Forest dynamics, growth and yield: from measurement to model
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
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Berlin[u.a.]
Springer
2009
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| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XIX, 664 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt., Tab. 235 mm x 155 mm |
| ISBN: | 9783540883067 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Pretzsch, Hans |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Forest dynamics, growth and yield |b from measurement to model |c Hans Pretzsch |
| 264 | 1 | |a Berlin[u.a.] |b Springer |c 2009 | |
| 300 | |a XIX, 664 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst., Kt., Tab. |c 235 mm x 155 mm | ||
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| _version_ | 1804138111198822400 |
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| adam_text | HANS PRETZSCH FOREST DYNAMICS, GROWTH AND YIELD FROM MEASUREMENT TO
MODEL ^J SPRINGER CONTENTS FOREST DYNAMICS, GROWTH, AND YIELD: A REVIEW,
ANALYSIS OF THE PRESENT STATE, AND PERSPECTIVE 1 1.1 SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES AND FOREST STANDS 1 1.1.1 DIFFERENCES IN THE
TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL SCALE BETWEEN TREES AND HUMANS 2 1.1.2 FOREST
STANDS ARE OPEN SYSTEMS 6 1.1.3 FORESTS ARE STRONGLY STRUCTURALLY
DETERMINED SYSTEMS .... 8 1.1.4 TREES, FOREST STANDS, AND FOREST
ECOSYSTEMS ARE SHAPED BY HISTORY 11 1.1.5 FORESTS ARE EQUIPPED WITH AND
REGULATED BY CLOSED FEEDBACK LOOPS 12 1.1.6 FOREST ECOSYSTEMS ARE
ORGANISED HIERARCHICALLY 14 1.1.7 FOREST STANDS ARE SYSTEMS WITH
MULTIPLE OUTPUT VARIABLES 20 1.2 FROM FOREST STAND TO GENE LEVEL: THE
ONGOING SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL REFINEMENT IN ANALYSIS AND MODELLING OF
TREE AND FOREST STAND DYNAMICS 21 1.2.1 EXPERIMENTS, INVENTORIES, AND
MEASUREMENT OF STRUCTURES AND RATES 22 1.2.2 FROM PROXY VARIABLES TO
PRIMARY FACTORS FOR EXPLANATIONS AND ESTIMATIONS OF STAND AND TREE
GROWTH 24 1.2.3 FROM EARLY EXPERIENCE TABLES TO ECOPHYSIOLOGICALLY BASED
COMPUTER MODELS 26 1.3 BRIDGING THE WIDENING GAP BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC
EVIDENCE AND PRACTICAL RELEVANCE 29 1.3.1 SCALE OVERLAPPING EXPERIMENTS
29 1.3.2 INTERDISCIPLINARY LINKS THROUGH INDICATOR VARIABLES 31 1.3.3
LINK BETWEEN EXPERIMENTS, INVENTORIES, AND MONITORING BY CLASSIFICATION
VARIABLES 32 CONTENTS 1.3.4 MODEL DEVELOPMENT 33 1.3.5 LINK BETWEEN
MODELS AND INVENTORIES: FROM DEDUCTIVE TO INDUCTIVE APPROACHES 35
SUMMARY 37 FROM PRIMARY PRODUCTION TO GROWTH AND HARVESTABLE YIELD AND
VICE VERSA: SPECIFIC DEFINITIONS AND THE LINK BETWEEN TWO BRANCHES OF
FOREST SCIENCE 41 2.1 LINK BETWEEN FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD SCIENCE AND
PRODUCTION ECOLOGY , 41 2.2 GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND QUANTITIES: PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, GROWTH AND YIELD 42 2.2.1 GROSS AND NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION
44 2.2.2 GROSS AND NET GROWTH 46 2.2.3 GROSS AND NET YIELD 47 2.3
SPECIFIC TERMINOLOGY AND QUANTITIES IN FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD SCIENCE
48 2.3.1 GROWTH AND YIELD OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 50 2.3.2 GROWTH AND YIELD
AT THE STAND LEVEL 56 2.4 STEM AND MERCHANTABLE VOLUME GROWTH AS A
PERCENTAGE OF GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTION 64 2.4.1 FROM STANDING VOLUME OR
STEM OR MERCHANTABLE WOOD VOLUME TO TOTAL.BIOMASS 66 2.4.2 EPHEMERAL
TURNOVER FACTOR T OR I FOR ESTIMATION OF NPP .... 72 2.4.3 DERIVING
HARVESTED VOLUME UNDER BARK FROM STANDING VOLUME OVER BARK 76 2.4.4
CONVERSION OF MERCHANTABLE WOOD VOLUME TO GPP 78 2.5 DEAD INNER XYLEM 81
2.6 GROWTH AND YIELD AND NUTRIENT CONTENT 84 2.6.1 FROM TOTAL BIOMASS TO
THE CARBON POOL 85 2.6.2 NUTRIENT MINERALS 85 2.7 EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY,
NITROGEN, AND WATER USE 89 2.7.1 ENERGY USE EFFICIENCY (EUE) 90 2.7.2
NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY (NUE) 93 2.7.3 WATER USE EFFICIENCY (WUE) 94
SUMMARY 95 BRIEF HISTORY AND PROFILE OF LONG-TERM GROWTH AND YIELD
RESEARCH 101 3.1 FROM RULES OF THUMB TO SOUND KNOWLEDGE 101 3.2
FOUNDATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL FORESTRY 104 3.3 FROM THE
ASSOCIATION OF GERMAN FOREST RESEARCH STATIONS TO THE INTERNATIONAL
UNION OF FOREST RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS (IUFRO) 105 3.4 GROWTH AND YIELD
SCIENCE SECTION OF THE GERMAN UNION OF FOREST RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 105
CONTENTS . XI 3.5 CONTINUITY IN MANAGEMENT OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENT PLOTS
IN BAVARIA AS A MODEL OF SUCCESS 107 . 3.6___ SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL
EXPERIMENTS 110 3.7 ESTABLISHMENT AND SURVEY OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTAL
PLOTS 112 3.7.1 ESTABLISHMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS AND TRIAL PLOTS 112
3.7.2 MEASURING STANDING AND LYING TREES 115 SUMMARY 118 4 PLANNING
FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD EXPERIMENTS 121 4. 1 KEY TERMINOLOGY IN THE
DESIGN OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTS 121 4.2 THE EXPERIMENTAL QUESTION AND
ITS FOUR COMPONENT QUESTIONS ... 123 4.2.1 WHICH QUESTION SHOULD BE
ANSWERED? 123 4.2.2 WITH WHAT LEVEL OF ACCURACY SHOULD THE QUESTION BE
ANSWERED? 124 4.2.3 WHAT LEVEL OF SPATIAL-TEMPORAL RESOLUTION IS WANTED
IN THE EXPLANATION? 124 4.2.4 WHY AND FOR WHAT PURPOSE SHOULD THE
QUESTION BE ANSWERED? 124 4.3 BIOLOGICAL VARIABILITY AND REPLICATES 125
4.3.1 TOTAL POPULATION AND SAMPLE 125 4.4 SIZE OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOT AND
TRIAL PLOT NUMBER 126 4.5 BLOCK FORMATION AND RANDOMISATION: ELIMINATION
OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR 128 4.6 CLASSICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 129 4.6.1
ONE-FACTOR DESIGNS 130 4.6.2 TWO-FACTOR OR MULTIFACTOR ANALYSIS 133
4.6.3 SPLIT-PLOT AND SPLIT-BLOCK DESIGNS 137 4.6.4 TRIAL SERIES AND
DISJUNCT EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS 139 4.7 SPECIAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS AND
FOREST GROWTH SURVEYS 141 4.7.1 FROM STAND TO INDIVIDUAL TREE
EXPERIMENTS 141 4.7.2 EXPERIMENTS AND SURVEYS OF GROWTH DISTURBANCES 144
4.7.3 ARTIFICIAL TIME SERIES OR GROWTH SERIES 145 SUMMARY 148 5
DESCRIPTION AND QUANTIFICATION OF SILVICULTURAL PRESCRIPTIONS 151 5.1
KIND OF THINNING 154 5.1.1 THINNING ACCORDING TO SOCIAL TREE CLASSES BY
KRAFT (1884) 154 5.1.2 THINNING ACCORDING TO COMBINED TREE AND STEM
QUALITY CLASSES FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF GERMAN FOREST RESEARCH STATIONS
(1902) 156 5.1.3 THINNING AFTER THE SELECTION OF SUPERIOR OR FINAL CROP
TREES 160 5.1.4 THINNING BASED ON DIAMETER CLASS OR TARGET DIAMETER....
