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AIP physics desk reference:

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Weitere Verfasser:	Cohen, E. Richard (HerausgeberIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	Berlin [u.a.] Springer 2003
Ausgabe:	3. ed.
Schlagworte:	Physik Astronomie Datensammlung
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	XXXV, 888 S. Ill.
ISBN:	0387989730 9780387989785

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	CONTENTS PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION ............................. V PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION .............................. VII CONTRIBUTORS ..................................... XXXI TABLE OF FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS ...................... XXXV 1. SYMBOLS, UNITS, AND NOMENCLATURE ..................... 1 E. RICHARD COHEN 1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES ........................... 2 1.1.1 SYMBOLS FOR QUANTITIES ..................... 2 1.1.2 SYMBOLS FOR UNITS ....................... 2 1.2 PHYSICAL UNITS ............................. 3 1.2.1 BASE UNITS ........................... 3 1.2.2 DIMENSION ........................... 3 1.3 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SYST ` EME INTERNATIONAL, SI) ..... 4 1.3.1 BASE UNITS ........................... 4 1.3.2 CONVERSION FACTORS TO SI UNITS ................. 6 1.4 RECOMMENDED SYMBOLS FOR PHYSICAL QUANTITIES ............ 8 1.4.1 GENERAL PHYSICS ........................ 8 1.4.2 QUANTUM MECHANICS ...................... 18 1.4.3 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY ........................ 18 1.4.4 NUCLEAR AND FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES ............... 19 1.5 NOMENCLATURE CONVENTIONS IN NUCLEAR PHYSICS ............. 20 1.5.1 NUCLIDE ............................ 20 1.5.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERACTIONS ................ 20 1.6 REFERENCES ............................... 21 2. MATHEMATICAL BASICS ............................. 22 E. RICHARD COHEN 2.1 FACTORIALS ................................ 24 2.2 PROGRESSION AND SERIES ......................... 24 2.3 MEANS ................................. 24 2.4 SUMMATION FORMULAS .......................... 25 2.5 BINOMIAL THEOREM ........................... 25 2.6 QUADRATIC EQUATION ........................... 25 2.7 DIFFERENTIATION ............................. 26 2.7.1 TAYLOR SERIES .......................... 26 IX X CONTENTS 2.8 INTEGRATION ............................... 27 2.9 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ......................... 28 2.9.1 SERIES ............................. 28 2.10 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ......................... 28 2.10.1 DERIVATIVES .......................... 28 2.10.2 INTEGRALS ............................ 29 2.11 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ........................ 29 2.11.1 SERIES EXPANSIONS ....................... 30 2.11.2 DERIVATIVES .......................... 30 2.11.3 INTEGRALS ............................ 30 2.11.4 PLANE TRIANGLES ......................... 31 2.11.5 SPHERICAL TRIANGLES ....................... 31 2.12 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS .................... 32 2.12.1 SERIES EXPANSIONS ....................... 32 2.12.2 DERIVATIVES .......................... 32 2.12.3 INTEGRALS ............................ 32 2.13 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS .......................... 33 2.13.1 SERIES EXPANSIONS ....................... 34 2.13.2 DERIVATIVES .......................... 34 2.13.3 INTEGRALS ............................ 34 2.14 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS ...................... 35 2.14.1 SERIES EXPANSIONS ....................... 35 2.14.2 DERIVATIVES .......................... 35 2.14.3 INTEGRALS ............................ 36 2.15 GAMMA FUNCTION ............................ 36 2.15.1 DEFINITE INTEGRALS ....................... 37 2.16 DELTA FUNCTION ............................. 38 2.17 VECTOR ALGEBRA ............................. 39 2.17.1 NOTATION ............................ 39 2.17.2 DOT PRODUCT (SCALAR PRODUCT OR INNER PRODUCT) ......... 39 2.17.3 CROSS PRODUCT (VECTOR PRODUCT OR OUTER PRODUCT) ........ 39 2.17.4 VECTOR IDENTITIES ........................ 39 2.17.5 VECTOR LINEAR EQUATIONS .................... 40 2.17.6 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS ..................... 40 2.18 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS .................... 43 2.18.1 GRADIENT OF F , * F ....................... 43 2.18.2 DIVERGENCE OF A , * A ..................... 43 2.18.3 CURL OF A , × A ....................... 43 2.18.4 PROJECTED DERIVATIVE, COMPONENTS OF A B .......... 44 2.18.5 DIVERGENCE OF A TENSOR * T .................. 45 2.18.6 SCALAR LAPLACIAN * 2 F ..................... 46 2.18.7 VECTOR LAPLACIAN * 2 A ..................... 46 2.19 FOURIER SERIES AND FOURIER TRANSFORMS ................. 47 2.19.1 ORTHOGONALITY CONDITION .................... 47 CONTENTS XI 2.19.2 COMPLETENESS ......................... 48 2.19.3 CONVOLUTION .......................... 48 2.20 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS ........................... 48 2.20.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES ....................... 48 2.20.2 LINEARITY ............................ 48 2.20.3 DIFFERENTIATION ......................... 48 2.20.4 BESSEL FUNCTIONS ........................ 49 2.20.5 SPHERICAL HARMONICS ...................... 53 2.20.6 POTENTIAL AT R 1 DUE TO A UNIT SOURCE AT R 2 ............ 53 2.20.7 CLEBSCH-GORDAN (WIGNER) COEFFICIENTS ............. 55 2.21 REFERENCES ............................... 56 3. ACOUSTICS ................................... 60 ROBERT T. BEYER 3.1 IMPORTANT ACOUSTICAL UNITS ....................... 62 3.2 OSCILLATIONS OF A LINEAR SYSTEM ..................... 63 3.2.1 ANALOGIES ........................... 65 3.3 GENERAL LINEAR ACOUSTICS; WAVE PROPAGATION IN FLUIDS ......... 65 3.3.1 PLANE WAVES .......................... 65 3.3.2 SPHERICAL WAVES ........................ 66 3.3.3 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION .................. 67 3.3.4 VELOCITY AND ATTENUATION OF SOUND ............... 67 3.4 HIGH-INTENSITY SOUND; NONLINEAR ACOUSTICS .............. 72 3.4.1 LAGRANGIAN FORM OF WAVE EQUATION .............. 72 3.4.2 SOLUTIONS OF EULERIAN WAVE EQUATION .............. 73 3.4.3 BURGERS EQUATION AND OTHER APPROXIMATIONS ......... 74 3.4.4 RADIATION PRESSURE ....................... 74 3.5 ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS ......................... 75 3.5.1 VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR .................... 75 3.5.2 REFRACTION IN A FLUID MEDIUM ................. 75 3.5.3 ATTENUATION IN ATMOSPHERE ................... 75 3.5.4 DOPPLER EFFECT ......................... 75 3.6 UNDERWATER SOUND ........................... 76 3.7 ACOUSTIC TRANSMISSION IN SOLIDS .................... 77 3.7.1 VELOCITY IN AN EXTENDED POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLID ......... 77 3.7.2 CONFIGURATIONAL DISPERSION IN A SOLID ROD ........... 77 3.7.3 ATTENUATION OF SOUND IN SOLIDS ................. 77 3.8 MOLECULAR ACOUSTICS; RELAXATION PROCESSES ............... 78 3.8.1 PROPAGATION OF SOUND ..................... 78 3.8.2 EXCESS SOUND ATTENUATION IN LIQUIDS .............. 