Drevnie maski Eniseja:
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| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Russian |
| Published: |
Krasnojarsk [u.a.]
2009
|
| Series: | Naučnyj bestseller
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | PST: The ancient Yenisei masks from Siberia. - In kyrill. Schr., russ. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache S. 176 - 183 |
| Physical Description: | 183 S., [32] Bl. zahlr. Ill., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9785897830282 |
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| 300 | |a 183 S., [32] Bl. |b zahlr. Ill., Kt. | ||
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Record in the Search Index
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| adam_text | ■.M J í A B
ili:
H
И Е
Слово об авторе
...........................................................6
Предисловие
................................................................8
Введение
...................................................................10
Глава первая
О МАСКАХ ЖМЫХ
1
МЁРТВЫХ
.......................14
Глава вторая
ЛЕГЕНДЫ ХАКАСИИ
........................................32
Глава третья
ОТКРЫТИЯ ПЕРВЫХ КОЛЛЕКТИВНЫХ МОГИЛ
CMâCKAMl
.....................................................46
Глава четвертая
ПЕРВЫЕ ПОГРЕБАЛЬНЫ! К¥1ЛЫ
....................62
Глава пятая
ЗАЧЕМ ГЛИНЯНЫЕ ГОЛОВЫ
3ÄKP
ЫВаЛИ
ГИПСОВЫМ!
MåCKAMl?
.................................72
Глава шестая
ГРОБНИЦА
і
ГОРаХ ОГЛАХТЫ
............104
Глава седьмая
ЧТО За
MACIM
БЫЛИ
НА ТАГАРСКОМ ОСТРОВЕ?
..............................124
Глава восьмая
ОТ МИФОВ
1
РЕАЛЬНОСТИ
............................154
Заключение автора
....................................................166
Альбом и Каталог масок в Приложении
.......................167
Основная литература
.................................................175
Ancient Masks of the Yenisei
........................................176
Funerals masks for album
............................................181
References
................................................................183
Альбом.
48
масок, публикуемых впервые
.....................185
Эльга Вадецкая. Древние маски Енисея
Ancient Masks of the Yenisei
Summary
Introduction
The largest river in Siberia, the Yenisei, traverses a region of steppes surrounded by broad belts of
mountain ridges (Figure
1).
These mountains, covered with dense woods, are called the Western
and Eastern Sayans and the Kuznetsk Alatau (Figure
2).
The natural conditions here stimulated the
appearance and persistence of some peculiar funerary rituals.
These persistent ancient funerary traditions included that of preservation of human heads
or skulls. As early as the Eneolithic (second to third millennium
ВС)
people preserved the heads
of their dead throughout the winter season when no burials were made. This practice resulted in
learning the skills of drying heads, trepanation and treating skulls. It promoted the appearance
of a cult of the head and ideas about the connection of the head with the human soul. The cult
of the head is reflected both in funeral rite sand in the arts of the population of the period under
consideration. In some tombs, there were decapitated corpses, while in others, on the contrary, the
dead were accompanied by the skulls of their ancestors, thought to have been kept as relics during
the lifetime of the interred. Similar male traditions survive among some peoples of Siberia and the
Russian Far East.
In art, the heads of male ancestral deities were represented as engravings on stone plates. They
have a third eye on the forehead and various stripes under and around the eyes. (Figure
21—23).
Identical painting was applied in red ochre on the faces of the interred as shown by a number of the
excavated skulls. Family deities were also represented by miniature female heads. (Figure
19—20).
[Vadetskaia,1967;
1981]
The cult of the head as reflected in collective burial rites
The cult of the head is best recognized in the Iron Age (third century
ВС
to the seventh
century AD), when a rite existed of burying simultaneously the remains of dozens of individuals
who had died at different times. This tradition arose first due to economic and political reasons,
but later it acquired religious significance. Burying large groups of dead required first that the
ceremony be carried out in two (primary and secondary) stages, and second, that the remains were
preserved for later restoration. The two requirements resulted in the practice of making a kind of
mummy from the skeletons (until the fifth century AD). Later, with the spread of a cremation rite
(fifth to sixth centuries AD), the mummies were replaced with imitations, i.e., funerary dolls and
busts.