164 5.2 SEVERITY OF THINNING 166 5.2.1 THINNING BASED ON A TARGET STAND
DENSITY CURVE ... 167 CONTENTS 5.2.2 APPROACHES FOR REGULATING THINNING
SEVERITY AND STAND DENSITY 167 5.2.3 SELECTION OF DENSITY CLASSES 170
5.2.4 MANAGEMENT OF STAND DENSITY IN FERTILISATION AND PROVENANCE TRIALS
171 5.2.5 INDIVIDUAL TREE BASED THINNING-PRESCRIPTIONS 172 5.3 INTENSITY
OF THINNING 175 5.4 ALGORITHMIC FORMULATION OF SILVICULTURAL
PRESCRIPTIONS FOR FOREST PRACTICE AND GROWTH AND YIELD MODELS 177
SUMMARY 178 STANDARD ANALYSIS OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS 181 6.1
FROM MEASUREMENT TO RESPONSE VARIABLES 183 6.2 IMPORTANCE OF REGRESSION
SAMPLING FOR STANDARD ANALYSIS 184 6.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF REGRESSION
SAMPLING 184 6.2.2 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION 184 6.3 DETERMINATION OF
STAND-HEIGHT CURVES 186 6.3.1 FUNCTION EQUATIONS FOR DIAMETER-HEIGHT
RELATIONSHIPS ... 187 6.3.2 SELECTION OF THE MOST SUITABLE MODEL
FUNCTION 188 6.4 DIAMETER-HEIGHT-AGE RELATIONSHIPS 189 6.4.1 METHOD OF
SMOOTHING COEFFICIENTS 191 6.4.2 GROWTH FUNCTION METHODS FOR STRATA MEAN
TREES 193 6.4.3 AGE-DIAMETER-HEIGHT REGRESSION METHODS 195 6.5 FORM
FACTORS AND VOLUME CALCULATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL TREES 196 6.5.1 FORM
FACTORS 197 6.5.2 VOLUME CALCULATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL TREES 199 6.6 STAND
MEAN AND CUMULATIVE VALUES AT THE TIME OF INVENTORY AND FOR THE PERIODS
BETWEEN INVENTORIES 199 6.6.1 REFERENCE AREA 199 6.6.2 TREE NUMBER 199
6.6.3 MEAN DIAMETER AND MEAN DIAMETER OF THE TOP HEIGHT TREE COLLECTIVE
200 6.6.4 MEAN AND TOP HEIGHT 201 6.6.5 SLENDERNESS H Q /D Q AND
HIOO/DIOO 203 6.6.6 STAND BASAL AREA AND VOLUME 203 6.6.7 GROWTH AND
YIELD CHARACTERISTICS 204 6.7 RESULTS OF STANDARD ANALYSIS 205 6.7.1
PRESENTATION IN TABLES 205 6.7.2 STAND DEVELOPMENT DIAGRAMS 211 SUMMARY
220 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF STAND STRUCTURES 223 7.1 STRUCTURES AND
PROCESSES IN FOREST STANDS 225 7.1.1 INTERACTION BETWEEN STRUCTURES AND
PROCESSES 225 7.1.2 EFFECT OF INITIAL STRUCTURE ON STAND DEVELOPMENT 227
CONTENTS 7.2 DESCRIPTIONS OF STAND STRUCTURE 229 7.2.1 TREE DISTRIBUTION
MAPS AND CROWN MAPS 230 7.2.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL VISUALISATION OF FOREST
GROWTH 234 7.2.3 SPATIAL OCCUPANCY PATTERNS 239 7.3 HORIZONTAL TREE
DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS 242 7.3.1 POISSON DISTRIBUTION AS A REFERENCE FOR
ANALYSING STAND STRUCTURES 243 7.3.2 POSITION-DEPENDENT DISTRIBUTION
INDICES 246 7.3.3 DISTRIBUTION INDICES BASED ON SAMPLE QUADRATS 252
7.3.4 K-FUNCTION 256 7.3.5 L-FUNCTION 260 7.3.6 PAIR CORRELATION
FUNCTIONS FOR DETAILED ANALYSIS OF TREE DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS 261 7.4
STAND DENSITY 266 7.4.1 STOCKING DENSITY 266 7.4.2 PERCENTAGE CANOPY
COVER (PCC) 267 7.4.3 MEAN BASAL AREA, MBA, BY ASSMANN (1970) 269 7.4.4
QUANTIFYING STAND DENSITY FROM THE ALLOMETRY BETWEEN MEAN SIZE AND
PLANTS PER UNIT AREA 270 7.4.5 CROWN COMPETITION FACTOR CCF 273 7.4.6
DENSITY OF SPATIAL OCCUPANCY AND VERTICAL PROFILES 274 7.5
DIFFERENTIATION 276 7.5.1 COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION OF TREE DIAMETERS AND
HEIGHTS ...276 7.5.2 DIAMETER DIFFERENTIATION BY FIILDNER (1995) 276
7.5.3 SPECIES RICHNESS, SPECIES DIVERSITY, AND STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY 279
7.6 SPECIES INTERMINGLING 284 7.6.1 SPECIES INTERMINGLING INDEX BY
FIILDNER (1996) 284 7.6.2 INDEX OF SEGREGATION FROM PIELOU (1977) 285
SUMMARY 287 GROWING SPACE AND COMPETITIVE SITUATION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES
291 8.1 THE STAND AS A MOSAIC OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 292 8.2
POSITION-DEPENDENT COMPETITION INDICES 292 8.2.1 EXAMPLE OF COMPETITOR
IDENTIFICATION AND COMPETITION CALCULATION 293 8.2.2 METHODS OF
COMPETITOR IDENTIFICATION 295 8.2.3 QUANTIFYING THE LEVEL OF COMPETITION
299 8.2.4 EVALUATION OF METHODS 302 8.3 POSITION-INDEPENDENT COMPETITION
MEASURES 305 8.3.1 CROWN COMPETITION FACTOR 305 8.3.2 HORIZONTAL
CROSS-SECTION METHODS 306 8.3.3 PERCENTILE OF THE BASAL AREA FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION 307 8.3.4 COMPARING POSITION-INDEPENDENT WITH POSITION-
DEPENDENT COMPETITION INDICES 308 CONTENTS 8.4 METHODS BASED ON GROWING
AREA 311 8.4.1 CIRCLE SEGMENT METHOD 311 8.4.2 RASTERING THE STAND AREA
312 8.4.3 GROWING AREA POLYGONS 313 8.5 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF A TREE S
SPATIAL GROWTH CONSTELLATION 315 8.5.1 SPATIAL RASTERING AND DOT
COUNTING 315 8.5.2 CALCULATION OF SPATIAL DISTANCES 318 8.5.3 CROWN
GROWTH RESPONSES TO LATERAL RESTRICTION 320 8.6 HEMISPHERICAL IMAGES FOR
QUANTIFYING THE COMPETITIVE SITUATION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 321 8.6.1
FISH-EYE IMAGES AS A BASIS FOR SPATIAL ANALYSES 321 8.6.2 METHODOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES OF FISH-EYE PROJECTION IN FOREST STANDS 323 8.6.3 QUANTIFYING
THE COMPETITIVE SITUATION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES IN A NORWAY
SPRUCE-EUROPEAN BEECH MIXED STAND.. 325 8.7 EDGE CORRECTION METHODS 326
8.7.1 EDGE EFFECTS AND EDGE CORRECTION METHODS 326 8.7.2 REFLECTION AND
SHIFT 327 8.7.3 LINEAR EXPANSION 328 8.7.4 STRUCTURE GENERATION 332
