Electronic imaging in astronomy: detectors and instrumentation
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| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Berlin [u.a.]
Springer [u.a.]
2008
|
| Edition: | 2. ed. |
| Series: | Springer Praxis books astronomy and planetary sciences
|
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XL, 552 S. Ill., graph. Dart., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9783540765820 |
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MARC
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| 264 | 1 | |a Berlin [u.a.] |b Springer [u.a.] |c 2008 | |
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1804137783385653248 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
About the author....................................... xv
Preface............................................. xvii
List of figures........................................ xxi
List of tables......................................... xxix
List of abbreviations and acronyms........................... xxxi
Introduction..........................................xxxvii
1 The development of electronic imaging in astronomy............. 1
1.1 Observational astronomy........................... 1
1.1.1 Historical development ...................... 1
1.1.2 What are the observables?.................... 7
1.2 From eyes to electronic sensors...................... 10
1.2.1 The eye................................ 11
1.2.2 Photography............................. 13
1.2.3 The photoelectric effect...................... 15
1.2.4 Photomultiplier tubes....................... 15
1.2.5 Electron-scanning devices .................... 17
1.3 The impact of solid-state imaging .................... 19
1.3.1 Invention of the CCD ...................... 19
1.3.2 Electronic imaging across the spectrum ........... 22
1.4 The continuing growth of astronomical technology......... 25
1.4.1 Bigger telescopes and better images.............. 25
1.4.2 Common-user instrumentation and automation ...... 26
1.4.3 Surveys and data archives; the virtual observatory .... 27
Contents
1.5 Terminology of electronic imaging.................... 29
1.5.1 Image formation .......................... 29
1.5.2 Detector performance....................... 32
1.6 Summary..................................... 34
1.7 Exercises..................................... 35
1.8 References.................................... 36
Web sites............................... 36
1.9 Suggestions for additional reading.................... 37
Beating the atmosphere................................ 39
2.1 Atmospheric absorption and transmission............... 39
2.2 Atmospheric emission, thermal and non-thermal........... 43
2.3 Turbulence.................................... 46
2.3.1 Kolmogorov theory and origin of seeing .......... 48
2.3.2 Fried parameter........................... 51
2.3.3 Speckle interferometry ...................... 53
2.3.4 Lucky imaging ........................... 53
2.4 Adaptive optics ................................ 54
2.4.1 Measuring the wavefront..................... 54
2.4.2 The isoplanatic patch........................ 58
2.4.3 Deformable mirrors ........................ 59
2.4.4 Natural guide star systems.................... 60
2.4.5 Laser guide star systems ..................... 63
2.5 Optical and IR interferometers ...................... 66
2.5.1 Phase closure ............................ 70
2.6 Space telescopes................................ 71
2.7 Summary..................................... 72
2.8 Exercises..................................... 73
2.9 References ................................... 74
Web sites............................... 75
Telescopes........................................ 77
3.1 Historical development............................ 77
3.2 Telescope designs............................... 84
3.2.1 Basic optical properties...................... 84
3.2.2 The astronomical (lens) telescope................ 87
3.2.3 Reflecting telescopes; the parabolic dish............ 90
3.2.4 Correctors and hybrid telescopes................ 93
3.2.5 Telescope mounts ......................... 94
3.3 Automated telescopes and remote observing ............. 97
3.3.1 Remote observing ......................... 97
3.3.2 Automated imaging telescopes ................. 98
3.3.3 Survey telescopes.......................... 101
Contents vii
3.4 Very Large Telescope design........................ 102
