEW 9
THE NATURE OF PM: A BRIEF OVERVIEW 9
PM ISSUES AND POLICY QUESTIONS 12
CONTENTS
Policy Question #1 - Is there a significant PM problem and how confident are we?
Key science findings
Spatial and temporal characterization
Measurements
Health effects
Chemical deposition
Visibility and Climate
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #2 - Where there is a PM problem, what is its composition and what factors
contribute to elevated concentrations?
Key science findings
Composition and the factor of seasonality
Emissions and atmospheric processes as contributing factors
Regional contributions
™,o
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #3 - What broad, pollutant-based, approaches might be taken to fix the problem?
Key science findings
Coincident reduction of precursors
Reduction of carbonaceous PM
Reduction of nitrates
Differing regional strategies
The SOf- NOf - NHf equilibrium
Area-specific insights
Regional reductions
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #4 - What source-specific options are there for fixing the problem given
the broad control approaches above?
Key science findings
Source-attribution approaches
Source-based modeling: Chemical-Transport Models
Receptor modeling
Emission inventories and source insights
Sources of PM
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #5 - What is the relationship between PM, its components, and other
air-pollution problems on which the atmospheric-science community is working?
Key science findings
Visibility (regional haze)
Ozone
Chemical deposition (from PQ #/)
Climate change (from PQ#1)
New science to improve implementation approaches
12
14
14
15
17
18
18
19
19
19
19
21
21
24
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29
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..36
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PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
Policy Question #6 - How can progress be measured? How can we determine the effectiveness
of our actions in bringing about emission reductions and air-quality improvements,
with their corresponding exposure reductions and health improvements? 39
Key science findings 40
Tracking emission changes 40
Tracking trends in ambient air-quality 40
Tracking changes in visibility 43
Tracking changes in exposure and health 44
New science to improve implementation approaches 44
Policy Question #7 - When and how should implementation programs be reassessed and updated
to adjust for any weaknesses, and to take advantage of advances in science
and technology? 44
Key science findings 44
New science to improve implementation approaches 46
Policy Question #8 - What further atmospheric-sciences information will be needed in
the periodic reviews of national standards? 46
Key science findings 46
PM measurement considerations 47
Exposure-science considerations 47
Health-science considerations 48
Air-quality and exposure-modeling consi-derations 48
New science to improve implementation approaches 49
BENEFITS TO THE POLICY COMMUNITY OF NEW SCIENCE 50
REFERENCES 52
CHAPTER 1 PERSPECTIVE FOR MANAGING PM 53
1.1 THE NATURE OF AMBIENT PARTICLES 54
1.2 SCALE, SOURCES, AND MAN-AGEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 56
1.3 HEALTH IMPACTS 59
1.4 VISIBILITY IMPACTS 61
1.5 FEDERAL AMBIENT PM STANDARDS AND POLICY CONTEXTS 62
1.5.1 Canada 62
1.5.2 United States 63
1.5.3 Mexico 64
1.5.4 Implementation of Scientific Information into Decision Making 65
1.6 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ASSESSMENT 66
1.7 REFERENCES 68
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 HEALTH CONTEXT FOR MANAGEMENT