79 3.8.3 ULTRASONIC PROPAGATION AT VERY LOW TEMPERATURES ....... 79 3.9 BUBBLES, CAVITATION, SONOLUMINESCENCE ................ 80 3.9.1 CAVITATION ........................... 80 3.9.2 SONOLUMINESCENCE ....................... 81 XII CONTENTS 3.10 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, ULTRASONIC IMAGING .............. 81 3.10.1 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ..................... 81 3.10.2 ULTRASONIC IMAGING ...................... 81 3.11 NOISE AND ITS CONTROL .......................... 81 3.11.1 ACTIVE SUPPRESSION OF NOISE .................. 82 3.12 ROOM AND ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS ................... 83 3.12.1 SABINE S FORMULA ....................... 83 3.12.2 PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS ................ 83 3.13 PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS ............... 85 3.13.1 LOUDNESS AND LOUDNESS LEVEL ................. 85 3.13.2 AUDITORY SENSATION AREA .................... 86 3.13.3 MASKING ............................ 86 3.13.4 TEMPORARY THRESHOLD SHIFT (TTS) ............... 86 3.13.5 PITCH .............................. 87 3.13.6 BINAURAL HEARING ........................ 87 3.13.7 AUDIOGRAM .......................... 87 3.14 SPEECH COMMUNICATION ........................ 88 3.15 BIOACOUSTICS .............................. 88 3.16 MUSICAL ACOUSTICS ........................... 89 3.16.1 RESONANCE FREQUENCIES FOR AN ORGAN PIPE ........... 89 3.16.2 RESONANCE FREQUENCIES FOR A RECTANGULAR MEMBRANE ...... 89 3.16.3 RESONANCE FREQUENCIES FOR A CIRCULAR MEMBRANE ........ 89 3.17 ACOUSTICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS ............... 89 3.17.1 ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF SOUND INTENSITY ........... 90 3.17.2 CALIBRATION OF MICROPHONES .................. 90 3.17.3 FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT .................... 90 3.17.4 ACOUSTIC FILTER ......................... 91 3.18 REFERENCES ............................... 91 4. ASTRONOMY .................................. 93 JAY M. PASACHOFF 4.1 BASIC DATA ............................... 94 4.2 SOLAR SYSTEMS ............................. 95 4.3 STARS AND THE MILKY WAY ........................ 100 4.4 TIME AND PLANETARY POSITIONS ...................... 112 5. ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY ......................... 119 VIRGINIA TRIMBLE 5.1 STELLAR ASTRONOMY ........................... 120 5.1.1 STELLAR STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION ................. 120 5.1.2 STELLAR ATMOSPHERES ...................... 121 5.1.3 NUCLEAR REACTIONS, ENERGY GENERATION, AND NUCLEOSYNTHESIS .. 123 5.2 BINARY STARS .............................. 127 5.2.1 SIGNIFICANCE .......................... 127 5.2.2 EVOLUTION OF BINARY STARS ................... 128 CONTENTS XIII 5.3 STAR CLUSTERS, INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM, AND THE MILKY WAY ........ 128 5.3.1 STAR CLUSTERS .......................... 128 5.3.2 THE GALACTIC CENTER ...................... 130 5.3.3 THE MILKY WAY: GENERAL PROPERTIES .............. 130 5.3.4 BACKGROUNDS ......................... 130 5.4 GALAXIES ................................ 131 5.4.1 TYPES AND THEIR PROPERTIES ................... 131 5.4.2 DARK MATTER .......................... 133 5.4.3 FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF GALAXIES .............. 134 5.4.4 COLLECTIVE PROPERTIES, CLUSTERING, AND LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE ... 135 5.5 HIGH-ENERGY ASTROPHYSICS ....................... 136 5.5.1 BASIC PHYSICAL MECHANISMS .................. 136 5.5.2 NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES AS ENDPOINTS OF STELLAR EVOLUTION 137 5.5.3 PULSARS AND X-RAY BINARIES ................... 137 5.5.4 SUPERNOVAE .......................... 138 5.5.5 QUASARS AND OTHER ACTIVE GALAXIES ............... 139 5.5.6 GAMMA RAY BURSTERS ...................... 140 5.6 COSMOLOGY ............................... 141 5.6.1 EVIDENCE THAT THE UNIVERSE IS EXPANDING AND EXPERIENCED A BIG BANG .............................. 141 5.6.2 THE FRIEDMANN-ROBERTSON-WALKER METRIC ........... 141 5.6.3 BIG-BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS ................... 142 5.6.4 BEST VALUES OF THE PARAMETERS FOR A RELATIVISTIC UNIVERSE ... 143 5.6.5 CONNECTIONS WITH PARTICLE PHYSICS .............. 144 5.7 REFERENCES ............................... 144 6. ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR COLLISION PROCESSES ................. 145 M. R. FLANNERY 6.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 147 6.2 COLLISIONS ................................ 148 6.2.1 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CROSS SECTIONS ............ 148 6.2.2 COLLISION RATES, COLLISION FREQUENCY, AND PATH LENGTH ...... 149 6.2.3 ENERGY AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM: CENTER OF MASS AND RELATIVE . 150 6.2.4 ELASTIC SCATTERING ....................... 151 6.2.5 INELASTIC SCATTERING ....................... 151 6.2.6 REACTIVE SCATTERING ...................... 151 6.2.7 CENTER-OF-MASS TO LABORATORY CROSS-SECTION CONVERSION .... 151 6.3 GENERAL COLLISION PROPERTIES ...................... 153 6.3.1 MOMENTUM TRANSFER ...................... 153 6.3.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTION ............... 153 6.3.3 ENERGY TRANSFER ........................ 154 6.3.4 ENERGY TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS ................. 156 6.3.5 ATOMIC UNITS .......................... 159 6.3.6 ENERGY CONVERSION FACTORS ................... 159 6.3.7 RYDBERG PROPERTIES ...................... 160 XIV CONTENTS 6.4 EQUILIBRIUM DISTRIBUTIONS ........................ 163 6.4.1 MAXWELL VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FOR FREE PARTICLES ........ 163 6.4.2 TWO TEMPERATURE MAXWELL DISTRIBUTIONS ............ 164 6.4.3 BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION .................... 165 6.4.4 CLASSICAL STATISTICAL WEIGHTS .................. 167 6.4.5 ASSOCIATION/DISSOCIATION EQUATION ............... 171 6.4.6 SAHA S IONIZATION EQUATIONS .................. 171 6.4.7 MACROSCOPIC DETAILED BALANCE ................. 173 6.4.8 PLANCK S EQUILIBRIUM DISTRIBUTION ............... 174 6.4.9 BOLTZMANN EQUATION ...................... 175 6.5 MACROSCOPIC RATE COEFFICIENTS ..................... 175 6.5.1 SCATTERING RATE ......................... 175 6.5.2 ENERGY TRANSFER RATE ...................... 176 6.5.3 TRANSPORT CROSS SECTIONS AND COLLISION INTEGRALS ........ 177 6.6 QUANTAL TRANSITION RATES AND CROSS SECTIONS .............. 178 6.6.1 MICROSCOPIC RATE OF TRANSITIONS ................ 178 6.6.2 DETAILED BALANCE BETWEEN RATES ................ 179 6.6.3 ENERGY DENSITY OF CONTINUUM STATES .............. 180 6.6.4 INELASTIC CROSS SECTIONS .................... 181 6.6.5 DETAILED BALANCE BETWEEN CROSS SECTIONS ............ 182 6.6.6 EXAMPLES OF DETAILED BALANCE ................. 182 6.6.7 FOUR USEFUL EXPRESSIONS FOR THE CROSS SECTION ......... 183 6.7 BORN CROSS SECTIONS .......................... 186 6.7.1 FERMI GOLDEN RULES ...................... 187 6.7.2 ION (ELECTRON)-ATOM COLLISIONS ................. 188 6.7.3 ATOM-ATOM COLLISIONS ..................... 189 6.7.4 QUANTAL AND CLASSICAL IMPULSE CROSS SECTIONS ......... 189 6.7.5 ATOMIC FORM FACTOR AND GENERALIZED OSCILLATOR STRENGTH .... 190 6.7.6 FORM FACTORS FOR ATOMIC HYDROGEN ............... 191 6.7.7 ROTATIONAL EXCITATION ..................... 