3.4.1 Segmented primaries........................ 102
3.4.2 Thin-meniscus mirrors ...................... 105
3.4.3 Spin-cast honeycombs....................... 108
3.4.4 Prospects for Extremely Large Telescopes.......... 110
3.5 Case study: design of a two-mirror telescope.............. Ill
3.6 Summary .................................... 114
3.7 Exercises..................................... 115
3.8 References.................................... 116
Web sites............................... 117
4 The discovery power of modern astronomical instruments.......... 119
4.1 Imaging the sky; more than pictures .................. 119
4.1.1 Early surveys of the sky ..................... 121
4.1.2 Digitized surveys.......................... 123
4.1.3 Drift scanning and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey..... 129
4.1.4 The Two Micron All Sky Survey ............... 130
4.1.5 Deep imaging in selected fields................. 132
4.1.6 Diffraction-limited imaging ................... 133
4.1.7 Interferometers; expanding the baseline ........... 134
4.2 Spectroscopy; atomic fingerprints..................... 135
4.2.1 Introduction............................. 135
4.2.2 High resolution, from cosmic abundances to planet
hunting ................................ 138
4.2.3 Medium-resolution and low-resolution spectroscopy . . . 142
4.2.4 Multiobject spectroscopic surveys; 3-D maps of the
Universe ............................... 144
4.2.5 Imaging spectroscopy; w y, and A............... 150
4.3 Polarization; transverse waves....................... 152
4.3.1 Introduction............................. 152
4.3.2 Polarization maps and spectra ................. 153
4.4 Summary..................................... 155
4.5 Exercises..................................... 156
4.6 References.................................... 157
General astronomy texts referenced.............. 159
Web sites............................... 159
5 Instrumentation and detectors............................ 161
5.1 Photometers and cameras.......................... 161
5.1.1 Photoelectric photometers .................... 161
5.1.2 Camera systems........................... 163
5.1.3 Pixel sampling and matching to the plate scale ...... 164
viii Contents
5.2 Spectrometers ................................. 167
5.2.1 Resolution and dispersion .................... 168
5.2.2 Diffraction gratings......................... 168
5.2.3 Prisms................................. 175
5.2.4 Grisms ................................ 176
5.3 Polarimeters .................................. 177
5.3.1 Modulators and polarizers.................... 177
5.3.2 The Stokes parameters ...................... 178
5.3.3 Mueller matrices .......................... 180
5.4 Interferometers ................................ 181
5.4.1 The Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) ........ 181
5.4.2 The Fabry-Perot etalon ..................... 182
5.4.3 Interference filters ......................... 183
5.5 Detectors .................................... 184
5.5.1 Classification............................. 184
5.5.2 Semiconductors........................... 186
5.5.3 Photoconductors and photodiodes............... 191
5.5.4 Thermal detectors ......................... 194
5.5.5 Coherent detectors......................... 195
5.6 Summary .................................... 195
5.7 Exercises..................................... 196
5.8 References and suggested further reading................ 197
Designing and building astronomical instruments................ 199
6.1 Basic requirements .............................. 199
6.2 Overall system layout ............................ 200
6.3 Optical design ................................. 201
6.3.1 First order to ray tracing .................... 201
6.3.2 Aberrations ............................. 203
6.3.3 Wavefront errors.......................... 207
6.3.4 Coatings and interference niters ................ 211
6.4 Mechanical design............................... 212
6.4.1 Materials and properties..................... 213
6.4.2 Mechanisms ............................. 216
6.5 Cryogenics and vacuum methods..................... 218
6.6 Electronics design............................... 228
6.7 Software..................................... 235
6.8 Summary..................................... 237
6.9 Exercises..................................... 237
Special topic............................. 239
6.10 References and suggested further reading................ 239