OF PARTICULATE MATTER W
69
2.1 OVERVIEW 69
2.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
2.3 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
2.4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HEALTH RESPONSES TO
AIR POLLUTION ™
2.4.1 Epidemiological Approaches
2.4.2 Controlled-Exposure Studies with Human Subjects
2.4.3 Laboratory Animal Studies ^
2.4.4 Tissue and Cell Studies ^
2.5 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL FINDINGS 83
83
2.5.1 Acute Exposure
2.5.2 Chronic Exposures ^6
2.6 INTERVENTION STUDIES 90
2.7 TOXICOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 92
2.8 POLICY-RELEVANT FINDINGS AND FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES 94
2.9 REFERENCES 95
CHAPTER 3 ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOL PROCESSES 103
3.1 THE LIFE OF AN ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLE 103
3.2 A PARTICLE IS BORN: NUCLEATION 107
3.3 HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE FOR A PARTICLE TO COLLIDE
WITH ANOTHER? 108
3.4 PARTICLES AND WATER 108
3.5 SECONDARY PM FORMATION 109
3.5.1 Sulfate 110
3.5.2 Nitrate HI
3.5.3 Secondary Organic Aerosol (SOA) Formation HI
3.5.4 Interactions of Primary and Secondary PM Components 112
3.6 FROM PRECURSOR EMISSIONS TO AEROSOL COMPONENT
CONCENTRATION u3
3.6.1 Linearity
3.6.2 An Application to Southern California H 5
3.6.3 Effectiveness of S02 Emission Reductions 1 j5
3.6.4 VOC Emission Reductions and SOA jj-y
3.6.5 Limiting Reactants
3.7 REMOVAL AND LONG-RANGE TRANSPORT OF PM 11 q
3.8 PM AND OTHER POLLUTANTS ,T!
3.9 POLICY IMPLICATIONS ^
3.10 REFERENCES....
123
viii
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
CHAPTER 4 EMISSION CHARACTERIZATION 127
4.1 TYPES OF EMISSION INVENTORIES AND THEIR USES 129
4.2 THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EMISSION
INVENTORIES 130
4.2.1 Characterization by Source Category 132
4.2.2 Geographical Distribution of Emissions 137
4.2.3 Temporal Variations, Trends and Forecasts in Emissions 138
4.2.3.1 Temporal Variations 138
4.2.3.2 Trends and Projections 140
4.3 ESTIMATING UNCERTAINTY IN EMISSION INVENTORIES 143
4.4 IMPROVING ESTIMATION METHODS 146
4.4.1 Methodological Improvements 148
4.4.2 The Source/Ambient-Air Interface 149
4.5 HOW WELL DO THE EMISSION INVENTORIES ADDRESS
APPLICATION NEEDS? 151
4.6 SUMMARY 153
4.7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 155
4.8 REFERENCES 156
CHAPTER 5 PARTICLE AND GAS MEASUREMENTS 159
5.1 CURRENTLY AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUMENT
CAPABILITIES 161
5.1.1 Size-Selective Inlets 161
5.1.2 Integrated Denuder and Gravimetric Filter-Based Systems (substrate- and
absorbent-based measurements) for Mass and Composition Sampling 163
5.1.3 Continuous and Semi-continuous Real-time Measurements 166
5.1.4 Personal Exposure Monitors 169
5.1.5 Single-Particle Measurement Capabilities 170
5.1.6 Optical Properties of Aerosols and Long-Path Optical Measurements 170
5.1.7 Chemical Analysis of Cloud and Fog Chemical Composition 173
5.1.8 Gas-Phase PM Precursors, Ozone, Ozone Precursors, and Oxidants 173
5.1.9 Meteorological Measurements 173
5.2 MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY AND VALIDATION 174
5.2.1 Estimation of Particle Measurement Uncertainty 174
5.2.2 Mass and Size Distribution 175
5.2.3 Aerosol Chemical Composition 176
5.2.4 Uncertainties in Routine Gas-phase Measurements Used for Network Monitoring 177
5.3 MEASUREMENT STRATEGIES AND NETWORK ISSUES 178
5.3.1 Deployment of Measurement Technology 178
5.3.2 Future Requirements for Measurement Strategies 182
5.4 SUMMARY 183
ix
CONTENTS
186
5.5 POLICY IMPLICATIONS lg7
5.6 REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF PARTICULATE MATTER 19
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1.1 General Features Affecting Particulate Levels in North America
6.1.2 Spatial and Time Scales of Interest
6.1.3 Monitoring Capabilities
6.2 CONTINENTAL AND REGIONAL VARIATIONS OF PM
CONCENTRATIONS 193
6 - 1 Spatial Variations of PM,„ Mass: Where and When are PM Concentrations Highest? 195
1QR
6.2.2 Spatial Patterns of PM, ,. Mass iyc
6.2.3 Seasonal Variations of PM25 Mass 201
6.2.4 The Composition of PM and Its Geographical Variation
205
6.3 REGIONAL AND URBAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO PM 209
6.3.1 Comparisons Between Rural and Urban Sites 209
6.3.2 Evidence for Local PM Sources: Temporal Variations 209
6.3.3 PM Mass Concentrations at Remote Locations 210
6.3.4 Regional Transport 214
6.4 THE INFLUENCE OF INTERCONTINENTAL AEROSOL TRANSPORT
ON PM MASS CONCENTRATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA 215
6.5 TRENDS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS 217
6.6 COVARIATION OF PM WITH OZONE 223
6.7 SUMMARY 224
6.8 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 229
6.9 REFERENCES 231
CHAPTER 7 RECEPTOR METHODS 235
7.1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 235
7.2 RECEPTOR MODEL TYPES ZZZZIII ZZZZZ 239
7.2.1 Chemical Mass Balance 241
7.2.2 Enrichment Factors 245
7.2.3 Multiple Linear Regression on Marker Species 245
7.2.4 Temporal and Spatial Correlation Eigenvectors 246
7.2.5 Time Series
7.2.6 Neural Networks 247
7.2.7 Aerosol Evolution and Equilibrium 247
7.3 RECEPTOR-MODEL INPUT MEASUREMENTsV27ZZZ.72ZIZIIZZ!Z .. 247
7.3.1 Particle Size .0
248
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PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
7.3.2 Chemical Composition 248
7.3.2.1 Soil, Dust, and Industrial Markers 249
7.3.2.2 Combustion Markers 249
7.3.2.3 Secondary Sulfate and Nitrate 249
7.3.2.4 Carbonaceous Particles 252
7.3.2.5 Secondary Organic Aerosol 255
7.3.2.6 Other Chemical Markers 255
7.3.3 Temporal and Spatial Variability 256
7.3.4 Combining Size, Composition, Space, and Time 256
7.4 RECEPTOR MODELS AND DECISION-MAKING 257
7.4.1 Sulfur Reductions in Canadian Gasoline 257
7.4.2 PM2 5 and Urban Haze in Denver, CO 260
7.4.3 Haze in the Grand Canyon 263
7.4.4 Understanding the Sources of PM10 and PM25 in Mexico City 265
7.5 DEVELOPING PM MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 266
7.5.1 Manageable and Unmanageable Source Contributions 266
7.5.2 Main Contributors to Manageable PM 267
7.6 SUMMARY 269
7.7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 270
7.8 REFERENCES 271
CHAPTER 8 CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS 283
8.1 INTRODUCTION 283
8.2 CURRENT STATUS OF PM CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS 287
8.2.1 Emissions 287
8.2.2 Meteorology 288
8.2.3 Transport and Diffusion Processes 290
8.2.4 Chemical Transformations 290
8.2.5 Representation of PM 291
8.2.6 Deposition Processes 292
8.2.7 Computational Aspects 293
8.3 APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS TO THE
SIMULATION OF EPISODIC AND LONG-TERM PM CONCENTRATIONS 294
8.3.1 Episodic Simulations 294
8.3.2 Long-Term Simulations 294
8.4 WHAT QUESTIONS CAN CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS
ADDRESS AND HOW WELL? 295
8.4.1 Can the Contributions of Various Precursors and Source Types to PM Be Quantified? 295
8.4.2 Can the Relative Contributions of Long-Range Transport and Local Emissions
Be Quantified? 296
8.4.3 Can the Relative Magnitude of Seasonal Contributions to PM Concentrations
XI
CONTENTS
297
Be Represented?