8.7.5 EVALUATION OF EDGE CORRECTION METHODS 333 SUMMARY 334 EFFECTS OF
SPECIES MIXTURE ON TREE AND STAND GROWTH 337 9.1 INTRODUCTION:
INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY WITH SPECIES MIXTURES? 337 9.1.1 FUNDAMENTAL
NICHE AND NICHE DIFFERENTIATION 338 9.1.2 MAXIMIZING FITNESS ISN T
EQUIVALENT TO MAXIMIZING PRODUCTIVITY 340 9.1.3 THE BALANCE BETWEEN
PRODUCTION PROMOTING AND INHIBITING EFFECTS IS IMPORTANT 341 9.2
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSING MIXING EFFECTS 343 9.2.1 ECOLOGICAL NICHE 343
9.2.2 SITE-GROWTH RELATIONSHIPS 344 9.2.3 RISK DISTRIBUTION 344 9.2.4
COMPARISON OF MIXED STANDS WITH NEIGHBOURING PURE STANDS: METHODOLOGICAL
CONSIDERATIONS 348 9.3 QUANTIFYING EFFECTS OF SPECIES MIXTURE AT STAND
LEVEL 351 9.3.1 CROSS-SPECIES DIAGRAMS FOR VISUALISING MIXTURE EFFECTS
.. 351 9.3.2 NOMENCLATURE, RELATIONS AND VARIABLES FOR ANALYSING MIXTURE
EFFECTS 352 9.3.3 MIXTURE PROPORTION 354 9.3.4 EXAMINING EFFECTS OF
SPECIES MIXTURE ON BIOMASS PRODUCTIVITY IN NORWAY SPRUCE-EUROPEAN BEECH
STANDS: AN EXAMPLE 356 9.3.5 EXAMINING MEAN TREE SIZE IN NORWAY
SPRUCE-EUROPEAN BEECH STANDS: AN EXAMPLE 360 CONTENTS XV 9.4 QUANTIFYING
MIXTURE EFFECTS AT THE INDIVIDUAL TREE LEVEL 363 9.4.1 EFFICIENCY
PARAMETERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TREE GROWTH 363 9.4.2 APPLICATION OF
EFFICIENCY PARAMETERS FOR DETECTING MIXTURE EFFECTS 365 9.5 PRODUCTIVITY
IN MIXED FOREST STANDS 371 9.5.1 THE MIXED STANDS ISSUE: A CENTRAL
EUROPEAN REVIEW AND PERSPECTIVE 371 9.5.2 BENCHMARKS FOR PRODUCTIVITY OF
MIXED STANDS COMPARED TO PURE STANDS 372 9.5.3 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL
NICHE DIFFERENTIATION AS A RECIPE FOR COEXISTENCE AND CAUSE OF SURPLUS
PRODUCTIVITY 375 9.5.4 CROWN SHYNESS 376 9.5.5 GROWTH RESILIENCE WITH
STRUCTURAL AND SPECIES DIVERSITY 377 SUMMARY 378 10 GROWTH RELATIONSHIPS
AND THEIR BIOMETRIC FORMULATION 381 10.1 DEPENDENCE OF GROWTH ON
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND RESOURCE AVAILABILITY 381 10.1.1 UNIMODAL
DOSE-EFFECT-CURVE 381 10.1.2 DOSE-EFFECT-RULE BY MITSCHERLICH (1948) 383
10.1.3 COMBINING THE EFFECTS OF SEVERAL GROWTH FACTORS 386 10.2
ALLOMETRY AT THE INDIVIDUAL PLANT LEVEL 387 10.2.1 ALLOMETRY AND ITS
BIOMETRIC FORMULATION 387 10.2.2 EXAMPLES OF ALLOMETRY AT THE INDIVIDUAL
PLANT LEVEL 389 10.2.3 DETECTION OF PERIODIC CHANGES IN ALLOMETRY 391
10.3 GROWTH AND YIELD FUNCTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PLANTS 393 10.3.1
PHYSIOLOGICAL REASONING AND BIOMETRICAL FORMULATION OF GROWTH FUNCTIONS
393 10.3.2 OVERVIEW OVER APPROVED GROWTH AND YIELD FUNCTIONS ...394
10.3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GROWTH AND YIELD 397 10.4 ALLOMETRY AT THE
STAND LEVEL: THE SELF-THINNING RULES FROM REINEKE (1933) AND YODA ET AL.
(1963) 399 10.4.1 REINEKE S (1933) SELF-THINNING LINE AND STAND DENSITY
INDEX 400 10.4.2 -3/2-POWER RULE BY YODA ET AL. (1963) 402 10.4.3 LINK
BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL TREE AND STAND ALLOMETRY 405 10.4.4 ALLOMETRIC
SCALING AS GENERAL RULE 406 10.5 STAND DENSITY AND GROWTH 407 10.5.1
ASSMANN S CONCEPT OF MAXIMUM, OPTIMUM AND CRITICAL STAND DENSITY 409
10.5.2 BIOMETRIC FORMULATION OF THE UNIMODAL OPTIMUM CURVE OF VOLUME
GROWTH IN RELATION TO STAND DENSITY AND MEAN TREE SIZE 411 XVI CONTENTS
10.6 DEALING WITH BIOLOGICAL VARIABILITY 415 10.6.1 QUANTIFYING
VARIABILITY V,.. . *_ 416 10.6.2 REPRODUCTION OF VARIABILITY 418 SUMMARY
420 11 FOREST GROWTH MODELS 423 11.1 SCALES OF OBSERVATION, STATISTICAL
AND MECHANISTIC APPROACHES TO STAND DYNAMICS 425 11.1.1 SCALES OF FOREST
GROWTH AND YIELD RESEARCH AND MODELS 425 11.1.2 FROM THE CLASSICAL
BLACK-BOX TO WHITE-BOX APPROACHES 426 11.1.3 TOP-DOWN APPROACH VS
BOTTOM-UP APPROACH 428 11.2 MODEL OBJECTIVES, DEGREE OF SYSTEM
ABSTRACTION, DATABASE 429 11.2.1 GROWTH MODELS AS NESTED HYPOTHESES
ABOUT SYSTEMS BEHAVIOUR 430 11.2.2 GROWTH MODELS AS A DECISION TOOL FOR
FOREST MANAGEMENT 430 11.3 GROWTH MODELS BASED ON STAND LEVEL MEAN AND
CUMULATIVE VALUES 432 11.3.1 PRINCIPLES OF YIELD TABLE CONSTRUCTION 432
11.3.2 FROM EXPERIENCE TABLES TO STAND SIMULATORS 437 11.4 GROWTH MODELS
BASED ON TREE NUMBER FREQUENCIES 445 11.4.1 REPRESENTING STAND
DEVELOPMENT BY SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 445 11.4.2 GROWTH
MODELS BASED ON PROGRESSING DISTRIBUTIONS 446 11.4.3 STAND EVOLUTION
MODELS - STAND GROWTH AS A STOCHASTIC PROCESS 449 11.5 INDIVIDUAL TREE
GROWTH AND YIELD MODELS 450 11.5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
OF INDIVIDUAL- TREE MODELS 451 11.5.2 GROWTH FUNCTIONS AS THE CORE
ELEMENT OF INDIVIDUAL- TREE MODELS 453 11.5.3 OVERVIEW OF MODEL TYPES
455 11.6 GAP AND HYBRID MODELS 456 11.6.1 DEVELOPMENT CYCLE IN GAPS 457
11.6.2 JABOWA -PROTOTYPEMODEL FROM BOTKIN ET AL. (1972) ...458 11.7
MATTER BALANCE MODELS 462 11.7.1 INCREASING STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ACCORDANCE OF MODELS WITH REALITY 462 11.7.2 MODELLING OF THE BASIC
PROCESSES IN MATTER BALANCE MODELS 465 11.7.3 OVERVIEW OF MATTER BALANCE
MODEL APPROACHES 476 11.8 LANDSCAPE MODELS 478 11.8.1 APPLICATION OF
LANDSCAPE MODEL LANDCLIM 481 CONTENTS XVII 11.9 VISUALISATION OF FOREST
STANDS AND WOODED LANDSCAPES 482 11.9.1 VISUALISATION TOOLS TREEVIEW AND
L-VIS 484 11.-10 PERSPECTIVE 488 SUMMARY 490 12 EVALUATION AND STANDARD