Web sites for optical software.................. 240
Contents ix
7 Charge-coupled devices................................ 241
7.1 The early years................................. 241
7.1.1 Invention and development ................... 241
7.1.2 The astronomical push ...................... 242
7.2 Basic principles of CCDs.......................... 248
7.2.1 Charge storage ........................... 248
7.2.2 Charge-coupling and clocking.................. 252
7.3 CCD constructions.............................. 254
7.3.1 Interline and frame-transfer CCDs .............. 254
7.3.2 CCD outputs ............................ 256
7.3.3 Buried-channel CCDs....................... 257
7.3.4 Two-phase, four-phase, and virtual-phase CCDs ..... 260
7.3.5 Backside-illuminated CCDs ................... 261
7.3.6 Multi-pinned phase CCDs.................... 262
7.4 Astronomical requirements......................... 264
7.4.1 Slow-scanning, cooling, and optimization .......... 264
7.4.2 CCD mosaics ............................ 265
7.4.3 Drift scanning............................ 266
7.5 Special devices................................. 268
7.5.1 High-speed CCDs with on-chip gain ............. 268
7.5.2 Deep-depletion CCDs for no fringing ............ 270
7.5.3 Orthogonal transfer CCDs.................... 271
7.5.4 Customized CCDs......................... 272
7.6 Summary..................................... 273
7.7 Exercises..................................... 273
7.8 References and suggestions for further reading............ 274
Web sites............................... 275
CCDs for college teaching.................... 275
8 Practical operation of CCDs............................ 277
8.1 Clock voltages and basic electrical factors............... 277
8.1.1 The analog signal chain ..................... 279
8.1.2 CCD sequencers and clock drivers .............. 280
8.2 Dark current and cooling.......................... 287
8.3 Cosmic rays and luminescence....................... 290
8.4 Bad pixels and charge transfer efficiency................ 292
8.5 Noise sources.................................. 296
8.6 Signal processing and digitization..................... 298
8.6.1 Correlated double-sampling ................... 300
8.6.2 On-chip binning .......................... 304
8.6.3 Overscanning and sub-arrays .................. 305
8.7 Uniformity of response............................ 306
8.8 UV flashing and QE pinning........................ 307
x Contents
8.9 Summary .................................... 311
8.10 Exercises..................................... 311
8.11 References and suggested further reading................ 312
Web sites............................... 313
9 Characterization and calibration of array instruments............. 315
9.1 From photons to microvolts........................ 315
9.1.1 Quantum efficiency and DQE.................. 316
9.1.2 Photon transfer function..................... 319
9.2 Noise, bias, and dark current....................... 323
9.3 Flat-fielding strategies ............................ 325
9.4 Fringes and sky emission.......................... 331
9.5 Linearity..................................... 331
9.6 Photometry................................... 332
9.7 Spectroscopy.................................. 340
9.8 Polarimetry................................... 343
9.9 Signal-to-noise calculations......................... 343
9.10 Summary..................................... 350
9.11 Exercises..................................... 350
9.12 References ................................... 351
Web sites............................... 352
10 Image processing and analysis........................... 353
10.1 Computers.................................... 353
10.1.1 Data acquisition and data transfer .............. 353
10.1.2 Data file formats.......................... 356
10.2 Data reduction and analysis systems .................. 358
10.2.1 The IRAF package ........................ 361
10.2.2 The IDL package ......................... 366
10.2.3 FITS Liberator........................... 369
10.3 Principles of image analysis and processing.............. 369
10.3.1 Displaying images ......................... 369
10.3.2 Image enhancement ........................ 374
10.4 Image restoration............................... 378
10.5 Summary .................................... 382
10.6 Exercises..................................... 383
10.7 References ................................... 383