8.4.4 Can the Response of PM Levels to Changes in Emissions and Upwind ^
Concentrations Be Predicted? *
8.4.5 Can the Relationships Between PM and Other Air-Pollution Problems
Be Quantified?
8.4.6 Can Other PM Properties that are Potentially Relevant to Health Effects ^
Be Calculated?
8.4.7 Can PM Episodes Be Forecast in Real Time?
8.5 EVALUATION PROCESS FOR CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS 299
8.5.1 Model Simulations versus Ambient Measurements 299
8 5 2 Overview of the Performance-Evaluation Process 200
^01
8.5.3 Data Needs for CTM Performance Evaluation UA
8.5.4 Corroboration of CTM Results with Indicator-Species Methods 201
8.6 CURRENT STATUS OF CTM PERFORMANCE AND INTERCOMPARISONS 302
8.7 USE OF CTMS TO COMPLEMENT MONITORING NETWORKS 306
8.8 USE OF CTMS TO SUPPORT ESTIMATIONS OF EXPOSURE 306
8.9 POLICY-RELEVANT RESULTS FROM CTM APPLICATIONS 308
8.9.1 PMCTMs 208
8.9.2 Acid-Deposition CTMs 310
8.9.3 Photochemical CTMs 313
8.10 CRITICAL UNCERTAINTIES 313
8.11 SUMMARY 316
8.12 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 318
8.13 REFERENCES 319
CHAPTER 9 VISIBILITY AND RADIATIVE BALANCE EFFECTS 325
9.1 HOW IS VISIBILITY LINKED TO PM? 325
9.1.1 How Is Visibility Distributed and How Has It Varied over the Years? 327
9.1.2 Factors Affecting the Relationship between PM and Visibility 329
9.1.3 Empirical Relationships between PM and Visibility 330
9.1.4 What are Some Special Issues with Visibility? 333
9.2 ROLES AND USES OF PM AND OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS IN
VISIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 334
9.2.1 Long-Term Monitoring Programs 334
9.2.2 Short-Term Measurement Programs 33^
9.2.3 An Example of a Scenic Visibility Setting - The Colorado Plateau 336
9.2.4 Can One Use PM Studies for Visibility? 33g
9.3 HOW ARE MODELS USED IN VISIBILITY MANAGEMENT? ....I..ZZZZZr 338
9.3.1 What Specific Features are Required when Modeling Visibility? 339
9.3.2 Are Current Models Able to Simulate Visibility Conditions? 339
9.3.3 What Would Improve the Capacity to Model Visibility?.... -341
9.4 ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLES AFFECT THE GLOBAL RADIATION
xii
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
BALANCE 342
9.5 VISIBILITY MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND APPROACHES 345
9.5.1 What Is Being Done to Manage Visibility? 345
9.5.2 Alignment of Visibility and PM Control Programs 346
9.5.3 Regional Planning Organizations 347
9.5.4 Point-Source Control Programs 347
9.5.5 International Programs 347
9.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 348
9.7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 350
9.8 REFERENCES 351
CHAPTER 10 CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF PM FOR
NORTH AMERICAN REGIONS 355
10.1 OVERVIEW 355
10.2 SUMMARY 357
10.3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY
OF CALIFORNIA 359
10.3.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM)0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 359
10.3.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 364
10.3.3 Meteorological Influences 364
10.3.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 365
10.3.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 366
10.3.6 Implications for Policy Makers 367
10.4 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 367
10.4.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM10 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 367
10.4.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 368
10.4.3 Meteorological Influences 370
10.4.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 370
10.4.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 371
10.4.6 Implications for Policy Makers 373
10.5 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER MEXICO CITY 373
10.5.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PMl0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 373
10.5.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 374
10.5.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 376
10.5.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 377
10.5.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 377
10.5.6 Implications for Policy Makers 378
10.6 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES 379
10.6.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PMI0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 379
10.6.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 380
10.6.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 382
xiii
CONTENTS
383
10.6.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to
10.6.5 Sources and Source Regions ^3
10.6.6 Implications for Policy Makers
10.7 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE NORTHEASTER ^
UNITED STATES
10.7.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM|0 in Relation to Mass-based Standards
10.7.1.1 Annual Mean Concentrations of PM25 ^
10.7.1.2 24-hr-Mean Concentration ofPMy,
10.7.13 Annual and Daily
10.7.1.4 Seasonal-Mean Concentrations ofPM25
10.7.2 Compositional Analysis of PM
10.7.2.1 Seasonal Mean PMy Composition 3^8
389
10.7.3 Meteorological Influences on PM ^
389
10.7.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM
10.7.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 390
10.7.6 Implications for Policy Makers 390
10.8 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE WINDSOR-QUEBEC
CITY CORRIDOR 391
10.8.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM,5 and PM|0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 391
10.8.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 392
10.8.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 394