192 6.7.8 LIST OF BORN CROSS SECTIONS FOR MODEL POTENTIALS ........ 193 6.8 QUANTAL POTENTIAL SCATTERING ...................... 194 6.8.1 PARTIAL WAVE EXPANSION .................... 195 6.8.2 SCATTERING AMPLITUDES ..................... 196 6.8.3 INTEGRAL CROSS SECTIONS ..................... 197 6.8.4 DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS ................... 197 6.8.5 OPTICAL THEOREM ........................ 199 6.8.6 LEVINSON S THEOREM ...................... 200 6.8.7 PARTIAL WAVE EXPANSION FOR TRANSPORT CROSS SECTIONS ...... 200 6.8.8 BORN PHASE SHIFTS ....................... 201 6.8.9 COULOMB SCATTERING ...................... 202 6.9 COLLISIONS BETWEEN IDENTICAL PARTICLES ................. 202 6.9.1 FERMION AND BOSON SCATTERING ................. 203 CONTENTS XV 6.9.2 COULOMB SCATTERING OF TWO IDENTICAL PARTICLES ......... 204 6.9.3 SCATTERING OF IDENTICAL ATOMS ................. 205 6.10 CLASSICAL POTENTIAL SCATTERING ...................... 206 6.10.1 DEFLECTION FUNCTIONS ...................... 206 6.10.2 CLASSICAL CROSS SECTIONS .................... 207 6.10.3 ORBITING CROSS SECTIONS .................... 209 6.11 QUANTAL INELASTIC HEAVY-PARTICLE COLLISIONS .............. 211 6.11.1 ADIABATIC FORMULATION (KINETIC COUPLING SCHEME) ....... 211 6.11.2 DIABATIC FORMULATION (POTENTIAL COUPLING SCHEME) ....... 212 6.11.3 INELASTIC SCATTERING BY A CENTRAL FIELD .............. 213 6.11.4 TWO-STATE TREATMENT ...................... 214 6.11.5 EXACT RESONANCE ........................ 215 6.11.6 PARTIAL WAVE ANALYSIS ..................... 217 6.11.7 CLOSE COUPLING EQUATIONS FOR ELECTRON-ATOM (ION) COLLISIONS .. 217 6.12 SEMICLASSICAL INELASTIC SCATTERING .................... 219 6.12.1 CLASSICAL PATH THEORY ..................... 220 6.12.2 LANDAU-ZENER CROSS SECTION .................. 221 6.12.3 EIKONAL THEORIES ........................ 221 6.13 LONG-RANGE INTERACTIONS ........................ 224 6.13.1 POLARIZATION, ELECTROSTATIC, AND DISPERSION INTERACTIONS ..... 224 6.14 RADIATIVE PROCESSES ........................... 225 6.14.1 PHOTON SCATTERING BY FREE AND BOUND ELECTRONS ......... 225 6.14.2 RADIATIVE EMISSION RATE .................... 228 6.14.3 CROSS SECTION FOR RADIATIVE RECOMBINATION ........... 233 6.14.4 RADIATIVE RECOMBINATION RATE ................. 234 6.14.5 DIELECTRONIC RECOMBINATION CROSS SECTION ........... 236 6.14.6 BREMSSTRAHLUNG ........................ 236 6.14.7 BREMSSTRAHLUNG CROSS SECTION ................. 237 6.14.8 DIPOLE TRANSITION MATRIX ELEMENTS ............... 237 6.15 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR DATABASES .................... 238 6.16 GENERAL REFERENCES ........................... 239 6.17 REFERENCES ............................... 240 7. ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY ............................. 242 WOLFGANG L. WIESE 7.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 243 7.2 PHOTON ENERGIES, FREQUENCIES, AND WAVELENGTHS ............ 243 7.2.1 PHOTON ENERGY ......................... 243 7.2.2 FREQUENCY, WAVELENGTH, WAVENUMBER ............. 244 7.2.3 SPECTRAL WAVELENGTH RANGES .................. 244 7.2.4 WAVELENGTHS IN AIR ....................... 244 7.2.5 WAVELENGTH STANDARDS ..................... 244 7.2.6 ENERGY CONVERSION FACTORS ................... 245 7.3 ATOMIC STATES, ATOMIC SHELL STRUCTURE ................. 245 XVI CONTENTS 7.3.1 QUANTUM NUMBERS ....................... 245 7.3.2 PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, ATOMIC SHELLS ............ 245 7.4 THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM ........................ 246 7.5 ALKALI SPECTRA ............................. 246 7.6 ATOMIC STATES AND SPECTRA FOR MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS ......... 247 7.6.1 TYPICAL FEATURES, GENERAL QUANTUM DESIGNATIONS ........ 247 7.6.2 RUSSELL-SAUNDERS OR LS-COUPLING ............... 247 7.6.3 CUSTOMARY NOTATION, SAMPLE CASE ............... 248 7.6.4 OTHER COUPLING SCHEMES .................... 248 7.7 ATOMIC STRUCTURE HIERARCHIES, SELECTION RULES FOR DISCRETE TRANSITIONS 250 7.7.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE HIERARCHIES .................. 250 7.7.2 SELECTION RULES FOR DISCRETE TRANSITIONS ............. 251 7.8 SPECTRAL LINE INTENSITIES, ATOMIC TRANSITION PROBABILITIES, F -VALUES, AND LINE STRENGTHS ........................... 252 7.8.1 EMISSION INTENSITIES ...................... 252 7.8.2 ABSORPTION INTENSITIES ..................... 252 7.8.3 LINE STRENGTHS ......................... 252 7.8.4 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG A, F ,ANDS ............... 253 7.8.5 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SPECTRAL LINE AND MULTIPLET VALUES ... 254 7.8.6 TABULATIONS .......................... 254 7.9 ATOMIC (RADIATIVE) LIFETIMES ...................... 257 7.10 SCALING, SYSTEMATIC TRENDS (REGULARITIES), AND IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECTRA ............................... 258 7.10.1 HYDROGENIC (ONE-ELECTRON) SPECIES .............. 258 7.10.2 ATOMS AND IONS WITH TWO OR MORE ELECTRONS .......... 259 7.10.3 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SPECTRA ......... 259 7.11 SPECTRAL LINE SHAPES, WIDTHS, AND SHIFTS ................ 260 7.11.1 DOPPLER BROADENING ...................... 260 7.11.2 PRESSURE BROADENING ...................... 261 7.12 SPECTRAL CONTINUUM RADIATION ..................... 262 7.12.1 HYDROGENIC SPECIES ...................... 262 7.12.2 MANY-ELECTRON SYSTEMS .................... 263 7.13 SOURCES OF SPECTROSCOPIC DATA ..................... 263 7.14 REFERENCES ............................... 263 8. BIOLOGICAL PHYSICS ............................... 265 ELIAS GREENBAUM AND VICTOR BLOOMFIELD 8.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 267 8.2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ......................... 267 8.2.1 ELEMENTARY ELECTROSTATIC AND DISPERSION INTERACTIONS ...... 267 8.2.2 FORCE FIELDS .......................... 268 8.2.3 INTERACTIONS IN WATER ...................... 268 8.2.4 IONIC SOLUTIONS AND POLYELECTROLYTES .............. 269 8.3 NUCLEIC ACIDS ............................. 269 8.3.1 STRUCTURES OF NUCLEIC ACID BASES AND NUCLEOTIDES ........ 269 CONTENTS XVII 8.3.2 ENERGETICS OF BENDING AND TWISTING .............. 271 8.3.3 SUPERCOILED DNA ....................... 271 8.4 PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS ....................... 272 8.4.1 PEPTIDE BOND AND POLYPEPTIDE CONFORMATIONS ......... 273 8.4.2 HELIX-COIL TRANSITION AND PROTEIN FOLDING ............ 274 8.5 BINDING THERMODYNAMICS ....................... 274 8.6 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE ...................... 275 8.7 ELECTRON PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE ................... 278 8.8 THERMODYNAMICS, MITOCHRONDRIA, AND CHLOROPLASTS .......... 280 8.8.1 FREE-ENERGY CHANGE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION .......... 280 8.8.2 ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL WORK ................. 281 8.8.3 ION GRADIENTS, ACTIVE TRANSPORT, AND ATP SYNTHESIS ....... 282 8.8.4 MITOCHONDRIA ......................... 283 8.8.5 CHLOROPLASTS .......................... 284 8.9 SIGNALING AND TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES ............ 284 8.9.1 RECEPTORS ........................... 287 8.9.2 TRANSPORTERS .......................... 288 8.9.3 CHANNELS AND PUMPS ..................... 