Web sites............................... 384
11 Electronic imaging at infrared wavelengths................... 385
11.1 Introduction .................................. 385
11.1.1 Early history of infrared astronomy.............. 386
11.1.2 The beginning of modern infrared astronomy ....... 387
11.1.3 The launch of IRAS........................ 389
Contents xi
11.2 Infrared wavebands.............................. 389
11.2.1 Atmospheric windows....................... 389
11.2.2 The high-background problem ................. 391
11.2.3 Chopping............................... 391
11.3 Infrared array detectors........................... 393
11.3.1 The infrared array revolution, dejd vu........... 393
11.3.2 The hybrid structure........................ 397
11.3.3 Photovoltaic devices........................ 400
11.3.4 Impurity band conduction devices............... 401
11.3.5 Far-infrared arrays based on germanium .......... 403
11.3.6 Other forms of infrared arrays................. 404
11.4 Practical operation of infrared arrays.................. 405
11.4.1 Linearity ............................... 405
11.4.2 Dark current and cooling .................... 406
11.4.3 Noise sources ............................ 407
11.4.4 Quantum efficiency......................... 408
11.4.5 Multiple outputs .......................... 408
11.4.6 Array controllers.......................... 408
11.5 Readout modes ................................ 410
11.5.1 Single-sampling........................... 412
11.5.2 Correlated double-sampling (CDS) .............. 413
11.5.3 Reset-read-read or Fowler sampling............. 413
11.5.4 Sampling up the ramp (UTR) ................. 415
11.6 Infrared instruments............................. 415
11.6.1 General issues............................ 415
11.6.2 IR cameras.............................. 416
11.6.3 Infrared spectrometers ...................... 417
11.6.4 AO cameras and integral field spectroscopy ........ 419
11.7 The impact of infrared arrays....................... 420
11.7.1 Ground-based observing ..................... 420
11.7.2 The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy . 421
11.7.3 IR astronomy in space ...................... 423
11.8 Summary..................................... 425
11.9 Exercises..................................... 426
11.10 References.................................... 426
Web sites............................... 429
12 Electronic imaging at ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray wavelengths. . . 431
12.1 Introduction .................................. 431
12.1.1 Grazing incidence telescopes................... 432
12.1.2 Coded mask telescopes....................... 435
12.2 Ultraviolet detectors and instruments.................. 437
12.2.1 UV-sensitive CCDs ........................ 440
12.2.2 MicroChannel plates........................ 441
12.2.3 Electron-bombarded CCDs ................... 445
xii Contents
12.3 X-ray detectors and instruments...................... 446
12.3.1 Introduction............................. 446
12.3.2 CCDs in the X-ray regime.................... 448
12.3.3 X-ray spectroscopy......................... 450
12.3.4 X-ray instruments: the Chandra X-ray Observatory
(CXO)................................. 451
12.4 Gamma rays................................... 453
12.4.1 Detectors for high energy .................... 454
12.4.2 Gamma-ray observatories in space .............. 457
12.4.3 Ground-based gamma-ray observatories........... 461
12.5 Summary..................................... 462
12.6 Exercises..................................... 463
12.7 References ................................... 463
Web sites............................... 464
Suggested further reading..................... 465
13 Electronic imaging at sub-millimeter and radio wavelengths......... 467
13.1 Introduction to radio astronomy..................... 467
13.2 Radio telescopes................................ 471
13.2.1 Antennas................................ 471
13.2.2 Receivers ............................... 474
13.2.3 Detectors/Mixers .......................... 480
13.2.4 Interferometers and aperture synthesis............ 481
13.3 The microwave background ........................ 485
13.3.1 COBE and WMAP ........................ 486
13.4 Sub-millimeter detectors and instruments................ 489
13.4.1 Bolometers.............................. 490
13.4.2 Thermal edge sensors........................ 493