Studies of the mummies are based on materials from about one hundred collective tombs which
consisted of large timber chambers with an area of up to
30—50
square meters, covered by mounds
up to three to four meters high. (Figure
64—65).
Typically, these chambers contained the remains of
50—60
(occasionally more) individuals burnt together with the burial structures.
These chambers housed either complete skeletons or piled bones with skulls. (Figure
66)
In
some cases only skulls were buried; the number of the skulls in the graves often exceeded that of
the skeletons. Recently it was found that the buried skeletons (mummies) and their parts had been
reconstructed in antiquity. During the reconstruction, the trepanned skulls were filled with grass
which was also laid along the long bones, while the skulls, and occasionally, arms and feet were fixed
176
Ancient Masks of the Yenisei. Summary
to the skeleton with willow twigs. (Figure
67—68),
The mummies were lined with pieces of leather
and birch bark. Most of the materials mentioned above are rarely preserved so that the presence of a
mummy is recognized only by the signs of trepanations or the anatomical position of the skeletons.
However, in the first century AD the practice appeared of daubing the skulls and cervical
vertebra with clay; these skeletons with clay heads became the basis for various scholarly studies.
Archaeological, chemical and anatomical analyses of more than
60
skulls covered with clay or their
parts allow us to describe the funeral rite of the local population as follows:
A dead person was first buried temporarily in a shallow pit, a box, or simply on the surface
under a heap of stones. A few years later, but not sooner than one year, the corpse was exhumed. By
then the skeletons had been purified naturally, although the dried tissues, ligaments and matter in the
hollows of the skull were still preserved (Vadetskaya and Protasov
2003:45—46).
The reconstruction
of the head and body was then carried out using the skull and skeleton.
Reconstruction of the head over the skull
A clay paste was prepared with the addition of grass and wool, as well as lime or gypsum. On
the skull, first an aperture was cut in the temporal area through which the cerebral section was stuffed
with grass. The aperture was then sealed with a piece of clay, and the nasal cavity, mouth and eye
sockets were also filled in with clay (Figure
70, 73 );
the pupils were imitated by means of glass beads
inserted in the center of the eye sockets (Figure
74—75 ).
Then the face was modeled with paste, with
the mouth left semi-open (Figures
84),
and the remaining part of the cranium and cervical vertebra
coated with clay (Vadetskaya and Protasov
2003:
Figures
81—82).
Reconstruction of the body over its skeleton
The clay head was fixed on the spinal column by means of twigs laid along its two sides or
pierced through it. The arms and leg bones were wrapped in grass which was stuffed also between
the ribs. The grass mummy was bandaged in places by belts or twigs and finally sewn over with hides
(Figure
83;
Vadetskaya
1999: 81—82).
The leather was also sewn over the clay head with only its eyes
and mouth left uncovered Apparently
thé
open eyes and mouth symbolized the revival of the dead
who thus would become able to see and breathe (Vadetskaya
2004: 301—302,
Figures
1:1, 1:3; 2:3).
As yet only the lining from a single leather head has been found preserved. However, its presence
has been recognized on all the mummies by imprints on the inner side of pieces of gypsum. The
latter was used to reproduce the facial features of the deceased over the leather lining and to plaster
the entire skull and neck. The plaster was applied after the mummy had been dressed in clothes and
its hairstyle finished. The coiffures are thought to be fairly variegated but only those of a single type
survive. These consist of two bone plaques plastered with clay and mica.
Between the plaques, a thin coiled plait of the hair of the deceased was put in a leather pouch
(Figure
85).
Making of masks
After an interval, the eyes and the mouth of the mummies were covered with pieces of fabric
and a layer of plaster was applied (Figures
74—77).