DESCRIPTION OF GROWTH MODELS 493 12.1 APPROACHES FOR EVALUATION OF
GROWTH MODELS AND SIMULATORS .... 494 12.1.1 SUITABILITY FOR A GIVEN
PURPOSE 494 12.1.2 VALIDATION OF THE BIOMETRIC MODEL 496 12.1.3
SUITABILITY OF THE SOFTWARE 499 12.1.4 CUSTOMISING MODELS AND SIMULATORS
FOR END-USERS 500 12.2 EXAMPLES OF MODEL VALIDATION 503 12.2.1
VALIDATION ON THE BASIS OF LONG-TERM SAMPLE PLOTS AND INVENTORY DATA 503
12.2.2 COMPARISON WITH GROWTH RELATIONSHIPS 508 12.2.3 COMPARISON WITH
KNOWLEDGE FROM EXPERIENCE 510 12.3 STANDARDS FOR DESCRIBING MODELS AND
SIMULATORS 510 SUMMARY 512 13 APPLICATION OF FOREST SIMULATION MODELS
FOR DECISION SUPPORT IN PRACTICE 515 13.1 MODEL OBJECTIVE AND PREDICTION
ALGORITHM 516 13.1.1 MODEL OBJECTIVE 516 13.1.2 PREDICTION ALGORITHM 516
13.1.3 DATABASE 519 13.2 SITE-GROWTH MODEL 519 13.2.1 THE PRINCIPLES OF
CONTROLLING INDIVIDUAL TREE GROWTH BY MEANS OF SITE FACTORS 520 13.2.2
MODELLING THE POTENTIAL AGE-HEIGHT CURVE IN DEPENDENCE ON SITE
CONDITIONS 520 13.3 GENERATION OF INITIAL VALUES FOR SIMULATION RUNS 525
13.3.1 STAND STRUCTURE GENERATOR STRUGEN 526 13.4 SPATIALLY EXPLICIT
MODELLING OF THE GROWTH ARRANGEMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL TREES 528 13.4.1
INDEX KKL AS THE INDICATOR OF THE CROWN COMPETITION .... 528 13.4.2
INDEX NDIST AS THE INDICATOR FOR COMPETITION ASYMMETRY 528 13.4.3 INDEX
KMA FOR THE SPECIES MIXTURE IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 529
13.5 APPLICATION FOR SCENARIO ANALYSIS AT THE STAND LEVEL: A PURE NORWAY
SPRUCE STAND VS A NORWAY SPRUCE - EUROPEAN BEECH MIXED STAND 530 13.5.1
GROWTH AND YIELD AT THE STAND LEVEL 530 13.5.2 GROWTH AND YIELD ON TREE
LEVEL 532 13.5.3 MODELLING STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY 532 13.5.4
MULTI-CRITERIA CONSIDERATIONS 534 XVIII CONTENTS 13.6 GROWTH MODELS FOR
DYNAMIC ENTERPRISE PLANNING 535 13.6.1 SIMULATION AT THE ENTERPRISE
LEVEL FOR LONG-TERM STRATEGIC PLANNING 536 13.6.2 APPLICATION OF MODELS
FOR DECISION SUPPORT 537 13.6.3 APPLICATION OF THE MUNICH FORESTRY
ENTERPRISE FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN 540 13.7 ESTIMATION OF GROWTH AND
YIELD RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE ...543 13.7.1 DEPENDENCE OF RESPONSE
PATTERNS ON SITE AND TREE SPECIES 544 13.7.2 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS AT THE
REGIONAL LEVEL 545 13.7.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SILVICULTURAL MEASURES FOR
MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 548 SUMMARY 549 14 DIAGNOSIS
OF GROWTH DISTURBANCES 553 14.1 GROWTH MODELS AS REFERENCE 556 14.1.1
COMPARISON WITH YIELD TABLE 556 14.1.2 DYNAMIC GROWTH MODELS AS
REFERENCE 557 14.1.3 SYNTHETIC REFERENCE CURVES 559 14.2 UNDISTURBED
TREES OR STANDS AS A REFERENCE 560 14.2.1 INCREMENT TREND METHOD 560
14.2.2 PAIR-WISE COMPARISON 565 14.2.3 REFERENCE PLOT COMPARISON 566
14.2.4 REFERENCE PLOT COMPARISON BY INDEXING 570 14.2.5
REGRESSION-ANALYTICAL ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT DECREASE 572 14.3 GROWTH
BEHAVIOUR IN OTHER CALENDAR PERIODS AS REFERENCE 576 14.3.1 INDIVIDUAL
GROWTH IN PREVIOUS PERIOD AS REFERENCE 576 14.3.2 LONG-TERM,
AGE-SPECIFIC TREE GROWTH AS REFERENCE (CONSTANT AGE METHOD) 579 14.3.3
GROWTH COMPARISON OF PREVIOUS AND SUBSEQUENT GENERATION AT THE SAME SITE
580 14.3.4 DIAGNOSIS OF GROWTH TRENDS FROM SUCCEEDING INVENTORIES 582
14.4 DENDRO-CHRONOLOGICAL TIME SERIES ANALYSIS 585 14.4.1 ELIMINATION OF
THE SMOOTH COMPONENT 586 14.4.2 INDEXING 587 14.4.3 RESPONSE FUNCTION
588 14.4.4 QUANTIFICATION OF INCREMENT LOSSES 589 SUMMARY 590 15
PATHWAYS TO SYSTEM UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGEMENT 593 15.1 OVERVIEW OF
KNOWLEDGE PATHWAYS IN FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD RESEARCH 594 15.1.1
OBSERVATION, MEASUREMENT, AND COLLECTION OF DATA 595 15.1.2 DESCRIPTION
597 CONTENTS XIX 15.1.3 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESES FOR ELEMENTS OF
INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM ELEMENTS 597 _- 15.1.4 TEST OF HYPOTHESES 599 15.1.5
MODELS AS A CHAIN OF HYPOTHESES 602 15.1.6 TEST OF MODEL HYPOTHESIS BY
SIMULATION 603 15.1.7 APPLICATION OF THE MODEL IN RESEARCH, PRACTICE,
AND EDUCATION 604 15.1.8 RELATIONSHIPS, RULES, LAWS, AND THEORIES 604
15.2 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE FROM SCIENCE TO PRACTICE 611 15.2.1 CONCEPT
OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 611 15.2.2 LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTS AND
MODELS FOR DECISION SUPPORT 613 SUMMARY 615 REFERENCES 619 INDEX 655
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HANS PRETZSCH FOREST DYNAMICS, GROWTH AND YIELD FROM MEASUREMENT TO
MODEL ^J SPRINGER CONTENTS FOREST DYNAMICS, GROWTH, AND YIELD: A REVIEW,
ANALYSIS OF THE PRESENT STATE, AND PERSPECTIVE 1 1.1 SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES AND FOREST STANDS 1 1.1.1 DIFFERENCES IN THE
TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL SCALE BETWEEN TREES AND HUMANS 2 1.1.2 FOREST
STANDS ARE OPEN SYSTEMS 6 1.1.3 FORESTS ARE STRONGLY STRUCTURALLY
DETERMINED SYSTEMS . 8 1.1.4 TREES, FOREST STANDS, AND FOREST
ECOSYSTEMS ARE SHAPED BY HISTORY 11 1.1.5 FORESTS ARE EQUIPPED WITH AND
REGULATED BY CLOSED FEEDBACK LOOPS 12 1.1.6 FOREST ECOSYSTEMS ARE