13.4.3 Microwave kinetic induction detectors ............ 495
13.5 Summary..................................... 496
13.6 Exercises..................................... 497
13.7 References and sugested further reading................. 498
Web sites............................... 499
14 Future developments.................................. 501
14.1 Scientific challenges.............................. 501
14.2 New ground-based telescopes ....................... 502
14.3 Next-generation adaptive optics...................... 507
14.4 Next-generation instrumentation ..................... 508
14.5 New space telescopes ............................ 509
14.6 The future of electronic imaging ..................... 511
14.7 Conclusion ................................... 512
14.8 References ................................... 513
Web sites............................... 513
Contents xiii
Answers to selected exercises............................... 515
APPENDICES
A Powers-of-10 notation................................. 521
B Units of measurement and useful conversions.................. 523
C Physical and astronomical constants........................ 527
D Astronomical magnitude scale and relation to lux............... 529
E Basic observational astronomy facts........................ 531
F Useful statistics..................................... 535
Index.............................................. 537
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
About the author. xv
Preface. xvii
List of figures. xxi
List of tables. xxix
List of abbreviations and acronyms. xxxi
Introduction.xxxvii
1 The development of electronic imaging in astronomy. 1
1.1 Observational astronomy. 1
1.1.1 Historical development . 1
1.1.2 What are the observables?. 7
1.2 From eyes to electronic sensors. 10
1.2.1 The eye. 11
1.2.2 Photography. 13
1.2.3 The photoelectric effect. 15
1.2.4 Photomultiplier tubes. 15
1.2.5 Electron-scanning devices . 17
1.3 The impact of solid-state imaging . 19
1.3.1 Invention of the CCD . 19
1.3.2 Electronic imaging across the spectrum . 22
1.4 The continuing growth of astronomical technology. 25
1.4.1 Bigger telescopes and better images. 25
1.4.2 Common-user instrumentation and automation . 26
1.4.3 Surveys and data archives; the virtual observatory . 27
Contents
1.5 Terminology of electronic imaging. 29
1.5.1 Image formation . 29
1.5.2 Detector performance. 32
1.6 Summary. 34
1.7 Exercises. 35
1.8 References. 36
Web sites. 36
1.9 Suggestions for additional reading. 37
Beating the atmosphere. 39
2.1 Atmospheric absorption and transmission. 39
2.2 Atmospheric emission, thermal and non-thermal. 43
2.3 Turbulence. 46
2.3.1 Kolmogorov theory and origin of seeing . 48
2.3.2 Fried parameter. 51
2.3.3 Speckle interferometry . 53
2.3.4 Lucky imaging . 53
2.4 Adaptive optics . 54
2.4.1 Measuring the wavefront. 54
2.4.2 The isoplanatic patch. 58
2.4.3 Deformable mirrors . 59
2.4.4 Natural guide star systems. 60
2.4.5 Laser guide star systems . 63
2.5 Optical and IR interferometers . 66
2.5.1 Phase closure . 70
2.6 Space telescopes. 71
2.7 Summary. 72
2.8 Exercises. 73
2.9 References . 74
Web sites. 75
Telescopes. 77
3.1 Historical development. 77
3.2 Telescope designs. 84
3.2.1 Basic optical properties. 84
3.2.2 The astronomical (lens) telescope. 87
3.2.3 Reflecting telescopes; the parabolic dish. 90
3.2.4 Correctors and hybrid telescopes. 93
3.2.5 Telescope mounts . 94
3.3 Automated telescopes and remote observing . 97
3.3.1 Remote observing . 97
3.3.2 Automated imaging telescopes . 98
3.3.3 Survey telescopes. 101
Contents vii
3.4 Very Large Telescope design. 102
3.4.1 Segmented primaries. 102
3.4.2 Thin-meniscus mirrors . 105
3.4.3 Spin-cast honeycombs. 108
3.4.4 Prospects for Extremely Large Telescopes. 110
3.5 Case study: design of a two-mirror telescope. Ill
3.6 Summary . 114
3.7 Exercises. 115
3.8 References. 116
Web sites. 117
4 The discovery power of modern astronomical instruments. 119
4.1 Imaging the sky; more than pictures . 119
4.1.1 Early surveys of the sky . 121
4.1.2 Digitized surveys. 123
4.1.3 Drift scanning and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. 129
4.1.4 The Two Micron All Sky Survey . 130
4.1.5 Deep imaging in selected fields. 132
4.1.6 Diffraction-limited imaging . 133
4.1.7 Interferometers; expanding the baseline . 134
4.2 Spectroscopy; atomic fingerprints. 135
4.2.1 Introduction. 135
4.2.2 High resolution, from cosmic abundances to planet
hunting . 138