The face of the deceased was modeled with a
thin layer of plaster, representing the «mask.» The gypsum plaster for the masks was tempered by
pounded plants and wool.
The inner sides of all masks preserve clear imprints of leather and textile linings at the level of
the eyes and imprints of cloth and teeth opposite the mouth of the mummy.
177
Эльга Вадецкая. Древние маски Енисея
The masks always represent humans with closed eyes and lips. Evidently they represented the
final death and isolation of the dead from the living. The men s masks are painted red with ochre or
cinnabar (Figure
71—72, 81—82).
The female ones are white but decorated with red designs. The
patterns were scratched with a sharp object and then painted over with cinnabar (Figure
78—80).
They include trefoils and circles connected by broad bands. The eye slits were designated by strips of
black paint on the masks of both the men and the women.
Restoration of mummies before interment
Some of the masks were painted twice, e.g., first with ochre and then with cinnabar after the
masks cracked. This fact suggests that the mummies with masks had been kept for a long time and
restored before burying them in a common tomb. However, it must have proven impossible to restore
many of the mummies, since only parts or heads alone were put into some graves.
Modeling a head over a ram s skull
Where it was impossible to restore a persons head over their own skull, a ram s skull over-
modeled with clay served as a substitute. One such head has been found in a tomb together with
ordinary mummies with masks. The clay model represents the head of a dead man (Figure.
87).
The
face bears traces of red paint. On the top of the head there are imprints of five hair-plaits and the
holes in which the hair-plaits had been fixed. The head has a thin neck with imprints of twigs and
strings inside; the latter were used to attach the head to the spine (Vadetskaya
2004:
Figure
2, 4).
Dummy objects for mummies
The funeral rite under discussion was marked by manufacture of special dummy objects for
the mummies. These included miniature bronze daggers, knives, picks and mirrors along with clay
plaques for decoration of coverlets, headdresses and clothes. The plaques were rectangular or round
with geometrical and floral designs and often covered with mica or even gold (Figures
48,
a
—
g;
86)
(Vadetskaya,
1999: 68—69, 72—73)
Thus the dead of the Yenisei population were interred twice. First the deceased was buried
temporarily in an individual grave. Afterwards the skeleton was dug up and «animated» by
reconstruction of its head and body. Special attention was given to the reconstruction of the head
over the skull that implied a symbolic revival of the deceased. For this purpose the clay model of
the head was sheathed with leather with the eye orbits and mouth left open. After an interval the
«revived» mummy «died» again when a mask was put on its face. Long afterwards the mummies
from a number of tribal settlements were collected together and burnt in a burial chamber. That was
the final act in a chain of funeral ceremonies.
Evolution of the rite in the fifth to sixth centuries AD
In the first to third centuries AD, various foreign garrisons (Hunnu and Chinese) stayed in
some parts of the territory under consideration and the cemeteries they left differed from those of
the local population. They consist of small deep graves on whose bottom low wooden frames densely
covered with logs and birchbark were place. Most graves contain remains (bodies, bones, ashes) of
2—4
persons. The dead warriors were burnt and their bones were gathered in a bag and then put into
a dummy human or «funerary doll.» The dummy was made from grass and sheathed with leather;
its face usually was covered with a silk mask, or occasionally, with a plaster mask sculptured over
the face (Figures
58,
a—g). (Vadetskaya,
1999,
Figures
7; 2004, 56—57,
Figures
5, 6).
The masks are
178
Ancient Masks of the Yenisei. Summary
present on nearly all adult skeletons. The mask was modelled on face which was covered with silk.
The male masks were painted entirely red with the black stripes (Figures
98,
a—c). (Vadetskaya,
1999,
Figures
6,2; 2004,
Figures
2).
The female masks were white with a red desing (Figures
99,
a—g;
103,107).
(Vadetskaya,
1999,
Figures
6,1; 2004,
Figures
1).