ORGANISED HIERARCHICALLY 14 1.1.7 FOREST STANDS ARE SYSTEMS WITH
MULTIPLE OUTPUT VARIABLES 20 1.2 FROM FOREST STAND TO GENE LEVEL: THE
ONGOING SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL REFINEMENT IN ANALYSIS AND MODELLING OF
TREE AND FOREST STAND DYNAMICS 21 1.2.1 EXPERIMENTS, INVENTORIES, AND
MEASUREMENT OF STRUCTURES AND RATES 22 1.2.2 FROM PROXY VARIABLES TO
"PRIMARY" FACTORS FOR EXPLANATIONS AND ESTIMATIONS OF STAND AND TREE
GROWTH 24 1.2.3 FROM EARLY EXPERIENCE TABLES TO ECOPHYSIOLOGICALLY BASED
COMPUTER MODELS 26 1.3 BRIDGING THE WIDENING GAP BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC
EVIDENCE AND PRACTICAL RELEVANCE 29 1.3.1 SCALE OVERLAPPING EXPERIMENTS
29 1.3.2 INTERDISCIPLINARY LINKS THROUGH INDICATOR VARIABLES 31 1.3.3
LINK BETWEEN EXPERIMENTS, INVENTORIES, AND MONITORING BY CLASSIFICATION
VARIABLES 32 CONTENTS 1.3.4 MODEL DEVELOPMENT 33 1.3.5 LINK BETWEEN
MODELS AND INVENTORIES: FROM DEDUCTIVE TO INDUCTIVE APPROACHES 35
SUMMARY 37 FROM PRIMARY PRODUCTION TO GROWTH AND HARVESTABLE YIELD AND
VICE VERSA: SPECIFIC DEFINITIONS AND THE LINK BETWEEN TWO BRANCHES OF
FOREST SCIENCE 41 2.1 LINK BETWEEN FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD SCIENCE AND
PRODUCTION ECOLOGY , 41 2.2 GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND QUANTITIES: PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, GROWTH AND YIELD 42 2.2.1 GROSS AND NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION
44 2.2.2 GROSS AND NET GROWTH 46 2.2.3 GROSS AND NET YIELD 47 2.3
SPECIFIC TERMINOLOGY AND QUANTITIES IN FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD SCIENCE
48 2.3.1 GROWTH AND YIELD OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 50 2.3.2 GROWTH AND YIELD
AT THE STAND LEVEL 56 2.4 STEM AND MERCHANTABLE VOLUME GROWTH AS A
PERCENTAGE OF GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTION 64 2.4.1 FROM STANDING VOLUME OR
STEM OR MERCHANTABLE WOOD VOLUME TO TOTAL.BIOMASS 66 2.4.2 EPHEMERAL
TURNOVER FACTOR T OR I FOR ESTIMATION OF NPP . 72 2.4.3 DERIVING
HARVESTED VOLUME UNDER BARK FROM STANDING VOLUME OVER BARK 76 2.4.4
CONVERSION OF MERCHANTABLE WOOD VOLUME TO GPP 78 2.5 DEAD INNER XYLEM 81
2.6 GROWTH AND YIELD AND NUTRIENT CONTENT 84 2.6.1 FROM TOTAL BIOMASS TO
THE CARBON POOL 85 2.6.2 NUTRIENT MINERALS 85 2.7 EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY,
NITROGEN, AND WATER USE 89 2.7.1 ENERGY USE EFFICIENCY (EUE) 90 2.7.2
NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY (NUE) 93 2.7.3 WATER USE EFFICIENCY (WUE) 94
SUMMARY 95 BRIEF HISTORY AND PROFILE OF LONG-TERM GROWTH AND YIELD
RESEARCH 101 3.1 FROM RULES OF THUMB TO SOUND KNOWLEDGE 101 3.2
FOUNDATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL FORESTRY 104 3.3 FROM THE
ASSOCIATION OF GERMAN FOREST RESEARCH STATIONS TO THE INTERNATIONAL
UNION OF FOREST RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS (IUFRO) 105 3.4 GROWTH AND YIELD
SCIENCE SECTION OF THE GERMAN UNION OF FOREST RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 105
CONTENTS . XI 3.5 CONTINUITY IN MANAGEMENT OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENT PLOTS
IN BAVARIA AS A MODEL OF SUCCESS 107 . 3.6_ SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL
EXPERIMENTS 110 3.7 ESTABLISHMENT AND SURVEY OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTAL
PLOTS 112 3.7.1 ESTABLISHMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS AND TRIAL PLOTS 112
3.7.2 MEASURING STANDING AND LYING TREES 115 SUMMARY 118 4 PLANNING
FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD EXPERIMENTS 121 4. 1 KEY TERMINOLOGY IN THE
DESIGN OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTS 121 4.2 THE EXPERIMENTAL QUESTION AND
ITS FOUR COMPONENT QUESTIONS . 123 4.2.1 WHICH QUESTION SHOULD BE
ANSWERED? 123 4.2.2 WITH WHAT LEVEL OF ACCURACY SHOULD THE QUESTION BE
ANSWERED? 124 4.2.3 WHAT LEVEL OF SPATIAL-TEMPORAL RESOLUTION IS WANTED
IN THE EXPLANATION? 124 4.2.4 WHY AND FOR WHAT PURPOSE SHOULD THE
QUESTION BE ANSWERED? 124 4.3 BIOLOGICAL VARIABILITY AND REPLICATES 125
4.3.1 TOTAL POPULATION AND SAMPLE 125 4.4 SIZE OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOT AND
TRIAL PLOT NUMBER 126 4.5 BLOCK FORMATION AND RANDOMISATION: ELIMINATION
OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR 128 4.6 CLASSICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 129 4.6.1
ONE-FACTOR DESIGNS 130 4.6.2 TWO-FACTOR OR MULTIFACTOR ANALYSIS 133
4.6.3 SPLIT-PLOT AND SPLIT-BLOCK DESIGNS 137 4.6.4 TRIAL SERIES AND
DISJUNCT EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS 139 4.7 SPECIAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS AND
FOREST GROWTH SURVEYS 141 4.7.1 FROM STAND TO INDIVIDUAL TREE
EXPERIMENTS 141 4.7.2 EXPERIMENTS AND SURVEYS OF GROWTH DISTURBANCES 144
4.7.3 ARTIFICIAL TIME SERIES OR GROWTH SERIES 145 SUMMARY 148 5
DESCRIPTION AND QUANTIFICATION OF SILVICULTURAL PRESCRIPTIONS 151 5.1
KIND OF THINNING 154 5.1.1 THINNING ACCORDING TO SOCIAL TREE CLASSES BY
KRAFT (1884) 154 5.1.2 THINNING ACCORDING TO COMBINED TREE AND STEM
QUALITY CLASSES FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF GERMAN FOREST RESEARCH STATIONS
(1902) 156 5.1.3 THINNING AFTER THE SELECTION OF SUPERIOR OR FINAL CROP
TREES 160 5.1.4 THINNING BASED ON DIAMETER CLASS OR TARGET DIAMETER.