288 8.10 ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY ........................... 289 8.10.1 IMPULSES IN NERVE AND MUSCLE CELLS .............. 289 8.10.2 PROPERTIES OF NERVE AND MUSCLE CELLS .............. 289 8.10.3 AXONS: THE CABLE MODEL .................... 291 8.10.4 MODELS FOR MEMBRANE CURRENT DENSITY ............. 291 8.11 PHOTOBIOPHYSICS ............................ 293 8.12 MUSCLE AND CONTRACTILITY ........................ 295 8.13 CHARACTERIZING BIOPOLYMERS IN SOLUTION ................ 297 8.13.1 SEDIMENTATION AND DIFFUSION .................. 297 8.13.2 SEDIMENTATION EQUILIBRIUM .................. 298 8.13.3 ROTATIONAL MOTION ....................... 298 8.13.4 FRICTIONAL COEFFICIENTS ..................... 298 8.13.5 ELECTROPHORESIS AND GEL ELECTROPHORESIS ............ 298 8.13.6 SCATTERING ........................... 298 8.13.7 DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING ................... 300 8.14 BIOPHYSICS, THE HEALTH SCIENCES, AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGY ...... 300 8.15 REFERENCES ............................... 304 8.15.1 GENERAL REFERENCES ....................... 304 8.15.2 ON-LINE RESOURCES ....................... 304 8.15.3 SPECIFIC REFERENCES ...................... 304 9. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY ............................... 306 GEORGE A. JEFFREY AND VICKY LYNN KAREN 9.1 HISTORICAL SKETCH ............................ 307 9.2 CRYSTAL DATA AND SYMMETRY ...................... 309 9.2.1 CRYSTAL SYSTEM, SPACE GROUP, LATTICE CONSTANTS, AND STRUCTURE TYPE ......................... 309 XVIII CONTENTS 9.2.2 REDUCED CELLS ......................... 315 9.2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS ................. 316 9.3 CRYSTAL DIFFRACTION ........................... 316 9.3.1 CONDITIONS FOR DIFFRACTION ................... 316 9.3.2 SINGLE-CRYSTAL DIFFRACTOMETER ................. 319 9.3.3 ABSORPTION .......................... 321 9.3.4 X-RAY ABSORPTION CORRECTIONS ................. 321 9.3.5 EXTINCTION ........................... 323 9.3.6 MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS ...................... 323 9.3.7 DIFFRACTION BY PERFECT CRYSTALS ................. 324 9.3.8 BORRMANN OR ANOMALOUS TRANSMISSION EFFECT ....... 324 9.3.9 KOSSEL AND KIKUCHI LINES ................... 324 9.3.10 POWDER DIFFRACTOMETRY ..................... 325 9.3.11 POWDER DIFFRACTION PROFILE REFINEMENT: RIETVELD METHOD .... 326 9.4 STRUCTURE FACTOR ............................. 326 9.4.1 ATOMIC SCATTERING FACTORS F I ( S ) ................ 326 9.4.2 DISPERSION CORRECTIONS FOR X-RAY ATOMIC SCATTERING FACTORS ... 328 9.4.3 GEOMETRICAL STRUCTURE FACTOR .................. 331 9.4.4 UNITARY AND NORMALIZED STRUCTURE FACTORS ........... 332 9.5 THERMAL MOTION ............................ 332 9.6 DIFFRACTING DENSITY FUNCTION ...................... 335 9.7 PHASE PROBLEM ............................. 336 9.7.1 PHASE-SOLVING METHODS .................... 336 9.7.2 PATTERSON SYNTHESIS ...................... 337 9.7.3 DIRECT METHODS ........................ 337 9.8 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE REFINEMENT: METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES ........ 337 9.9 REFERENCES ............................... 339 9.10 APPENDIX: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA SOURCES ............... 343 9.10.1 INTRODUCTION .......................... 343 9.10.2 CATEGORIES, QUALITY, AND DESCRIPTION .............. 343 9.10.3 MAJOR SOURCES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ............ 344 10. EARTH, OCEAN, AND ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS ................... 349 FERRIS WEBSTER 10.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 350 10.2 PROPERTIES OF PLANET EARTH ........................ 350 10.2.1 PLANETARY DIMENSIONS AND CONSTANTS .............. 350 10.2.2 OCEAN AREAS, VOLUMES, AND DEPTHS ............... 351 10.3 OCEAN .................................. 353 10.3.1 SEAWATER PROPERTIES ...................... 353 10.3.2 AIR-SEA INTERACTION ....................... 359 10.3.3 TIDES ............................. 360 10.3.4 WAVES ............................. 361 10.3.5 GEOPHYSICAL FLUID DYNAMICS .................. 362 10.4 ATMOSPHERE ............................... 363 CONTENTS XIX 10.4.1 PRINCIPAL ATMOSPHERIC CONSTITUENTS .............. 363 10.4.2 PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR ..................... 363 10.4.3 PROPERTIES OF DRY AIR ...................... 364 10.4.4 U.S. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (1976) ............... 365 10.5 GLOBAL CLIMATE ............................. 370 10.5.1 EARTH S RADIATION BALANCE ................... 370 10.5.2 GLOBAL TEMPERATURE TRENDS ................... 371 10.5.3 ATMOSPHERIC CO 2 CONCENTRATIONS ............... 374 10.6 REFERENCES ............................... 375 11. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM .......................... 376 DAVID J. GRIFFITHS 11.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 377 11.2 ELECTROSTATICS .............................. 377 11.3 MAGNETOSTATICS ............................. 380 11.4 ELECTRODYNAMICS ............................ 382 11.5 CONSERVATION LAWS ........................... 386 11.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ......................... 387 11.7 RADIATION ................................ 390 11.8 RELATIVISTIC FORMULATION ........................ 393 11.9 CIRCUITS ................................. 395 11.10 UNITS .................................. 398 11.11 REFERENCES ............................... 400 12. ELEMENTARY PARTICLES ............................. 402 H. SCHELLMAN 12.1 THE STANDARD MODEL .......................... 403 12.1.1 FUNDAMENTAL FERMIONS ..................... 403 12.1.2 ELECTROWEAK COUPLINGS .................... 404 12.1.3 ELECTROWEAK LAGRANGIAN .................... 404 12.1.4 CABIBBO-KOBAYASHI-MASKAWA MIXING MATRIX ......... 405 12.1.5 CP VIOLATION IN THE KAON SYSTEM ................ 406 12.1.6 NEUTRINO MASSES AND MIXING .................. 407 12.1.7 STRONG INTERACTIONS ...................... 408 12.2 SELECTED PARTICLE PROPERTIES ....................... 408 12.3 KINEMATICS ............................... 410 12.3.1 RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS OF REACTIONS AND DECAYS ........ 410 12.3.2 BOOST OF A FOUR-VECTOR ..................... 411 12.3.3 DECAY LENGTH DISTRIBUTION ................... 411 12.3.4 TWO-BODY DECAYS ....................... 411 12.3.5 THREE-BODY DECAYS ...................... 411 12.3.6 TWO-BODY REACTIONS ...................... 412 12.3.7 MANDELSTAM VARIABLES ..................... 412 12.3.8 TRANSFORMATIONS BETWEEN THE LABORATORY AND THE CENTER OF MASS FRAMES ........................ 413 XX CONTENTS 12.3.9 IN SPECIFIC FRAMES ....................... 413 12.3.10 LEPTON SCATTERING ....................... 413 12.3.11 INCLUSIVE PARTICLE PRODUCTION ................. 414 12.4 DECAYS AND CROSS SECTIONS ....................... 414 12.4.1 LEPTON SCATTERING ....................... 414 12.4.2 E + E * SCATTERING ........................ 416 12.4.3 RESONANCE PRODUCTION ..................... 416 12.4.4 HADRON SCATTERING ....................... 417 12.4.5 FRAGMENTATION ......................... 417 12.4.6 TYPICAL INTERACTION CROSS SECTIONS ............... 417 12.5 PARTICLE DETECTORS ............................ 418 12.5.1 CHERENKOV RADIATION ...................... 