10.8.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 394
10.8.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 395
10.8.6 Implications for Policy Makers 395
10.9 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE U.S. UPPER MIDWEST
- GREAT LAKES AREA 396
10.9.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM,5 and PM10 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 396
10.9.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 396
10.9.3 Meteorological Influences 396
10.9.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 396
10.9.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 397
10.9.6 Implications for Policy Makers 398
10.10 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE CANADIAN PRAIRIE
AND U.S. CENTRAL PLAINS
10.10.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM|0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 398
10.10.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 399
10.10.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 399
10.10.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 401
10.10.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 401
10.10.6 Implications for Policy Makers
10.11 CONCEPTUAL DESCRIPTION OF PM OVER THE LOWER FRASER
VALLEY AIRSHED 4Q2
10.11.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels ofPM„ and PM,0 in Relation to Mass-B^ed St^d^IZZ 402
10.11.2 Compositional Analysis of PM
10.11.3 Meteorological Influences on PM ^0^
xiv
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
10.11.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 407
10.11.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 407
10.11.6 Implications for Policy Makers 408
10.12 REFERENCES 409
CHAPTER 11 RECOMMENDED RESEARCH TO INFORM
PUBLIC POLICY 415
11.1 RECOMMENDATIONS 416
11.2 FUTURE NARSTO PM ASSESSMENTS 431
11.3 REFERENCES 432
GLOSSARY 433
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 433
DEFINITIONS 435
APPENDIX A. EMISSION CALCULATIONS AND INVENTORY
LISTINGS 439
A.1 HOW ARE EMISSIONS CALCULATED? 439
A1.1 Emission and Emission Reduction Factors 439
A 1.2 Activity Patterns 440
A1.3 Spatial Allocation 442
A1.4 Processing for Model Applications 443
A 1.5 Limitations and Uncertainties 443
A.2 EMISSION INVENTORIES BY DETAILED SOURCE CATEGORY 445
A.3 REFERENCES 458
APPENDIX B. MEASUREMENTS 459
B. 1 APPLICATIONS OF DATA FROM AIR-QUALITY MEASUREMENTS 459
B.2 CURRENTLY AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUMENT
CAPABILITIES 459
B.2.1 Inlets 459
g 2.2 Integrated Denuder and Filter Systems (substrate- and absorbent-based
measurements) for Mass and Composition Sampling 459
Denuders ^3
xv
CONTENTS
465
FiUers 465
hnpactors
Chemical Analysis Methods for PM Collected on Filters
B Continuous and Semi-continuous Real-time Measurements
467
Mass and Mass Equivalent
Inertial Methods
471
Pressure-Drop Method
Electron-Attenuation Method 471
Size Distribution and Mobility 47 ^
Bulk Chemical Composition Methods 472
Black Carbon (BC) and Organic Carbon (OC) 472
Ionic Component of Aerosol Particles 473
Particulate Metals 473
B.2.4 Single-Particle Measurements — 474
B.2.5 Optical Properties of Aerosols and Long-Path Optical Measurements 475
In-situ Measurements of Light Scattering and Light Absorption 475
Long-Path Measurement Techniques: Remote Sensing and Visibility 475
Satellite Measurements 477
B.2.6 Gas-Phase Aerosol Precursors, Ozone, Ozone Precursors and Oxidants 478
B.2.7 Meteorological Measurements 485
B.3 MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY AND VALIDATION 485
B.4 REFERENCES 487
APPENDIX C. MONITORING DATA: AVAILABILITY,
LIMITATIONS, AND NETWORK ISSUES 493
C. 1 MONITORING PROGRAMS AND OBJECTIVES 493
C.2 NETWORK DESIGN ZZZZ 494
C.3 NETWORK NEEDS Z Z* 497
C.4 REFERENCES Z.Z.Z 498
APPENDIX D. GLOBAL AEROSOL TRANSPORT 501
APPENDIX E. PREPARATION OF THIS ASSESSMENT 509
XVI
|
| adam_txt |
Titel: Particulate matter science for policy makers
Autor: Macmurry, Peter Howard
Jahr: 2004
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
LIST OF TABLES xxiii
PREFACE xxvii
Commissioning of the Assessment xxvii
Verifying the Needs of Policy Makers xxviii
Preparing the Assessment xxix
Assessment Co-chairs xxix
Lead Authors xxix
Contributing Authors xxix
NARSTO Staff xxx
Acknowledgements xxx
MEMORIAL TO PROFESSOR GLEN CASS (1947-2001) xxxi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
pm25 mass and composition responses to changing
EMISSIONS 1
LOCAL, REGIONAL, AND CONTINENTAL MANAGEMENT OF PM2 5 2
PREDICTIVE CAPABILITIES 2
COPOLLUTANT INTERACTIONS 3
NEW INSIGHTS FROM IMPROVED MEASUREMENTS AND
MONITORING 3
LINKAGES BETWEEN THE HEALTH AND ATMOSPHERIC
SCIENCE COMMUNITIES 3
TRACKING PROGRESS AND SUCCESS OF AIR-QUALITY
MANAGEMENT 4
SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTIES AND LOOKING FORWARD 4
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY
MAKERS: SYNTHESIS 7
THE INFORMATION FRAMEWORK 7
AIR-QUALITY MANAGEMENT: A POLICY OVERVIEW 9
THE NATURE OF PM: A BRIEF OVERVIEW 9
PM ISSUES AND POLICY QUESTIONS 12
CONTENTS
Policy Question #1 - Is there a significant PM problem and how confident are we?
Key science findings
Spatial and temporal characterization
Measurements
Health effects
Chemical deposition
Visibility and Climate
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #2 - Where there is a PM problem, what is its composition and what factors
contribute to elevated concentrations?
Key science findings
Composition and the factor of seasonality
Emissions and atmospheric processes as contributing factors
Regional contributions
™,o
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #3 - What broad, pollutant-based, approaches might be taken to fix the problem?