164 5.2 SEVERITY OF THINNING 166 5.2.1 THINNING BASED ON A TARGET STAND
DENSITY CURVE ". 167 CONTENTS 5.2.2 APPROACHES FOR REGULATING THINNING
SEVERITY AND STAND DENSITY 167 5.2.3 SELECTION OF DENSITY CLASSES 170
5.2.4 MANAGEMENT OF STAND DENSITY IN FERTILISATION AND PROVENANCE TRIALS
171 5.2.5 INDIVIDUAL TREE BASED THINNING-PRESCRIPTIONS 172 5.3 INTENSITY
OF THINNING 175 5.4 ALGORITHMIC FORMULATION OF SILVICULTURAL
PRESCRIPTIONS FOR FOREST PRACTICE AND GROWTH AND YIELD MODELS 177
SUMMARY 178 STANDARD ANALYSIS OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS 181 6.1
FROM MEASUREMENT TO RESPONSE VARIABLES 183 6.2 IMPORTANCE OF REGRESSION
SAMPLING FOR STANDARD ANALYSIS 184 6.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF REGRESSION
SAMPLING 184 6.2.2 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION 184 6.3 DETERMINATION OF
STAND-HEIGHT CURVES 186 6.3.1 FUNCTION EQUATIONS FOR DIAMETER-HEIGHT
RELATIONSHIPS . 187 6.3.2 SELECTION OF THE MOST SUITABLE MODEL
FUNCTION 188 6.4 DIAMETER-HEIGHT-AGE RELATIONSHIPS 189 6.4.1 METHOD OF
SMOOTHING COEFFICIENTS 191 6.4.2 GROWTH FUNCTION METHODS FOR STRATA MEAN
TREES 193 6.4.3 AGE-DIAMETER-HEIGHT REGRESSION METHODS 195 6.5 FORM
FACTORS AND VOLUME CALCULATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL TREES 196 6.5.1 FORM
FACTORS 197 6.5.2 VOLUME CALCULATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL TREES 199 6.6 STAND
MEAN AND CUMULATIVE VALUES AT THE TIME OF INVENTORY AND FOR THE PERIODS
BETWEEN INVENTORIES 199 6.6.1 REFERENCE AREA 199 6.6.2 TREE NUMBER 199
6.6.3 MEAN DIAMETER AND MEAN DIAMETER OF THE TOP HEIGHT TREE COLLECTIVE
200 6.6.4 MEAN AND TOP HEIGHT 201 6.6.5 SLENDERNESS H Q /D Q AND
HIOO/DIOO 203 6.6.6 STAND BASAL AREA AND VOLUME 203 6.6.7 GROWTH AND
YIELD CHARACTERISTICS 204 6.7 RESULTS OF STANDARD ANALYSIS 205 6.7.1
PRESENTATION IN TABLES 205 6.7.2 STAND DEVELOPMENT DIAGRAMS 211 SUMMARY
220 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF STAND STRUCTURES 223 7.1 STRUCTURES AND
PROCESSES IN FOREST STANDS 225 7.1.1 INTERACTION BETWEEN STRUCTURES AND
PROCESSES 225 7.1.2 EFFECT OF INITIAL STRUCTURE ON STAND DEVELOPMENT 227
CONTENTS 7.2 DESCRIPTIONS OF STAND STRUCTURE 229 7.2.1 TREE DISTRIBUTION
MAPS AND CROWN MAPS 230 7.2.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL VISUALISATION OF FOREST
GROWTH 234 7.2.3 SPATIAL OCCUPANCY PATTERNS 239 7.3 HORIZONTAL TREE
DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS 242 7.3.1 POISSON DISTRIBUTION AS A REFERENCE FOR
ANALYSING STAND STRUCTURES 243 7.3.2 POSITION-DEPENDENT DISTRIBUTION
INDICES 246 7.3.3 DISTRIBUTION INDICES BASED ON SAMPLE QUADRATS 252
7.3.4 K-FUNCTION 256 7.3.5 L-FUNCTION 260 7.3.6 PAIR CORRELATION
FUNCTIONS FOR DETAILED ANALYSIS OF TREE DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS 261 7.4
STAND DENSITY 266 7.4.1 STOCKING DENSITY 266 7.4.2 PERCENTAGE CANOPY
COVER (PCC) 267 7.4.3 MEAN BASAL AREA, MBA, BY ASSMANN (1970) 269 7.4.4
QUANTIFYING STAND DENSITY FROM THE ALLOMETRY BETWEEN MEAN SIZE AND
PLANTS PER UNIT AREA 270 7.4.5 CROWN COMPETITION FACTOR CCF 273 7.4.6
DENSITY OF SPATIAL OCCUPANCY AND VERTICAL PROFILES 274 7.5
DIFFERENTIATION 276 7.5.1 COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION OF TREE DIAMETERS AND
HEIGHTS .276 7.5.2 DIAMETER DIFFERENTIATION BY FIILDNER (1995) 276
7.5.3 SPECIES RICHNESS, SPECIES DIVERSITY, AND STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY 279
7.6 SPECIES INTERMINGLING 284 7.6.1 SPECIES INTERMINGLING INDEX BY
FIILDNER (1996) 284 7.6.2 INDEX OF SEGREGATION FROM PIELOU (1977) 285
SUMMARY 287 GROWING SPACE AND COMPETITIVE SITUATION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES
291 8.1 THE STAND AS A MOSAIC OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 292 8.2
POSITION-DEPENDENT COMPETITION INDICES 292 8.2.1 EXAMPLE OF COMPETITOR
IDENTIFICATION AND COMPETITION CALCULATION 293 8.2.2 METHODS OF
COMPETITOR IDENTIFICATION 295 8.2.3 QUANTIFYING THE LEVEL OF COMPETITION
299 8.2.4 EVALUATION OF METHODS 302 8.3 POSITION-INDEPENDENT COMPETITION
MEASURES 305 8.3.1 CROWN COMPETITION FACTOR 305 8.3.2 HORIZONTAL
CROSS-SECTION METHODS 306 8.3.3 PERCENTILE OF THE BASAL AREA FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION 307 8.3.4 COMPARING POSITION-INDEPENDENT WITH POSITION-
DEPENDENT COMPETITION INDICES 308 CONTENTS 8.4 METHODS BASED ON GROWING
AREA 311 8.4.1 CIRCLE SEGMENT METHOD 311 8.4.2 RASTERING THE STAND AREA
312 8.4.3 GROWING AREA POLYGONS 313 8.5 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF A TREE'S
SPATIAL GROWTH CONSTELLATION 315 8.5.1 SPATIAL RASTERING AND DOT
COUNTING 315 8.5.2 CALCULATION OF SPATIAL DISTANCES 318 8.5.3 CROWN
GROWTH RESPONSES TO LATERAL RESTRICTION 320 8.6 HEMISPHERICAL IMAGES FOR
QUANTIFYING THE COMPETITIVE SITUATION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 321 8.6.1
FISH-EYE IMAGES AS A BASIS FOR SPATIAL ANALYSES 321 8.6.2 METHODOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES OF FISH-EYE PROJECTION IN FOREST STANDS 323 8.6.3 QUANTIFYING
THE COMPETITIVE SITUATION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES IN A NORWAY
SPRUCE-EUROPEAN BEECH MIXED STAND. 325 8.7 EDGE CORRECTION METHODS 326
8.7.1 EDGE EFFECTS AND EDGE CORRECTION METHODS 326 8.7.2 REFLECTION AND
SHIFT 327 8.7.3 LINEAR EXPANSION 328 8.7.4 STRUCTURE GENERATION 332
8.7.5 EVALUATION OF EDGE CORRECTION METHODS 333 SUMMARY 334 EFFECTS OF
SPECIES MIXTURE ON TREE AND STAND GROWTH 337 9.1 INTRODUCTION:
INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY WITH SPECIES MIXTURES? 337 9.1.1 FUNDAMENTAL
NICHE AND NICHE DIFFERENTIATION 338 9.1.2 MAXIMIZING FITNESS ISN'T
EQUIVALENT TO MAXIMIZING PRODUCTIVITY 340 9.1.3 THE BALANCE BETWEEN
PRODUCTION PROMOTING AND INHIBITING EFFECTS IS IMPORTANT 341 9.2
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSING MIXING EFFECTS 343 9.2.1 ECOLOGICAL NICHE 343
9.2.2 SITE-GROWTH RELATIONSHIPS 344 9.2.3 RISK DISTRIBUTION 344 9.2.4
COMPARISON OF MIXED STANDS WITH NEIGHBOURING PURE STANDS: METHODOLOGICAL