By the fifth century AD, descendants of the migrants were assimilated with the local population,
who inherited the rite of cremation and the transferring of the ashes into a doll. Burying together the
remains of up to
50—60
bodies still remained typical. Large chambers were built especially for this
purpose and burnt. By the sixth century AD the practice of making only a head instead of a complete
doll became more widespread. All prior rituals connected with the cult of the head and with plaster
masks were transferred onto the doll heads, especially in the cases where the remains of cremation of
a particular individual were placed in the head of a doll. To keep a single head until the final burial
was easier than to preserve a complete doll. In addition, a funerary chamber could house more heads
than complete dolls. Therefore, gradually only heads came to be manufactured and together with
the masks they were fixed by different means in the upright position. Later these heads fell down
inside the tombs and either were burnt or decayed. Only the masks survived with some grass and
calcined bones of the dead beneath. Once these bones were put in birch-bark boxes or cloth pouches,
the remains occasionally preserved. All the materials mentioned above allow us to reconstruct the
funerary practices.
Manufacture of a funerary doll s head
The calcined bones of a cremated person
(1—3
cm long) were placed in a birch-bark box
wrapped tightly first in grass and then in leather (Figure
146—147)
On one side of the leather
parcel, depressions for the eyes and mouth were cut and the nose was sewn on; the process probably
symbolized the reviving of the deceased. The lower part of the leather head was fixed together with
a cord (Figure
148).
After a certain interval, the eyes and mouth hollows were covered with pieces of fabric and
plastered with gypsum as suggested by imprints on the inner surface of the masks which later were
modeled on the face of the doll (Figure
149).
(Vadetskaya,
2007,
Figure
1)
Making of the masks
The masks on the dolls are similar to those on the heads of mummies. All these masks probably
represent dead persons because their eyes and lips are closed. However, the doll masks are thicker (up
to
1
cm thick) and embrace not the entire head but only two-thirds of it. These masks evidently also
converted the «revived» head into a dead one. Any mask was modeled on a large neck or was fixed
on a special support to keep the head upright (Figures
114,119,129).
These masks are called «busts»
(Vadetskaya 2004a: Figures
7, 13, 19—20;
2004b: Figures
4, 7).
They were always brightly painted,
but during the cremation in the burial chamber they were covered with soot from burning organic
materials such as leather, grass and textiles.
The male masks originally were painted entirely red (Figure
133,144,145).
But they are usually
blackened by soot, the paint having been recognized only from single areas on their surfaces. On
some of the masks, horizontal black stripes are discernible across the face.
On female masks, the lips, cheeks and ears, as well as spaces inside the designs on the forehead
and nose, were painted red. The designs were scratched with a rigid brush on the coating. In the
middle of the forehead is a circular spiral and on the temples double spirals are usually represented
(Figure
119, 131, 140).
The edges of the temples and cheekbones are often rendered in blue paint
179
Эльга Вадецкая. Древние маски Енисея
(Figure.
132).
The eye slits are painted with black or dark blue paint both on female and male masks
(Vadetskaya,
2007:
Figure
6—18)
Restoration of masks in antiquity
The doll heads and busts containing cremated ashes were collected for a long time for interment
in a collective tomb. Some of the masks from these dolls that were painted with ochre were afterwards
repainted with cinnabar. Some needed restoration and certain areas on their surfaces were refreshed
with new layers of plaster and painted anew (Figure
145, 153).
However, frequently a damaged
bust was put in a tomb and the cremated ashes were transferred into vessels wares of various kinds.
Thus all preceding funerary rites survived into the fifth to sixth centuries AD, although with the
difference that they now concerned funerary dolls or doll heads instead of real skeletons and skulls
as previously.
Conclusion
Certain traditions of the ancient populations of Siberia and the Russian Far East are retained
in their ethnography.
The plaster masks that are modeled over the skull or funerary dolls are similar to funerary
face coverlets of many peoples. These coverlets were intended to isolate the deceased in order to
make them unable to harm the living. Moreover, many peoples considered the physical death of an
individual separately from its actual recognition.