Key science findings
Coincident reduction of precursors
Reduction of carbonaceous PM
Reduction of nitrates
Differing regional strategies
The SOf- NOf - NHf equilibrium
Area-specific insights
Regional reductions
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #4 - What source-specific options are there for fixing the problem given
the broad control approaches above?
Key science findings
Source-attribution approaches
Source-based modeling: Chemical-Transport Models
Receptor modeling
Emission inventories and source insights
Sources of PM
New science to improve implementation approaches
Policy Question #5 - What is the relationship between PM, its components, and other
air-pollution problems on which the atmospheric-science community is working?
Key science findings
Visibility (regional haze)
Ozone
Chemical deposition (from PQ #/)
Climate change (from PQ#1)
New science to improve implementation approaches
12
14
14
15
17
18
18
19
19
19
19
21
21
24
.24
.24
.24
.24
.25
.25
.25
.26
.27
.28
29
.29
.29
.30
.30
.30
.32
.33
.34
.35
.36
.36
.36
.38
.39
.39
.39
vi
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
Policy Question #6 - How can progress be measured? How can we determine the effectiveness
of our actions in bringing about emission reductions and air-quality improvements,
with their corresponding exposure reductions and health improvements? 39
Key science findings 40
Tracking emission changes 40
Tracking trends in ambient air-quality 40
Tracking changes in visibility 43
Tracking changes in exposure and health 44
New science to improve implementation approaches 44
Policy Question #7 - When and how should implementation programs be reassessed and updated
to adjust for any weaknesses, and to take advantage of advances in science
and technology? 44
Key science findings 44
New science to improve implementation approaches 46
Policy Question #8 - What further atmospheric-sciences information will be needed in
the periodic reviews of national standards? 46
Key science findings 46
PM measurement considerations 47
Exposure-science considerations 47
Health-science considerations 48
Air-quality and exposure-modeling consi-derations 48
New science to improve implementation approaches 49
BENEFITS TO THE POLICY COMMUNITY OF NEW SCIENCE 50
REFERENCES 52
CHAPTER 1 PERSPECTIVE FOR MANAGING PM 53
1.1 THE NATURE OF AMBIENT PARTICLES 54
1.2 SCALE, SOURCES, AND MAN-AGEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 56
1.3 HEALTH IMPACTS 59
1.4 VISIBILITY IMPACTS 61
1.5 FEDERAL AMBIENT PM STANDARDS AND POLICY CONTEXTS 62
1.5.1 Canada 62
1.5.2 United States 63
1.5.3 Mexico 64
1.5.4 Implementation of Scientific Information into Decision Making 65
1.6 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ASSESSMENT 66
1.7 REFERENCES 68
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 HEALTH CONTEXT FOR MANAGEMENT