CONSIDERATIONS 348 9.3 QUANTIFYING EFFECTS OF SPECIES MIXTURE AT STAND
LEVEL 351 9.3.1 CROSS-SPECIES DIAGRAMS FOR VISUALISING MIXTURE EFFECTS
. 351 9.3.2 NOMENCLATURE, RELATIONS AND VARIABLES FOR ANALYSING MIXTURE
EFFECTS 352 9.3.3 MIXTURE PROPORTION 354 9.3.4 EXAMINING EFFECTS OF
SPECIES MIXTURE ON BIOMASS PRODUCTIVITY IN NORWAY SPRUCE-EUROPEAN BEECH
STANDS: AN EXAMPLE 356 9.3.5 EXAMINING MEAN TREE SIZE IN NORWAY
SPRUCE-EUROPEAN BEECH STANDS: AN EXAMPLE 360 CONTENTS XV 9.4 QUANTIFYING
MIXTURE EFFECTS AT THE INDIVIDUAL TREE LEVEL 363 9.4.1 EFFICIENCY
PARAMETERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TREE GROWTH 363 9.4.2 APPLICATION OF
EFFICIENCY PARAMETERS FOR DETECTING MIXTURE EFFECTS 365 9.5 PRODUCTIVITY
IN MIXED FOREST STANDS 371 9.5.1 THE MIXED STANDS ISSUE: A CENTRAL
EUROPEAN REVIEW AND PERSPECTIVE 371 9.5.2 BENCHMARKS FOR PRODUCTIVITY OF
MIXED STANDS COMPARED TO PURE STANDS 372 9.5.3 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL
NICHE DIFFERENTIATION AS A RECIPE FOR COEXISTENCE AND CAUSE OF SURPLUS
PRODUCTIVITY 375 9.5.4 CROWN SHYNESS 376 9.5.5 GROWTH RESILIENCE WITH
STRUCTURAL AND SPECIES DIVERSITY 377 SUMMARY 378 10 GROWTH RELATIONSHIPS
AND THEIR BIOMETRIC FORMULATION 381 10.1 DEPENDENCE OF GROWTH ON
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND RESOURCE AVAILABILITY 381 10.1.1 UNIMODAL
DOSE-EFFECT-CURVE 381 10.1.2 DOSE-EFFECT-RULE BY MITSCHERLICH (1948) 383
10.1.3 COMBINING THE EFFECTS OF SEVERAL GROWTH FACTORS 386 10.2
ALLOMETRY AT THE INDIVIDUAL PLANT LEVEL 387 10.2.1 ALLOMETRY AND ITS
BIOMETRIC FORMULATION 387 10.2.2 EXAMPLES OF ALLOMETRY AT THE INDIVIDUAL
PLANT LEVEL 389 10.2.3 DETECTION OF PERIODIC CHANGES IN ALLOMETRY 391
10.3 GROWTH AND YIELD FUNCTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PLANTS 393 10.3.1
PHYSIOLOGICAL REASONING AND BIOMETRICAL FORMULATION OF GROWTH FUNCTIONS
393 10.3.2 OVERVIEW OVER APPROVED GROWTH AND YIELD FUNCTIONS .394
10.3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GROWTH AND YIELD 397 10.4 ALLOMETRY AT THE
STAND LEVEL: THE SELF-THINNING RULES FROM REINEKE (1933) AND YODA ET AL.
(1963) 399 10.4.1 REINEKE'S (1933) SELF-THINNING LINE AND STAND DENSITY
INDEX 400 10.4.2 -3/2-POWER RULE BY YODA ET AL. (1963) 402 10.4.3 LINK
BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL TREE AND STAND ALLOMETRY 405 10.4.4 ALLOMETRIC
SCALING AS GENERAL RULE 406 10.5 STAND DENSITY AND GROWTH 407 10.5.1
ASSMANN'S CONCEPT OF MAXIMUM, OPTIMUM AND CRITICAL STAND DENSITY 409
10.5.2 BIOMETRIC FORMULATION OF THE UNIMODAL OPTIMUM CURVE OF VOLUME
GROWTH IN RELATION TO STAND DENSITY AND MEAN TREE SIZE 411 XVI CONTENTS
10.6 DEALING WITH BIOLOGICAL VARIABILITY 415 10.6.1 QUANTIFYING
VARIABILITY V,. . *_ 416 10.6.2 REPRODUCTION OF VARIABILITY 418 SUMMARY
420 11 FOREST GROWTH MODELS 423 11.1 SCALES OF OBSERVATION, STATISTICAL
AND MECHANISTIC APPROACHES TO STAND DYNAMICS 425 11.1.1 SCALES OF FOREST
GROWTH AND YIELD RESEARCH AND MODELS 425 11.1.2 FROM THE CLASSICAL
BLACK-BOX TO WHITE-BOX APPROACHES 426 11.1.3 TOP-DOWN APPROACH VS
BOTTOM-UP APPROACH 428 11.2 MODEL OBJECTIVES, DEGREE OF SYSTEM
ABSTRACTION, DATABASE 429 11.2.1 GROWTH MODELS AS NESTED HYPOTHESES
ABOUT SYSTEMS BEHAVIOUR 430 11.2.2 GROWTH MODELS AS A DECISION TOOL FOR
FOREST MANAGEMENT 430 11.3 GROWTH MODELS BASED ON STAND LEVEL MEAN AND
CUMULATIVE VALUES 432 11.3.1 PRINCIPLES OF YIELD TABLE CONSTRUCTION 432
11.3.2 FROM EXPERIENCE TABLES TO STAND SIMULATORS 437 11.4 GROWTH MODELS
BASED ON TREE NUMBER FREQUENCIES 445 11.4.1 REPRESENTING STAND
DEVELOPMENT BY SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 445 11.4.2 GROWTH
MODELS BASED ON PROGRESSING DISTRIBUTIONS 446 11.4.3 STAND EVOLUTION
MODELS - STAND GROWTH AS A STOCHASTIC PROCESS 449 11.5 INDIVIDUAL TREE
GROWTH AND YIELD MODELS 450 11.5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
OF INDIVIDUAL- TREE MODELS 451 11.5.2 GROWTH FUNCTIONS AS THE CORE
ELEMENT OF INDIVIDUAL- TREE MODELS 453 11.5.3 OVERVIEW OF MODEL TYPES
455 11.6 GAP AND HYBRID MODELS 456 11.6.1 DEVELOPMENT CYCLE IN GAPS 457
11.6.2 JABOWA -PROTOTYPEMODEL FROM BOTKIN ET AL. (1972) .458 11.7
MATTER BALANCE MODELS 462 11.7.1 INCREASING STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ACCORDANCE OF MODELS WITH REALITY 462 11.7.2 MODELLING OF THE BASIC
PROCESSES IN MATTER BALANCE MODELS 465 11.7.3 OVERVIEW OF MATTER BALANCE
MODEL APPROACHES 476 11.8 LANDSCAPE MODELS 478 11.8.1 APPLICATION OF
LANDSCAPE MODEL LANDCLIM 481 CONTENTS XVII 11.9 VISUALISATION OF FOREST
STANDS AND WOODED LANDSCAPES 482 11.9.1 VISUALISATION TOOLS TREEVIEW AND
L-VIS 484 11.-10 PERSPECTIVE 488 SUMMARY 490 12 EVALUATION AND STANDARD
DESCRIPTION OF GROWTH MODELS 493 12.1 APPROACHES FOR EVALUATION OF
GROWTH MODELS AND SIMULATORS . 494 12.1.1 SUITABILITY FOR A GIVEN
PURPOSE 494 12.1.2 VALIDATION OF THE BIOMETRIC MODEL 496 12.1.3
SUITABILITY OF THE SOFTWARE 499 12.1.4 CUSTOMISING MODELS AND SIMULATORS
FOR END-USERS 500 12.2 EXAMPLES OF MODEL VALIDATION 503 12.2.1
VALIDATION ON THE BASIS OF LONG-TERM SAMPLE PLOTS AND INVENTORY DATA 503
12.2.2 COMPARISON WITH GROWTH RELATIONSHIPS 508 12.2.3 COMPARISON WITH
KNOWLEDGE FROM EXPERIENCE 510 12.3 STANDARDS FOR DESCRIBING MODELS AND
SIMULATORS 510 SUMMARY 512 13 APPLICATION OF FOREST SIMULATION MODELS
FOR DECISION SUPPORT IN PRACTICE 515 13.1 MODEL OBJECTIVE AND PREDICTION
ALGORITHM 516 13.1.1 MODEL OBJECTIVE 516 13.1.2 PREDICTION ALGORITHM 516
13.1.3 DATABASE 519 13.2 SITE-GROWTH MODEL 519 13.2.1 THE PRINCIPLES OF
CONTROLLING INDIVIDUAL TREE GROWTH BY MEANS OF SITE FACTORS 520 13.2.2
MODELLING THE POTENTIAL AGE-HEIGHT CURVE IN DEPENDENCE ON SITE
CONDITIONS 520 13.3 GENERATION OF INITIAL VALUES FOR SIMULATION RUNS 525
13.3.1 STAND STRUCTURE GENERATOR STRUGEN 526 13.4 SPATIALLY EXPLICIT
MODELLING OF THE GROWTH ARRANGEMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL TREES 528 13.4.1
INDEX KKL AS THE INDICATOR OF THE CROWN COMPETITION . 528 13.4.2
INDEX NDIST AS THE INDICATOR FOR COMPETITION ASYMMETRY 528 13.4.3 INDEX
KMA FOR THE SPECIES MIXTURE IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 529