418 12.5.2 IONIZATION ENERGY LOSS ..................... 418 12.5.3 MULTIPLE SCATTERING THROUGH SMALL ANGLES ........... 419 12.5.4 CHARGED PARTICLE TRAJECTORIES .................. 419 12.5.5 CALORIMETRY .......................... 424 12.6 REFERENCES ............................... 424 13. FLUID DYNAMICS ................................ 425 STAVROS TAVOULARIS 13.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 426 13.2 PROPERTIES OF COMMON FLUIDS ...................... 427 13.3 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION ....................... 429 13.3.1 EQUATIONS OF MOTION ...................... 429 13.3.2 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS ................... 431 13.3.3 SOME LAMINAR SOLUTIONS .................... 433 13.4 INSTABILITY, TRANSITION, AND TURBULENCE ................. 434 13.4.1 HYDRODYNAMIC STABILITY .................... 434 13.4.2 TRANSITION ........................... 434 13.4.3 TURBULENCE .......................... 435 13.5 FRICTION AND DRAG ............................ 435 13.6 GAS DYNAMICS ............................. 437 13.6.1 WAVE PROPAGATION IN FLUIDS .................. 437 13.6.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL, ISENTROPIC, COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ........ 437 13.6.3 SHOCK WAVES .......................... 438 13.7 MEASUREMENT IN FLUIDS ......................... 439 13.7.1 BULK FLOW MEASUREMENT .................... 439 13.7.2 FLOW VISUALIZATION ....................... 439 13.7.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ..................... 439 13.7.4 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT ..................... 440 13.7.5 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT ................... 440 13.7.6 THE FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY ................ 441 13.8 REFERENCES ............................... 441 CONTENTS XXI 14. MECHANICS ................................... 444 FLORIAN SCHECK 14.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 445 14.2 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS ......................... 445 14.2.1 NEWTON S LAWS AND INERTIAL FRAMES ............... 445 14.2.2 KEPLER S LAWS FOR PLANETARY MOTION .............. 447 14.2.3 PHASE SPACE AND DETERMINISM ................. 448 14.3 CANONICAL MECHANICS .......................... 450 14.3.1 LAGRANGIAN FUNCTIONS AND EULER-LAGRANGE EQUATIONS ..... 450 14.3.2 HAMILTONIAN SYSTEMS ..................... 451 14.3.3 CANONICAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND HAMILTON-JACOBI EQUATION ... 452 14.3.4 ACTION-ANGLE VARIABLES, MANIFOLDS OF MOTION ......... 454 14.4 RIGID BODIES .............................. 455 14.4.1 THE INERTIA TENSOR ....................... 455 14.4.2 EULER S EQUATIONS ....................... 457 14.4.3 SPINNING TOPS ......................... 458 14.5 RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS ......................... 458 14.5.1 LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS AND DECOMPOSITION THEOREM ..... 459 14.5.2 CAUSAL ORBITS, ENERGY, AND MOMENTUM ............. 460 14.5.3 TIME DILATATION AND SCALE CONTRACTION ............. 461 14.5.4 MOTION OF FREE PARTICLES IN SRT AND GRT ........... 462 14.6 HAMILTONIAN DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS .................... 464 14.6.1 LONG-TERM BEHAVIOR OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS .......... 464 14.6.2 DETERMINISTIC CHAOS IN HAMILTONIAN SYSTEMS ......... 465 14.7 REFERENCES ............................... 465 15. MEDICAL PHYSICS ................................ 467 WILLIAM R. HENDEE AND MICHAEL YESTER 15.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 469 15.1.1 IMAGING ............................ 469 15.2 IONIZING RADIATION: X- AND * -RAYS ................... 470 15.2.1 INTERACTION OF X- AND * -RAYS WITH TISSUE ............ 470 15.2.2 X-RAY DOSAGE ......................... 472 15.2.3 X-RAY IMAGE CONTRAST ..................... 478 15.3 IONIZING RADIATION: ELECTRONS ...................... 478 15.4 HEALTH RISKS .............................. 480 15.5 ULTRASOUND ............................... 480 15.6 MAGNETIC RESONANCE .......................... 480 15.7 BRACHYTHERAPY ............................. 483 15.8 NUCLEAR MEDICINE ............................ 487 15.9 REFERENCES ............................... 489 16. MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY AND STRUCTURE ................... 492 PETER F. BERNATH 16.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 493 XXII CONTENTS 16.2 ROTATIONAL SPECTROSCOPY ........................ 493 16.2.1 DIATOMICS ........................... 494 16.2.2 LINEAR MOLECULES ....................... 498 16.2.3 SYMMETRIC TOPS ........................ 498 16.2.4 ASYMMETRIC TOPS ....................... 499 16.2.5 SPHERICAL TOPS ......................... 502 16.3 VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPY ........................ 502 16.3.1 DIATOMICS ........................... 503 16.3.2 LINEAR MOLECULES ....................... 507 16.3.3 SYMMETRIC TOPS ........................ 509 16.3.4 ASYMMETRIC TOPS ....................... 511 16.3.5 SPHERICAL TOPS ......................... 511 16.3.6 RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY ..................... 512 16.4 ELECTRONIC SPECTRA ........................... 513 16.4.1 DIATOMICS ........................... 514 16.4.2 POLYATOMICS .......................... 517 16.5 STRUCTURE DETERMINATION ........................ 517 16.6 REFERENCES ............................... 520 17. NONLINEAR PHYSICS AND COMPLEXITY ..................... 522 PAUL MANNEVILLE 17.1 DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS AND BIFURCATIONS .................. 523 17.1.1 PRELIMINARIES ......................... 523 17.1.2 TANGENT DYNAMICS AND CENTER-MANIFOLD REDUCTION ....... 525 17.1.3 BIFURCATIONS .......................... 527 17.2 CHAOS AND FRACTALS ........................... 529 17.2.1 THE NATURE OF CHAOS ...................... 531 17.2.2 FRACTAL PROPERTIES AND DIMENSIONS ............... 532 17.2.3 ROUTES TO CHAOS ........................ 534 17.2.4 APPLIED NONLINEAR DYNAMICS .................. 535 17.3 SPACE-TIME DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS .................... 536 17.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTABILITIES AND THE MODELING ISSUE ..... 536 17.3.2 CONTINUOUS APPROACH TO SPACE-TIME BEHAVIOR ......... 537 17.3.3 DISCRETE APPROACH TO SPACE-TIME BEHAVIOR ........... 539 17.4 REFERENCES ............................... 542 18. NUCLEAR PHYSICS ................................ 544 KENNETH S. KRANE 18.1 NUCLEAR PROPERTIES ........................... 545 18.1.1 SIZE AND SHAPE OF NUCLEI .................... 545 18.1.2 MASS AND BINDING ENERGY ................... 546 18.1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC MOMENTS ................... 546 18.1.4 ISOSPIN IN NUCLEI ........................ 548 18.2 RADIOACTIVE DECAY ........................... 549 18.2.1 RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAWS .................... 549 CONTENTS XXIII 18.2.2 ALPHA DECAY .......................... 550 18.2.3 BETA DECAY ........................... 551 18.2.4 GAMMA DECAY ......................... 552 18.2.5 INTERNAL CONVERSION ...................... 553 18.2.6 UNITS FOR RADIOACTIVITY ..................... 554 18.3 NUCLEAR MODELS ............................. 555 18.3.1 THE SHELL MODEL ........................ 