OF PARTICULATE MATTER W
69
2.1 OVERVIEW 69
2.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
2.3 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
2.4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HEALTH RESPONSES TO
AIR POLLUTION ™
2.4.1 Epidemiological Approaches
2.4.2 Controlled-Exposure Studies with Human Subjects
2.4.3 Laboratory Animal Studies ^
2.4.4 Tissue and Cell Studies ^
2.5 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL FINDINGS 83
83
2.5.1 Acute Exposure
2.5.2 Chronic Exposures ^6
2.6 INTERVENTION STUDIES 90
2.7 TOXICOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 92
2.8 POLICY-RELEVANT FINDINGS AND FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES 94
2.9 REFERENCES 95
CHAPTER 3 ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOL PROCESSES 103
3.1 THE LIFE OF AN ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLE 103
3.2 A PARTICLE IS BORN: NUCLEATION 107
3.3 HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE FOR A PARTICLE TO COLLIDE
WITH ANOTHER? 108
3.4 PARTICLES AND WATER 108
3.5 SECONDARY PM FORMATION 109
3.5.1 Sulfate 110
3.5.2 Nitrate HI
3.5.3 Secondary Organic Aerosol (SOA) Formation HI
3.5.4 Interactions of Primary and Secondary PM Components 112
3.6 FROM PRECURSOR EMISSIONS TO AEROSOL COMPONENT
CONCENTRATION u3
3.6.1 Linearity
3.6.2 An Application to Southern California H 5
3.6.3 Effectiveness of S02 Emission Reductions 1 j5
3.6.4 VOC Emission Reductions and SOA jj-y
3.6.5 Limiting Reactants
3.7 REMOVAL AND LONG-RANGE TRANSPORT OF PM 11 q
3.8 PM AND OTHER POLLUTANTS ,T!
3.9 POLICY IMPLICATIONS ^
3.10 REFERENCES.
123
viii
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
CHAPTER 4 EMISSION CHARACTERIZATION 127
4.1 TYPES OF EMISSION INVENTORIES AND THEIR USES 129
4.2 THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EMISSION
INVENTORIES 130
4.2.1 Characterization by Source Category 132
4.2.2 Geographical Distribution of Emissions 137
4.2.3 Temporal Variations, Trends and Forecasts in Emissions 138
4.2.3.1 Temporal Variations 138
4.2.3.2 Trends and Projections 140
4.3 ESTIMATING UNCERTAINTY IN EMISSION INVENTORIES 143
4.4 IMPROVING ESTIMATION METHODS 146
4.4.1 Methodological Improvements 148
4.4.2 The Source/Ambient-Air Interface 149
4.5 HOW WELL DO THE EMISSION INVENTORIES ADDRESS
APPLICATION NEEDS? 151
4.6 SUMMARY 153
4.7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 155
4.8 REFERENCES 156
CHAPTER 5 PARTICLE AND GAS MEASUREMENTS 159
5.1 CURRENTLY AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUMENT
CAPABILITIES 161
5.1.1 Size-Selective Inlets 161
5.1.2 Integrated Denuder and Gravimetric Filter-Based Systems (substrate- and
absorbent-based measurements) for Mass and Composition Sampling 163
5.1.3 Continuous and Semi-continuous Real-time Measurements 166
5.1.4 Personal Exposure Monitors 169
5.1.5 Single-Particle Measurement Capabilities 170
5.1.6 Optical Properties of Aerosols and Long-Path Optical Measurements 170
5.1.7 Chemical Analysis of Cloud and Fog Chemical Composition 173
5.1.8 Gas-Phase PM Precursors, Ozone, Ozone Precursors, and Oxidants 173
5.1.9 Meteorological Measurements 173
5.2 MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY AND VALIDATION 174
5.2.1 Estimation of Particle Measurement Uncertainty 174
5.2.2 Mass and Size Distribution 175
5.2.3 Aerosol Chemical Composition 176
5.2.4 Uncertainties in Routine Gas-phase Measurements Used for Network Monitoring 177
5.3 MEASUREMENT STRATEGIES AND NETWORK ISSUES 178
5.3.1 Deployment of Measurement Technology 178
5.3.2 Future Requirements for Measurement Strategies 182
5.4 SUMMARY 183
ix
CONTENTS
186
5.5 POLICY IMPLICATIONS lg7
5.6 REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF PARTICULATE MATTER 19
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1.1 General Features Affecting Particulate Levels in North America
6.1.2 Spatial and Time Scales of Interest
6.1.3 Monitoring Capabilities
6.2 CONTINENTAL AND REGIONAL VARIATIONS OF PM
CONCENTRATIONS 193
6 - 1 Spatial Variations of PM,„ Mass: Where and When are PM Concentrations Highest? 195
' 1QR
6.2.2 Spatial Patterns of PM, ,. Mass iyc
6.2.3 Seasonal Variations of PM25 Mass 201
6.2.4 The Composition of PM and Its Geographical Variation
205
6.3 REGIONAL AND URBAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO PM 209
6.3.1 Comparisons Between Rural and Urban Sites 209
6.3.2 Evidence for Local PM Sources: Temporal Variations 209
6.3.3 PM Mass Concentrations at Remote Locations 210
6.3.4 Regional Transport 214
6.4 THE INFLUENCE OF INTERCONTINENTAL AEROSOL TRANSPORT
ON PM MASS CONCENTRATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA 215
6.5 TRENDS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS 217
6.6 COVARIATION OF PM WITH OZONE 223
6.7 SUMMARY 224
6.8 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 229
6.9 REFERENCES 231
CHAPTER 7 RECEPTOR METHODS 235
7.1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 235
7.2 RECEPTOR MODEL TYPES ZZZZIII"ZZZZZ" 239
7.2.1 Chemical Mass Balance 241
7.2.2 Enrichment Factors 245
7.2.3 Multiple Linear Regression on Marker Species 245
7.2.4 Temporal and Spatial Correlation Eigenvectors 246
7.2.5 Time Series
7.2.6 Neural Networks 247
7.2.7 Aerosol Evolution and Equilibrium 247
7.3 RECEPTOR-MODEL INPUT MEASUREMENTsV27ZZZ.72ZIZIIZZ!Z . 247
7.3.1 Particle Size " ' .0
248
x
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
7.3.2 Chemical Composition 248
7.3.2.1 Soil, Dust, and Industrial Markers 249
7.3.2.2 Combustion Markers 249
7.3.2.3 Secondary Sulfate and Nitrate 249
7.3.2.4 Carbonaceous Particles 252
7.3.2.5 Secondary Organic Aerosol 255
7.3.2.6 Other Chemical Markers 255
7.3.3 Temporal and Spatial Variability 256
7.3.4 Combining Size, Composition, Space, and Time 256
7.4 RECEPTOR MODELS AND DECISION-MAKING 257
7.4.1 Sulfur Reductions in Canadian Gasoline 257
7.4.2 PM2 5 and Urban Haze in Denver, CO 260
7.4.3 Haze in the Grand Canyon 263
7.4.4 Understanding the Sources of PM10 and PM25 in Mexico City 265
7.5 DEVELOPING PM MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 266
7.5.1 Manageable and Unmanageable Source Contributions 266
7.5.2 Main Contributors to Manageable PM 267
7.6 SUMMARY 269
7.7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 270
7.8 REFERENCES 271
CHAPTER 8 CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS 283
8.1 INTRODUCTION 283
8.2 CURRENT STATUS OF PM CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS 287
8.2.1 Emissions 287
8.2.2 Meteorology 288
8.2.3 Transport and Diffusion Processes 290
8.2.4 Chemical Transformations 290
8.2.5 Representation of PM 291
8.2.6 Deposition Processes 292
8.2.7 Computational Aspects 293
8.3 APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS TO THE
SIMULATION OF EPISODIC AND LONG-TERM PM CONCENTRATIONS 294
8.3.1 Episodic Simulations 294
8.3.2 Long-Term Simulations 294
8.4 WHAT QUESTIONS CAN CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS
ADDRESS AND HOW WELL? 295
8.4.1 Can the Contributions of Various Precursors and Source Types to PM Be Quantified? 295
8.4.2 Can the Relative Contributions of Long-Range Transport and Local Emissions
Be Quantified? 296
8.4.3 Can the Relative Magnitude of Seasonal Contributions to PM Concentrations
XI
CONTENTS
297
Be Represented?
8.4.4 Can the Response of PM Levels to Changes in Emissions and Upwind ^
Concentrations Be Predicted? *
8.4.5 Can the Relationships Between PM and Other Air-Pollution Problems
Be Quantified?