13.5 APPLICATION FOR SCENARIO ANALYSIS AT THE STAND LEVEL: A PURE NORWAY
SPRUCE STAND VS A NORWAY SPRUCE - EUROPEAN BEECH MIXED STAND 530 13.5.1
GROWTH AND YIELD AT THE STAND LEVEL 530 13.5.2 GROWTH AND YIELD ON TREE
LEVEL 532 13.5.3 MODELLING STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY 532 13.5.4
MULTI-CRITERIA CONSIDERATIONS 534 XVIII CONTENTS 13.6 GROWTH MODELS FOR
DYNAMIC ENTERPRISE PLANNING 535 13.6.1 SIMULATION AT THE ENTERPRISE
LEVEL FOR LONG-TERM STRATEGIC PLANNING 536 13.6.2 APPLICATION OF MODELS
FOR DECISION SUPPORT 537 13.6.3 APPLICATION OF THE MUNICH FORESTRY
ENTERPRISE FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN 540 13.7 ESTIMATION OF GROWTH AND
YIELD RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE .543 13.7.1 DEPENDENCE OF RESPONSE
PATTERNS ON SITE AND TREE SPECIES 544 13.7.2 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS AT THE
REGIONAL LEVEL 545 13.7.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SILVICULTURAL MEASURES FOR
MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 548 SUMMARY 549 14 DIAGNOSIS
OF GROWTH DISTURBANCES 553 14.1 GROWTH MODELS AS REFERENCE 556 14.1.1
COMPARISON WITH YIELD TABLE 556 14.1.2 DYNAMIC GROWTH MODELS AS
REFERENCE 557 14.1.3 SYNTHETIC REFERENCE CURVES 559 14.2 UNDISTURBED
TREES OR STANDS AS A REFERENCE 560 14.2.1 INCREMENT TREND METHOD 560
14.2.2 PAIR-WISE COMPARISON 565 14.2.3 REFERENCE PLOT COMPARISON 566
14.2.4 REFERENCE PLOT COMPARISON BY INDEXING 570 14.2.5
REGRESSION-ANALYTICAL ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT DECREASE 572 14.3 GROWTH
BEHAVIOUR IN OTHER CALENDAR PERIODS AS REFERENCE 576 14.3.1 INDIVIDUAL
GROWTH IN PREVIOUS PERIOD AS REFERENCE 576 14.3.2 LONG-TERM,
AGE-SPECIFIC TREE GROWTH AS REFERENCE (CONSTANT AGE METHOD) 579 14.3.3
GROWTH COMPARISON OF PREVIOUS AND SUBSEQUENT GENERATION AT THE SAME SITE
580 14.3.4 DIAGNOSIS OF GROWTH TRENDS FROM SUCCEEDING INVENTORIES 582
14.4 DENDRO-CHRONOLOGICAL TIME SERIES ANALYSIS 585 14.4.1 ELIMINATION OF
THE SMOOTH COMPONENT 586 14.4.2 INDEXING 587 14.4.3 RESPONSE FUNCTION
588 14.4.4 QUANTIFICATION OF INCREMENT LOSSES 589 SUMMARY 590 15
PATHWAYS TO SYSTEM UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGEMENT 593 15.1 OVERVIEW OF
KNOWLEDGE PATHWAYS IN FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD RESEARCH 594 15.1.1
OBSERVATION, MEASUREMENT, AND COLLECTION OF DATA 595 15.1.2 DESCRIPTION
597 CONTENTS XIX 15.1.3 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESES FOR ELEMENTS OF
INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM ELEMENTS 597 _- 15.1.4 TEST OF HYPOTHESES 599 15.1.5
MODELS AS A CHAIN OF HYPOTHESES 602 15.1.6 TEST OF MODEL HYPOTHESIS BY
SIMULATION 603 15.1.7 APPLICATION OF THE MODEL IN RESEARCH, PRACTICE,
AND EDUCATION 604 15.1.8 RELATIONSHIPS, RULES, LAWS, AND THEORIES 604
15.2 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE FROM SCIENCE TO PRACTICE 611 15.2.1 CONCEPT
OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 611 15.2.2 LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTS AND
MODELS FOR DECISION SUPPORT 613 SUMMARY 615 REFERENCES 619 INDEX 655 |
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| discipline | Biologie Forstwissenschaft Agrar-/Forst-/Ernährungs-/Haushaltswissenschaft / Gartenbau |
| discipline_str_mv | Biologie Forstwissenschaft Agrar-/Forst-/Ernährungs-/Haushaltswissenschaft / Gartenbau |
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| id | DE-604.BV035129471 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T22:24:12Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:22:59Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9783540883067 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016796997 |
| oclc_num | 707477929 |
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| physical | XIX, 664 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt., Tab. 235 mm x 155 mm |
| publishDate | 2009 |
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| publishDateSort | 2009 |
| publisher | Springer |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Pretzsch, Hans Verfasser aut Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model Hans Pretzsch Berlin[u.a.] Springer 2009 XIX, 664 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt., Tab. 235 mm x 155 mm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Forest dynamics Computer simulation Forest management Forstertrag (DE-588)4155059-6 gnd rswk-swf Waldbau (DE-588)4064356-6 gnd rswk-swf Forstertrag (DE-588)4155059-6 s DE-604 Waldbau (DE-588)4064356-6 s b DE-604 HEBIS Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016796997&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Pretzsch, Hans Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model Forest dynamics Computer simulation Forest management Forstertrag (DE-588)4155059-6 gnd Waldbau (DE-588)4064356-6 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4155059-6 (DE-588)4064356-6 |
| title | Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model |
| title_auth | Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model |
| title_exact_search | Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model |
| title_full | Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model Hans Pretzsch |
| title_fullStr | Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model Hans Pretzsch |
| title_full_unstemmed | Forest dynamics, growth and yield from measurement to model Hans Pretzsch |
| title_short | Forest dynamics, growth and yield |
| title_sort | forest dynamics growth and yield from measurement to model |
| title_sub | from measurement to model |
| topic | Forest dynamics Computer simulation Forest management Forstertrag (DE-588)4155059-6 gnd Waldbau (DE-588)4064356-6 gnd |
| topic_facet | Forest dynamics Computer simulation Forest management Forstertrag Waldbau |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016796997&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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