555 18.3.2 THE DEFORMED SHELL MODEL ................... 556 18.3.3 THE COLLECTIVE MODEL ..................... 556 18.4 INTERACTION OF NUCLEAR RADIATION WITH MATTER .............. 559 18.4.1 HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLES .................... 559 18.4.2 ELECTRONS ........................... 560 18.4.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION ................... 561 18.4.4 NEUTRONS ............................ 562 18.5 NUCLEAR REACTIONS ........................... 563 18.5.1 NONRELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS ................... 563 18.5.2 CROSS SECTIONS ......................... 564 18.6 COMPILATIONS OF NUCLEAR DATA ...................... 565 18.7 REFERENCES ............................... 566 19. OPTICS ..................................... 568 JOSEPH READER 19.1 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ........................ 570 19.1.1 REFLECTION ........................... 570 19.1.2 INDEX OF REFRACTION ....................... 570 19.1.3 REFRACTION AT A PLANE SURFACE ................. 572 19.1.4 COEFFICIENTS OF REFLECTANCE AND TRANSMITTANCE ......... 572 19.1.5 REFLECTANCE AND TRANSMITTANCE AT NORMAL INCIDENCE ...... 573 19.1.6 BREWSTER S ANGLE OF REFLECTION ................. 573 19.1.7 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION .................... 574 19.1.8 BEAM DISPLACEMENT BY A PLANE PARALLEL PLATE ......... 575 19.1.9 PRISMS ............................. 575 19.1.10 REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE ................ 576 19.2 ABSORPTION ............................... 577 19.2.1 INTERNAL TRANSMITTANCE AND TOTAL TRANSMITTANCE ......... 577 19.2.2 OPTICAL DENSITY ........................ 577 19.3 LENSES ................................. 578 19.3.1 IMAGING BY LENSES ....................... 578 19.3.2 MINIMUM FOCAL DISTANCE .................... 580 19.3.3 LENS POWER AND F-NUMBER .................. 580 19.3.4 LENS MAKER S FORMULA ..................... 580 19.3.5 THIN LENSES IN COMBINATION .................. 580 19.3.6 RAY TRACING FOR LENSES ..................... 581 19.4 MIRRORS ................................. 581 XXIV CONTENTS 19.4.1 IMAGING BY MIRRORS ...................... 581 19.4.2 RAY TRACING FOR MIRRORS .................... 583 19.5 DIFFRACTION ............................... 583 19.5.1 DIFFRACTION BY A SINGLE SLIT ................... 583 19.5.2 DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE ................ 584 19.5.3 RESOLVING POWER OF A TELESCOPE ................ 584 19.5.4 RESOLVING POWER OF A MICROSCOPE ............... 585 19.6 INTERFERENCE ............................... 586 19.6.1 DOUBLE SLIT INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION ................ 586 19.6.2 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS ...................... 587 19.6.3 DISPERSION OF A DIFFRACTION GRATING ............... 588 19.6.4 RESOLVING POWER OF A DIFFRACTION GRATING ........... 588 19.6.5 FREE SPECTRAL RANGE ...................... 589 19.6.6 OPTIMUM SLIT WIDTH ...................... 589 19.6.7 GRATING BLAZE ......................... 589 19.6.8 ROWLAND CIRCLE ........................ 589 19.6.9 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER ................... 589 19.6.10 FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER .................. 590 19.7 SPECTRA ................................. 593 19.7.1 IMPORTANT SPECTRAL LINES .................... 593 19.7.2 COMMON LASER WAVELENGTHS .................. 596 19.8 REFERENCES ............................... 596 20. PARTICLE ACCELERATORS AND STORAGE RINGS .................. 597 KAI DESLER AND DONALD A. EDWARDS 20.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 598 20.2 SINGLE-PARTICLE MOTION ......................... 598 20.2.1 LINEAR TRANSVERSE MOTION ................... 599 20.2.2 LONGITUDINAL MOTION ...................... 604 20.2.3 TRANSVERSE COUPLING ...................... 606 20.2.4 NONLINEAR EFFECTS ....................... 608 20.2.5 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION ..................... 611 20.3 MULTIPARTICLE DYNAMICS ......................... 615 20.3.1 SPACE CHARGE ......................... 615 20.3.2 COLLECTIVE INSTABILITIES ..................... 617 20.3.3 BEAM COOLING ......................... 619 20.3.4 LUMINOSITY .......................... 622 20.4 REFERENCES ............................... 623 21. PLASMA PHYSICS ................................ 625 DAVID L. BOOK 21.1 FUNDAMENTAL PLASMA PARAMETERS .................... 626 21.1.1 FREQUENCIES .......................... 626 21.1.2 LENGTHS ............................ 627 21.1.3 VELOCITIES ........................... 628 CONTENTS XXV 21.1.4 DIMENSIONLESS ......................... 628 21.1.5 MISCELLANEOUS ......................... 628 21.2 PLASMA DISPERSION FUNCTION ...................... 629 21.2.1 DEFINITION ........................... 629 21.2.2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION ..................... 631 21.2.3 SERIES EXPANSIONS ....................... 631 21.2.4 SYMMETRY PROPERTIES ..................... 631 21.2.5 TWO-POLE APPROXIMATIONS ................... 631 21.3 COLLISIONS AND TRANSPORT ........................ 632 21.3.1 RELAXATION RATES ........................ 632 21.3.2 TEMPERATURE ISOTROPIZATION .................. 634 21.3.3 THERMAL EQUILIBRATION ..................... 634 21.3.4 COULOMB LOGARITHM ...................... 635 21.3.5 FOKKERPLANCK EQUATION .................... 635 21.3.6 B-G-K COLLISION OPERATOR ................... 636 21.3.7 TRANSPORT COEFFICIENTS ..................... 637 21.3.8 WEAKLY IONIZED PLASMAS .................... 639 21.4 SOLAR AND IONOSPHERIC PHYSICS ..................... 640 21.5 THERMONUCLEAR FUSION ......................... 642 21.5.1 BASIC DATA AND RELATIONSHIPS .................. 642 21.5.2 FUSION REACTIONS ........................ 642 21.6 ELECTRON AND ION BEAMS ........................ 644 21.7 LASERPLASMA INTERACTIONS ....................... 648 21.7.1 SYSTEM PARAMETERS ...................... 648 21.7.2 FORMULAS ........................... 648 21.8 ATOMIC PHYSICS AND RADIATION ..................... 649 21.8.1 EXCITATION AND DECAY ..................... 650 21.8.2 IONIZATION AND RECOMBINATION ................. 650 21.8.3 IONIZATION EQUILIBRIUM MODELS ................. 651 21.8.4 RADIATION ........................... 652 21.9 REFERENCES ............................... 654 22. POLYMER PHYSICS ............................... 656 STEPHEN Z. D. CHENG 22.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 658 22.2 POLYMER MOLECULES ........................... 658 22.3 MOLECULAR-MASS AVERAGES ....................... 658 22.3.1 KTH MOMENT OF A MOLECULAR-MASS DISTRIBUTION P ( M ) ..... 658 22.3.2 MOLECULAR-MASS AVERAGES ................... 658 22.4 SINGLE-CHAIN DIMENSIONS ........................ 659 22.5 * SOLVENTS AND TEMPERATURES ...................... 660 22.6 MOLECULAR-WEIGHT CHARACTERIZATION ................... 662 22.6.1 SOLUTION VISCOSITY ....................... 662 22.6.2 OSMOTIC PRESSURE * ...................... 662 22.6.3 ULTRACENTRIFUGATION ...................... 663 XXVI CONTENTS 22.6.4 STATIC LIGHT SCATTERING ..................... 663 22.6.5 DYNAMIC (QUASIELASTIC) LIGHT SCATTERING ............ 663 22.7 CHARACTERIZATION BY SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES ............. 664 22.7.1 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE .................. 