8.4.6 Can Other PM Properties that are Potentially Relevant to Health Effects ^
Be Calculated?
8.4.7 Can PM Episodes Be Forecast in Real Time?
8.5 EVALUATION PROCESS FOR CHEMICAL-TRANSPORT MODELS 299
8.5.1 Model Simulations versus Ambient Measurements 299
8 5 2 Overview of the Performance-Evaluation Process 200
^01
8.5.3 Data Needs for CTM Performance Evaluation UA
8.5.4 Corroboration of CTM Results with Indicator-Species Methods 201
8.6 CURRENT STATUS OF CTM PERFORMANCE AND INTERCOMPARISONS 302
8.7 USE OF CTMS TO COMPLEMENT MONITORING NETWORKS 306
8.8 USE OF CTMS TO SUPPORT ESTIMATIONS OF EXPOSURE 306
8.9 POLICY-RELEVANT RESULTS FROM CTM APPLICATIONS 308
8.9.1 PMCTMs 208
8.9.2 Acid-Deposition CTMs 310
8.9.3 Photochemical CTMs 313
8.10 CRITICAL UNCERTAINTIES 313
8.11 SUMMARY 316
8.12 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 318
8.13 REFERENCES 319
CHAPTER 9 VISIBILITY AND RADIATIVE BALANCE EFFECTS 325
9.1 HOW IS VISIBILITY LINKED TO PM? 325
9.1.1 How Is Visibility Distributed and How Has It Varied over the Years? 327
9.1.2 Factors Affecting the Relationship between PM and Visibility 329
9.1.3 Empirical Relationships between PM and Visibility 330
9.1.4 What are Some Special Issues with Visibility? 333
9.2 ROLES AND USES OF PM AND OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS IN
VISIBILITY ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 334
9.2.1 Long-Term Monitoring Programs 334
9.2.2 Short-Term Measurement Programs 33^
9.2.3 An Example of a Scenic Visibility Setting - The Colorado Plateau 336
9.2.4 Can One Use PM Studies for Visibility? 33g
9.3 HOW ARE MODELS USED IN VISIBILITY MANAGEMENT? .I.ZZZZZr " 338
9.3.1 What Specific Features are Required when Modeling Visibility? 339
9.3.2 Are Current Models Able to Simulate Visibility Conditions? 339
9.3.3 What Would Improve the Capacity to Model Visibility?. -341
9.4 ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLES AFFECT THE GLOBAL RADIATION
xii
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
BALANCE 342
9.5 VISIBILITY MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND APPROACHES 345
9.5.1 What Is Being Done to Manage Visibility? 345
9.5.2 Alignment of Visibility and PM Control Programs 346
9.5.3 Regional Planning Organizations 347
9.5.4 Point-Source Control Programs 347
9.5.5 International Programs 347
9.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 348
9.7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 350
9.8 REFERENCES 351
CHAPTER 10 CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF PM FOR
NORTH AMERICAN REGIONS 355
10.1 OVERVIEW 355
10.2 SUMMARY 357
10.3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY
OF CALIFORNIA 359
10.3.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM)0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 359
10.3.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 364
10.3.3 Meteorological Influences 364
10.3.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 365
10.3.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 366
10.3.6 Implications for Policy Makers 367
10.4 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 367
10.4.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM10 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 367
10.4.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 368
10.4.3 Meteorological Influences 370
10.4.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 370
10.4.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 371
10.4.6 Implications for Policy Makers 373
10.5 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER MEXICO CITY 373
10.5.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PMl0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 373
10.5.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 374
10.5.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 376
10.5.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 377
10.5.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 377
10.5.6 Implications for Policy Makers 378
10.6 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES 379
10.6.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PMI0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 379
10.6.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 380
10.6.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 382
xiii
CONTENTS
383
10.6.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to
10.6.5 Sources and Source Regions ^3
10.6.6 Implications for Policy Makers
10.7 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE NORTHEASTER ^
UNITED STATES
10.7.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM|0 in Relation to Mass-based Standards
10.7.1.1 Annual Mean Concentrations of PM25 ^
10.7.1.2 24-hr-Mean Concentration ofPMy,
10.7.13 Annual and Daily
10.7.1.4 Seasonal-Mean Concentrations ofPM25
10.7.2 Compositional Analysis of PM
10.7.2.1 Seasonal Mean PMy Composition 3^8
389
10.7.3 Meteorological Influences on PM ^
389
10.7.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM
10.7.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 390
10.7.6 Implications for Policy Makers 390
10.8 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE WINDSOR-QUEBEC
CITY CORRIDOR 391
10.8.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM,5 and PM|0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 391
10.8.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 392
10.8.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 394
10.8.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 394
10.8.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 395
10.8.6 Implications for Policy Makers 395
10.9 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE U.S. UPPER MIDWEST
- GREAT LAKES AREA 396
10.9.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM,5 and PM10 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 396
10.9.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 396
10.9.3 Meteorological Influences 396
10.9.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 396
10.9.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 397
10.9.6 Implications for Policy Makers 398
10.10 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PM OVER THE CANADIAN PRAIRIE
AND U.S. CENTRAL PLAINS