The Yenisei mummies, made from human skeletons and funerary dolls with sculptured heads
containing the cremated remains, as well as doll heads with separate masks, all represent symbolic
images of the dead. Known from medieval tombs in Western Siberia, they survived in rituals of
peoples of northern Siberia and the Far East until as late as the nineteenth to twentieth centuries. The
representation made after the physical death of a person was burnt or buried represented its «final
death.» These images were believed to house the soul of the deceased. For a stronger similarity to
the deceased, some of these figures were dressed in their clothes and frequently included fragments
of the dead persons hair and bones. The funerary images are concerned with the last stage of the
evolution of the ancient culture, represented originally by mummies (Figure.
160),
then by funerary
dolls (Figure.
161),
and finally by only doll heads with cremated ashes (Figure.
162).
180
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Vadeckaja, Ėlʹga Borisovna |
| author_facet | Vadeckaja, Ėlʹga Borisovna |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Vadeckaja, Ėlʹga Borisovna |
| author_variant | ė b v ėb ėbv |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV026932583 |
| classification_rvk | NF 8675 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)729929013 (DE-599)GBV62849548X |
| dewey-full | 393.09575 939.6 |
| dewey-hundreds | 300 - Social sciences 900 - History & geography |
| dewey-ones | 393 - Death customs 939 - Other parts of ancient world |
| dewey-raw | 393.09575 939.6 |
| dewey-search | 393.09575 939.6 |
| dewey-sort | 3393.09575 |
| dewey-tens | 390 - Customs, etiquette, folklore 930 - History of ancient world to ca. 499 |
| discipline | Geschichte Sozial-/Kulturanthropologie / Empirische Kulturwissenschaft |
| era | Geschichte 1-500 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1-500 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Jenissei-Gebiet Süd (DE-588)4663532-4 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Jenissei-Gebiet Süd |
| id | DE-604.BV026932583 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T23:21:34Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9785897830282 |
| language | Russian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-022454700 |
| oclc_num | 729929013 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-188 DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-188 DE-12 |
| physical | 183 S., [32] Bl. zahlr. Ill., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2009 |
| publishDateSearch | 2009 |
| publishDateSort | 2009 |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Naučnyj bestseller |
| spelling | Vadeckaja, Ėlʹga Borisovna Verfasser aut Drevnie maski Eniseja Ė. B. Vadeckaja The ancient Yenisei masks from Siberia Krasnojarsk [u.a.] 2009 183 S., [32] Bl. zahlr. Ill., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Naučnyj bestseller PST: The ancient Yenisei masks from Siberia. - In kyrill. Schr., russ. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache S. 176 - 183 Geschichte 1-500 gnd rswk-swf Totenmaske (DE-588)4185766-5 gnd rswk-swf Jenissei-Gebiet Süd (DE-588)4663532-4 gnd rswk-swf Jenissei-Gebiet Süd (DE-588)4663532-4 g Totenmaske (DE-588)4185766-5 s Geschichte 1-500 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022454700&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022454700&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Vadeckaja, Ėlʹga Borisovna Drevnie maski Eniseja Totenmaske (DE-588)4185766-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4185766-5 (DE-588)4663532-4 |
| title | Drevnie maski Eniseja |
| title_alt | The ancient Yenisei masks from Siberia |
| title_auth | Drevnie maski Eniseja |
| title_exact_search | Drevnie maski Eniseja |
| title_full | Drevnie maski Eniseja Ė. B. Vadeckaja |
| title_fullStr | Drevnie maski Eniseja Ė. B. Vadeckaja |
| title_full_unstemmed | Drevnie maski Eniseja Ė. B. Vadeckaja |
| title_short | Drevnie maski Eniseja |
| title_sort | drevnie maski eniseja |
| topic | Totenmaske (DE-588)4185766-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Totenmaske Jenissei-Gebiet Süd |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022454700&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022454700&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT vadeckajaelʹgaborisovna drevniemaskieniseja AT vadeckajaelʹgaborisovna theancientyeniseimasksfromsiberia |