664 22.7.2 VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPY ................... 664 22.8 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES ............................ 664 22.9 BOND LENGTHS AND ANGLES OF POLYMERS ................. 667 22.10 MELTING AND CRYSTALLIZATION ....................... 669 22.10.1 VARIATION OF MELTING POINT OF THIN CRYSTALS WITH THICKNESS ... 669 22.10.2 SPHERULITIC GROWTH RATE CONTROLLED BY SECONDARY (SURFACE) NUCLEATION ........................... 669 22.10.3 AVRAMI EQUATION TO DESCRIBE OVERALL KINETICS OF PHASE CHANGES 670 22.11 LIQUID CRYSTALLINE TRANSITIONS ..................... 670 22.12 HEAT CAPACITY AND THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS ............. 671 22.12.1 HEAT CAPACITY IN SOLID AND LIQUID STATES OF SEMICRYSTALLINE POLYMERS ........................... 671 22.12.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HEAT CAPACITY ............. 672 22.12.3 RESIDUAL ENTROPIES AT ABSOLUTE ZERO FOR GLASS POLYMERS AND OTHER PROPERTIES ...................... 673 22.13 GLASS TRANSITION ............................ 673 22.14 THERMAL EXPANSION ........................... 675 22.15 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS ..................... 676 22.15.1 ORIENTATION BIREFRINGENCE * N IN AMORPHOUS POLYMERS ..... 676 22.15.2 STRESS OPTICAL COEFFICIENT C .................. 676 22.15.3 FORM BIREFRINGENCE * N F IN TWO-PHASE SYSTEMS ........ 676 22.15.4 BIREFRINGENCE * N OF ORIENTED CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS ...... 676 22.15.5 BIREFRINGENCE OF SPHERULITES * N SPH .............. 676 22.16 STRESS * IJ AND DISPLACEMENT U J AT CRACK TIPS ............. 677 22.17 INTERNAL FRICTION PEAKS IN SEMICRYSTALLINE POLYMERS .......... 678 22.18 REPRESENTATIVE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME COMMON STRUCTURAL POLYMERS ................................ 679 22.19 RHEOLOGY ................................ 680 22.19.1 INTRODUCTION .......................... 680 22.19.2 LINEAR VISCOELASTICITY ..................... 680 22.20 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES .......................... 684 22.20.1 DIPOLE MOMENTS ........................ 684 22.20.2 TYPICAL ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES .................. 684 22.21 DIFFUSION AND PERMEATION ........................ 685 22.21.1 DIFFUSION INTO PLANE SHEET ................... 685 22.21.2 DIFFUSION DATA ......................... 686 22.21.3 GAS TRANSMISSION ....................... 686 22.22 NONLINEAR OPTICAL PROPERTIES ...................... 686 22.23 REFERENCES ............................... 690 CONTENTS XXVII 23. QUANTUM THEORY ............................... 693 M. P. SILVERMAN AND R. L. MALLETT PART I. QUANTUM MECHANICS .......................... 694 23.1 BASIC FORMALISMS ............................ 694 23.2 OPERATOR REPRESENTATIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS .............. 695 23.2.1 OPERATOR ALGEBRA ........................ 695 23.2.2 COORDINATE AND LINEAR MOMENTUM OPERATORS .......... 695 23.2.3 ANGULAR MOMENTUM ...................... 697 23.2.4 HAMILTONIAN .......................... 701 23.2.5 COMMUTATION AND UNCERTAINTY RELATIONS ............ 701 23.3 QUANTUM DYNAMICS .......................... 703 23.3.1 TIME-DISPLACEMENT OPERATOR .................. 703 23.3.2 SINGLE-PARTICLE WAVE EQUATIONS ................ 703 23.3.3 OPERATOR EQUATIONS OF MOTION ................. 705 23.4 APPROXIMATE METHODS: STATIONARY STATES ................ 706 23.4.1 PERTURBATION THEORY (BOUND STATES) ............... 706 23.4.2 VARIATIONAL METHOD ...................... 708 23.4.3 WENTZEL-KRAMERS-BRILLOUIN (WKB) THEORY .......... 708 23.4.4 SCATTERING THEORY (STATIONARY STATE) .............. 710 23.5 TIME-DEPENDENT PERTURBATION THEORY ................. 711 23.5.1 FIRST-ORDER TRANSITIONS ..................... 711 23.5.2 SECOND-ORDER TRANSITIONS .................... 711 23.5.3 FERMI GOLDEN RULE ...................... 711 23.5.4 DENSITY OF STATES ........................ 712 23.5.5 EXPONENTIAL DECAY ....................... 712 23.6 RADIATION THEORY ............................ 712 23.6.1 INTERACTION HAMILTONIAN .................... 712 23.6.2 ABSORPTION AND EMISSION ................... 713 23.6.3 MULTIPOLE TRANSITIONS ..................... 713 23.6.4 SUM RULES ........................... 714 23.7 ADDITIONAL LINKS TO QUANTUM SYSTEMS IN OTHER CHAPTERS ........ 715 23.7.1 COULOMB POTENTIAL ....................... 715 23.7.2 QUANTUM ROTATOR ........................ 715 23.7.3 ANHARMONIC OSCILLATOR ..................... 715 PART II. QUANTUM FIELD THEORY ......................... 715 23.8 BRIEF HISTORY .............................. 715 23.9 FEYNMAN RULES FOR GAUGE THEORIES .................. 715 23.9.1 THE S MATRIX ......................... 715 23.9.2 CROSS SECTIONS ......................... 716 23.9.3 DECAY RATES .......................... 716 23.9.4 DIAGRAMMATIC CONSTRUCTION OF AMPLITUDES ........... 716 23.9.5 FERMION SPIN SUMS ...................... 720 23.9.6 POLARIZATION SUMS ....................... 721 23.9.7 CONTRACTION AND TRACE RELATIONS ................ 721 XXVIII CONTENTS 23.10 QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS ....................... 721 23.11 STANDARD ELECTROWEAK MODEL ...................... 722 23.11.1 COUPLING CONSTANTS AND FIELDS ................. 722 23.11.2 EXAMPLE: ELASTIC NEUTRINO-ELECTRON SCATTERING ......... 723 23.12 REFERENCES ............................... 724 24. SOLID STATE PHYSICS .............................. 725 COSTAS M. SOUKOULIS AND ELEFTHERIOS N. ECONOMOU 24.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 727 24.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ACCORDING TO THEIR BONDING CHARACTER ..... 727 24.2.1 SIMPLE METALS ......................... 727 24.2.2 TRANSITION AND RARE-EARTH METALS ................ 727 24.2.3 COVALENT SOLIDS ........................ 728 24.2.4 IONIC SOLIDS .......................... 728 24.2.5 VAN DER WAALS SOLIDS ..................... 728 24.2.6 CRYSTALS WITH HYDROGEN BONDING ................ 728 24.3 APPROXIMATIONS ............................ 728 24.4 ELECTRONS IN PERIODIC SOLIDS ...................... 729 24.4.1 BLOCH S THEOREM; RECIPROCAL LATTICE; BRILLOUIN ZONE ...... 729 24.4.2 DENSITY OF STATES ........................ 730 24.4.3 JELLIUM MODEL ......................... 732 24.5 METHODS FOR BAND-STRUCTURE CALCULATIONS ................ 734 24.5.1 GENERAL COMPUTATIONAL FRAMEWORK ............... 734 24.5.2 LINEAR COMBINATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS ............. 736 24.5.3 PLANE WAVE METHOD ...................... 736 24.5.4 OTHER METHODS ......................... 737 24.6 IONIC VIBRATIONS ............................. 737 24.7 THERMODYNAMIC QUANTITIES ....................... 739 24.8 LINEAR RESPONSE TO PERTURBATIONS .................... 741 24.8.1 DIELECTRIC FUNCTION AND CONDUCTIVITY .............. 741 24.8.2 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE DC CONDUCTIVITY ....... 744 24.8.3 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND THERMOELECTRIC POWER ........ 746 24.8.4 HALL EFFECT AND MAGNETORESISTANCE ............... 746 24.8.5 CYCLOTRON RESONANCE, ESR, AND NMR ............. 747 24.9 DISORDERED SYSTEMS .......................... 747 24.9.1 LOCALIZATION AND METAL-INSULATOR TRANSITION .......... 747 24.9.2 METAL-INSULATOR TRANSITION IN 2D DISORDERED SYSTEMS ...... 749 24.10 MAGNETISM ............................... 