4.2.3 Medium-resolution and low-resolution spectroscopy . . . 142
4.2.4 Multiobject spectroscopic surveys; 3-D maps of the
Universe . 144
4.2.5 Imaging spectroscopy; w y, and A. 150
4.3 Polarization; transverse waves. 152
4.3.1 Introduction. 152
4.3.2 Polarization maps and spectra . 153
4.4 Summary. 155
4.5 Exercises. 156
4.6 References. 157
General astronomy texts referenced. 159
Web sites. 159
5 Instrumentation and detectors. 161
5.1 Photometers and cameras. 161
5.1.1 Photoelectric photometers . 161
5.1.2 Camera systems. 163
5.1.3 Pixel sampling and matching to the plate scale . 164
viii Contents
5.2 Spectrometers . 167
5.2.1 Resolution and dispersion . 168
5.2.2 Diffraction gratings. 168
5.2.3 Prisms. 175
5.2.4 Grisms . 176
5.3 Polarimeters . 177
5.3.1 Modulators and polarizers. 177
5.3.2 The Stokes parameters . 178
5.3.3 Mueller matrices . 180
5.4 Interferometers . 181
5.4.1 The Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) . 181
5.4.2 The Fabry-Perot etalon . 182
5.4.3 Interference filters . 183
5.5 Detectors . 184
5.5.1 Classification. 184
5.5.2 Semiconductors. 186
5.5.3 Photoconductors and photodiodes. 191
5.5.4 Thermal detectors . 194
5.5.5 Coherent detectors. 195
5.6 Summary . 195
5.7 Exercises. 196
5.8 References and suggested further reading. 197
Designing and building astronomical instruments. 199
6.1 Basic requirements . 199
6.2 Overall system layout . 200
6.3 Optical design . 201
6.3.1 First order to ray tracing . 201
6.3.2 Aberrations . 203
6.3.3 Wavefront errors. 207
6.3.4 Coatings and interference niters . 211
6.4 Mechanical design. 212
6.4.1 Materials and properties. 213
6.4.2 Mechanisms . 216
6.5 Cryogenics and vacuum methods. 218
6.6 Electronics design. 228
6.7 Software. 235
6.8 Summary. 237
6.9 Exercises. 237
Special topic. 239
6.10 References and suggested further reading. 239
Web sites for optical software. 240
Contents ix
7 Charge-coupled devices. 241
7.1 The early years. 241
7.1.1 Invention and development . 241
7.1.2 The astronomical push . 242
7.2 Basic principles of CCDs. 248
7.2.1 Charge storage . 248
7.2.2 Charge-coupling and clocking. 252
7.3 CCD constructions. 254
7.3.1 Interline and frame-transfer CCDs . 254
7.3.2 CCD outputs . 256
7.3.3 Buried-channel CCDs. 257
7.3.4 Two-phase, four-phase, and virtual-phase CCDs . 260
7.3.5 Backside-illuminated CCDs . 261
7.3.6 Multi-pinned phase CCDs. 262
7.4 Astronomical requirements. 264
7.4.1 Slow-scanning, cooling, and optimization . 264
7.4.2 CCD mosaics . 265
7.4.3 Drift scanning. 266
7.5 Special devices. 268
7.5.1 High-speed CCDs with on-chip gain . 268
7.5.2 Deep-depletion CCDs for no fringing . 270
7.5.3 Orthogonal transfer CCDs. 271
7.5.4 Customized CCDs. 272
7.6 Summary. 273
7.7 Exercises. 273
7.8 References and suggestions for further reading. 274
Web sites. 275
CCDs for college teaching. 275
8 Practical operation of CCDs. 277
8.1 Clock voltages and basic electrical factors. 277
8.1.1 The analog signal chain . 279
8.1.2 CCD sequencers and clock drivers . 280
8.2 Dark current and cooling. 287
8.3 Cosmic rays and luminescence. 290
8.4 Bad pixels and charge transfer efficiency. 292
8.5 Noise sources. 296
8.6 Signal processing and digitization. 298
8.6.1 Correlated double-sampling . 300
8.6.2 On-chip binning . 304
8.6.3 Overscanning and sub-arrays . 305
8.7 Uniformity of response. 306
8.8 UV flashing and QE pinning. 307
x Contents
8.9 Summary . 311
8.10 Exercises. 311
8.11 References and suggested further reading. 312
Web sites. 313
9 Characterization and calibration of array instruments. 315
9.1 From photons to microvolts. 315
9.1.1 Quantum efficiency and DQE. 316
9.1.2 Photon transfer function. 319
9.2 Noise, bias, and dark current. 323
9.3 Flat-fielding strategies . 325
9.4 Fringes and sky emission. 331
9.5 Linearity. 331
9.6 Photometry. 332
9.7 Spectroscopy. 340
9.8 Polarimetry. 343
9.9 Signal-to-noise calculations. 343
9.10 Summary. 350
9.11 Exercises. 350
9.12 References . 351
Web sites. 352
10 Image processing and analysis. 353
10.1 Computers. 353
10.1.1 Data acquisition and data transfer . 353
10.1.2 Data file formats. 356
10.2 Data reduction and analysis systems . 358
10.2.1 The IRAF package . 361
10.2.2 The IDL package . 366
10.2.3 FITS Liberator. 369
10.3 Principles of image analysis and processing. 369
10.3.1 Displaying images . 369
10.3.2 Image enhancement . 374
10.4 Image restoration. 378
10.5 Summary . 382
10.6 Exercises. 383
10.7 References . 383
Web sites. 384