10.10.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels of PM25 and PM|0 in Relation to Mass-Based Standards 398
10.10.2 Compositional Analysis of PM 399
10.10.3 Meteorological Influences on PM 399
10.10.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 401
10.10.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 401
10.10.6 Implications for Policy Makers
10.11 CONCEPTUAL DESCRIPTION OF PM OVER THE LOWER FRASER
VALLEY AIRSHED 4Q2
10.11.1 Annual and Seasonal Levels ofPM„ and PM,0 in Relation to Mass-B^ed St^d^IZZ 402
10.11.2 Compositional Analysis of PM
10.11.3 Meteorological Influences on PM ^0^
xiv
PARTICULATE MATTER SCIENCE FOR POLICY MAKERS
10.11.4 Atmospheric Processes Contributing to PM 407
10.11.5 Sources and Source Regions Contributing Principal Chemicals of Concern 407
10.11.6 Implications for Policy Makers 408
10.12 REFERENCES 409
CHAPTER 11 RECOMMENDED RESEARCH TO INFORM
PUBLIC POLICY 415
11.1 RECOMMENDATIONS 416
11.2 FUTURE NARSTO PM ASSESSMENTS 431
11.3 REFERENCES 432
GLOSSARY 433
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 433
DEFINITIONS 435
APPENDIX A. EMISSION CALCULATIONS AND INVENTORY
LISTINGS 439
A.1 HOW ARE EMISSIONS CALCULATED? 439
A1.1 Emission and Emission Reduction Factors 439
A 1.2 Activity Patterns 440
A1.3 Spatial Allocation 442
A1.4 Processing for Model Applications 443
A 1.5 Limitations and Uncertainties 443
A.2 EMISSION INVENTORIES BY DETAILED SOURCE CATEGORY 445
A.3 REFERENCES 458
APPENDIX B. MEASUREMENTS 459
B. 1 APPLICATIONS OF DATA FROM AIR-QUALITY MEASUREMENTS 459
B.2 CURRENTLY AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUMENT
CAPABILITIES 459
B.2.1 Inlets 459
g 2.2 Integrated Denuder and Filter Systems (substrate- and absorbent-based
measurements) for Mass and Composition Sampling 459
Denuders ^3
xv
CONTENTS
465
FiUers 465
hnpactors
Chemical Analysis Methods for PM Collected on Filters
B Continuous and Semi-continuous Real-time Measurements
467
Mass and Mass Equivalent
Inertial Methods
471
Pressure-Drop Method
Electron-Attenuation Method 471
Size Distribution and Mobility 47 ^
Bulk Chemical Composition Methods 472
Black Carbon (BC) and Organic Carbon (OC) 472
Ionic Component of Aerosol Particles 473
Particulate Metals 473
B.2.4 Single-Particle Measurements — 474
B.2.5 Optical Properties of Aerosols and Long-Path Optical Measurements 475
In-situ Measurements of Light Scattering and Light Absorption 475
Long-Path Measurement Techniques: Remote Sensing and Visibility 475
Satellite Measurements 477
B.2.6 Gas-Phase Aerosol Precursors, Ozone, Ozone Precursors and Oxidants 478
B.2.7 Meteorological Measurements 485
B.3 MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY AND VALIDATION 485
B.4 REFERENCES 487
APPENDIX C. MONITORING DATA: AVAILABILITY,
LIMITATIONS, AND NETWORK ISSUES 493
C. 1 MONITORING PROGRAMS AND OBJECTIVES 493
C.2 NETWORK DESIGN ZZZZ 494
C.3 NETWORK NEEDS Z'Z* 497
C.4 REFERENCES Z.Z.Z 498
APPENDIX D. GLOBAL AEROSOL TRANSPORT 501
APPENDIX E. PREPARATION OF THIS ASSESSMENT 509
XVI |
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| id | DE-604.BV035153922 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T22:47:51Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:26:12Z |
| institution | BVB |
| institution_GND | (DE-588)5533722-3 |
| isbn | 0521842875 |
| language | English |
| lccn | 2005299163 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016961133 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-Er8 |
| owner_facet | DE-Er8 |
| physical | xxxi, 510 p. ill. (chiefly col.), maps (chiefly col.), 1 port. 29 cm |
| publishDate | 2004 |
| publishDateSearch | 2004 |
| publishDateSort | 2004 |
| publisher | Cambridge University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment edited by Peter H. McMurry, Marjorie F. Shepherd, James S. Vickery Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2004 xxxi, 510 p. ill. (chiefly col.), maps (chiefly col.), 1 port. 29 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Includes bibliographical references Umwelt Particles Environmental aspects Air quality Air Pollution McMurry, Peter H. Sonstige oth Shepherd, Marjorie F. Sonstige oth Vickery, James S. Sonstige oth North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone Sonstige (DE-588)5533722-3 oth http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0632/2005299163-d.html Publisher description http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0632/2005299163-t.html Table of contents only http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0733/2005299163-b.html Contributor biographical information HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016961133&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment Umwelt Particles Environmental aspects Air quality Air Pollution |
| title | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment |
| title_auth | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment |
| title_exact_search | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment |
| title_full | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment edited by Peter H. McMurry, Marjorie F. Shepherd, James S. Vickery |
| title_fullStr | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment edited by Peter H. McMurry, Marjorie F. Shepherd, James S. Vickery |
| title_full_unstemmed | Particulate matter science for policy makers a NARSTO assessment edited by Peter H. McMurry, Marjorie F. Shepherd, James S. Vickery |
| title_short | Particulate matter science for policy makers |
| title_sort | particulate matter science for policy makers a narsto assessment |
| title_sub | a NARSTO assessment |
| topic | Umwelt Particles Environmental aspects Air quality Air Pollution |
| topic_facet | Umwelt Particles Environmental aspects Air quality Air Pollution |
| url | http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0632/2005299163-d.html http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0632/2005299163-t.html http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0733/2005299163-b.html http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016961133&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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