749 24.11 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY ........................... 751 24.12 ELEMENTARY EXCITATIONS ......................... 753 24.12.1 EXCITONS ............................ 753 24.12.2 POLARONS AND BIPOLARONS .................... 753 24.12.3 SPIN WAVES .......................... 754 24.13 ARTIFICIAL SOLID STRUCTURES AND PHOTONIC CRYSTALS ............ 754 24.14 REFERENCES ............................... 755 CONTENTS XXIX 25. SURFACES AND FILMS .............................. 756 ROLAND RESCH AND BRUCE E. KOEL 25.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 757 25.2 SURFACE ANALYSIS: PROBING SURFACES AND FILMS ............. 758 25.2.1 ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY ..................... 758 25.2.2 ION SPECTROSCOPY ....................... 759 25.2.3 ELECTRON DIFFRACTION ...................... 761 25.2.4 FIELD EMISSION ......................... 762 25.2.5 ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ...................... 762 25.2.6 SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY .................. 762 25.3 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF SURFACES ................. 764 25.3.1 THERMODYNAMICS OF ONE-COMPONENT SURFACES ......... 764 25.3.2 SURFACE MORPHOLOGY, DEFECTS, AND DISLOCATIONS ........ 765 25.3.3 SURFACE LATTICES AND SUPERSTRUCTURES .............. 765 25.3.4 ATOMISTIC STRUCTURE: RELAXATION AND RECONSTRUCTION ....... 767 25.3.5 SURFACES OF COMPOUNDS AND METAL ALLOYS ........... 767 25.4 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AT SURFACES .................... 767 25.5 THE GAS-SOLID INTERFACE ........................ 769 25.5.1 SOLID-GAS INTERACTIONS ..................... 769 25.5.2 ENERGY ACCOMMODATION AND ADSORPTION ............ 770 25.5.3 DESORPTION ........................... 772 25.5.4 SURFACE DIFFUSION ....................... 772 25.5.5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AT SOLID SURFACES .............. 773 25.6 SOLID-LIQUID AND LIQUID-LIQUID INTERFACES ............... 774 25.6.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSES AND THE DOUBLE LAYER ........ 774 25.6.2 SOLID-LIQUID INTERACTIONS .................... 776 25.6.3 SOLID-LIQUID REACTIONS ..................... 777 25.7 FILM FORMATION AND STRUCTURE ..................... 778 25.7.1 NUCLEATION AND GROWTH MODES ................. 778 25.7.2 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF THIN FILMS ............. 781 25.7.3 FILM GROWTH FROM THE GASEOUS PHASE ............. 781 25.7.4 FILM GROWTH FROM THE LIQUID PHASE ............... 784 25.7.5 FILM GROWTH AT THE GAS-LIQUID INTERFACE ............ 785 25.8 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SURFACES AND THIN FILMS ........... 785 25.8.1 FRICTION ............................ 785 25.8.2 LUBRICATION .......................... 787 25.8.3 WEAR .............................. 787 25.8.4 ADHESION ........................... 787 25.9 REFERENCES ............................... 788 26. THERMODYNAMICS AND THERMOPHYSICS .................... 791 J. P. MARTIN TRUSLER AND WILLIAM A. WAKEHAM 26.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 792 26.2 CLASSICAL THERMODYNAMICS ....................... 792 26.2.1 THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS ................. 792 XXX CONTENTS 26.2.2 CONSEQUENCES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND LAWS .......... 795 26.2.3 DEPENDENCE OF THE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES ON TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, AND COMPOSITION ................... 797 26.2.4 PHASE EQUILIBRIA ........................ 800 26.2.5 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA ...................... 801 26.3 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS ...................... 801 26.3.1 POSTULATES OF STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS ........... 802 26.3.2 THE PERFECT GAS ........................ 804 26.3.3 REAL GASES ........................... 806 26.4 TRANSPORT PROPERTIES .......................... 807 26.4.1 FLUXES AND GRADIENTS ...................... 807 26.4.2 DEFINITIONS OF TRANSPORT COEFFICIENTS .............. 809 26.4.3 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSPORT PROPERTIES ............. 810 26.5 KINETIC THEORY ............................. 812 26.5.1 THE BOLTZMANN EQUATION ................... 812 26.5.2 THE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES .................... 813 26.5.3 MONATOMIC GASES ....................... 814 26.5.4 DENSE FLUIDS .......................... 815 26.6 REFERENCES ............................... 816 27. PRACTICAL LABORATORY DATA .......................... 817 DAVID R. LIDE 27.1 INTRODUCTION .............................. 817 27.2 TABLE: PERIODIC TABLE .......................... 819 27.3 TABLE: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS ........ 820 27.4 TABLE: THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS ........... 826 27.5 TABLE: DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY) OF LIQUIDS ...... 828 27.6 TABLE: VISCOSITY OF LIQUIDS AND GASES ................. 830 27.7 TABLE: VAPOR PRESSURE OF THE ELEMENTS AND SELECTED COMPOUNDS .... 831 27.8 TABLE: VAPOR PRESSURE OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS ............... 835 27.9 TABLE: AQUEOUS SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS ............ 836 27.10 TABLE: SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN WATER ................... 838 27.11 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF MISCELLANEOUS SOLID MATERIALS ........... 838 27.12 TABLE: DENSITIES KNOWN TO HIGH ACCURACY ............... 840 27.13 FIXED POINTS ON THE INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE OF 1990 ...... 841 27.14 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID HELIUM ................... 842 27.15 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF WATER AND ICE ................... 843 27.16 TABLE: VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER ON THE ITS-90 TEMPERATURE SCALE ... 843 INDEX ......................................... 845
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spelling	AIP physics desk reference E. Richard Cohen... (eds.) 3. ed. Berlin [u.a.] Springer 2003 XXXV, 888 S. Ill. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd rswk-swf Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4148875-1 Datensammlung gnd-content Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 s DE-604 Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 s Cohen, E. Richard edt SWB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=019897118&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis
spellingShingle	AIP physics desk reference Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4045956-1 (DE-588)4003311-9 (DE-588)4148875-1
title	AIP physics desk reference
title_auth	AIP physics desk reference
title_exact_search	AIP physics desk reference
title_full	AIP physics desk reference E. Richard Cohen... (eds.)
title_fullStr	AIP physics desk reference E. Richard Cohen... (eds.)
title_full_unstemmed	AIP physics desk reference E. Richard Cohen... (eds.)
title_short	AIP physics desk reference
title_sort	aip physics desk reference
topic	Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd
topic_facet	Physik Astronomie Datensammlung
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=019897118&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
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