11 Electronic imaging at infrared wavelengths. 385
11.1 Introduction . 385
11.1.1 Early history of infrared astronomy. 386
11.1.2 The beginning of modern infrared astronomy . 387
11.1.3 The launch of IRAS. 389
Contents xi
11.2 Infrared wavebands. 389
11.2.1 Atmospheric windows. 389
11.2.2 The high-background problem . 391
11.2.3 Chopping. 391
11.3 Infrared array detectors. 393
11.3.1 The infrared "array" revolution, dejd vu. 393
11.3.2 The hybrid structure. 397
11.3.3 Photovoltaic devices. 400
11.3.4 Impurity band conduction devices. 401
11.3.5 Far-infrared arrays based on germanium . 403
11.3.6 Other forms of infrared arrays. 404
11.4 Practical operation of infrared arrays. 405
11.4.1 Linearity . 405
11.4.2 Dark current and cooling . 406
11.4.3 Noise sources . 407
11.4.4 Quantum efficiency. 408
11.4.5 Multiple outputs . 408
11.4.6 Array controllers. 408
11.5 Readout modes . 410
11.5.1 Single-sampling. 412
11.5.2 Correlated double-sampling (CDS) . 413
11.5.3 Reset-read-read or Fowler sampling. 413
11.5.4 Sampling up the ramp (UTR) . 415
11.6 Infrared instruments. 415
11.6.1 General issues. 415
11.6.2 IR cameras. 416
11.6.3 Infrared spectrometers . 417
11.6.4 AO cameras and integral field spectroscopy . 419
11.7 The impact of infrared arrays. 420
11.7.1 Ground-based observing . 420
11.7.2 The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy . 421
11.7.3 IR astronomy in space . 423
11.8 Summary. 425
11.9 Exercises. 426
11.10 References. 426
Web sites. 429
12 Electronic imaging at ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray wavelengths. . . 431
12.1 Introduction . 431
12.1.1 Grazing incidence telescopes. 432
12.1.2 Coded mask telescopes. 435
12.2 Ultraviolet detectors and instruments. 437
12.2.1 UV-sensitive CCDs . 440
12.2.2 MicroChannel plates. 441
12.2.3 Electron-bombarded CCDs . 445
xii Contents
12.3 X-ray detectors and instruments. 446
12.3.1 Introduction. 446
12.3.2 CCDs in the X-ray regime. 448
12.3.3 X-ray spectroscopy. 450
12.3.4 X-ray instruments: the Chandra X-ray Observatory
(CXO). 451
12.4 Gamma rays. 453
12.4.1 Detectors for high energy . 454
12.4.2 Gamma-ray observatories in space . 457
12.4.3 Ground-based gamma-ray observatories. 461
12.5 Summary. 462
12.6 Exercises. 463
12.7 References . 463
Web sites. 464
Suggested further reading. 465
13 Electronic imaging at sub-millimeter and radio wavelengths. 467
13.1 Introduction to radio astronomy. 467
13.2 Radio telescopes. 471
13.2.1 Antennas. 471
13.2.2 Receivers . 474
13.2.3 Detectors/Mixers . 480
13.2.4 Interferometers and aperture synthesis. 481
13.3 The microwave background . 485
13.3.1 COBE and WMAP . 486
13.4 Sub-millimeter detectors and instruments. 489
13.4.1 Bolometers. 490
13.4.2 Thermal edge sensors. 493
13.4.3 Microwave kinetic induction detectors . 495
13.5 Summary. 496
13.6 Exercises. 497
13.7 References and sugested further reading. 498
Web sites. 499
14 Future developments. 501
14.1 Scientific challenges. 501
14.2 New ground-based telescopes . 502
14.3 Next-generation adaptive optics. 507
14.4 Next-generation instrumentation . 508
14.5 New space telescopes . 509
14.6 The future of electronic imaging . 511
14.7 Conclusion . 512
14.8 References . 513
Web sites. 513
Contents xiii
Answers to selected exercises. 515
APPENDICES
A Powers-of-10 notation. 521
B Units of measurement and useful conversions. 523
C Physical and astronomical constants. 527
D Astronomical magnitude scale and relation to lux. 529
E Basic observational astronomy facts. 531
F Useful statistics. 535
Index. 537 |
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| dewey-ones | 522 - Techniques, equipment & materials |
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| discipline | Physik Geographie |
| discipline_str_mv | Physik Geographie |
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| spelling | McLean, Ian S. 1949- Verfasser (DE-588)132317672 aut Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation Ian S. McLean 2. ed. Berlin [u.a.] Springer [u.a.] 2008 XL, 552 S. Ill., graph. Dart., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Springer Praxis books astronomy and planetary sciences Astronomical instruments Imaging systems in astronomy Instruments Bildverarbeitung (DE-588)4006684-8 gnd rswk-swf Bildgebendes Verfahren (DE-588)4006617-4 gnd rswk-swf Astronomische Beobachtung (DE-588)4202460-2 gnd rswk-swf Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd rswk-swf Astronomische Beobachtung (DE-588)4202460-2 s Bildverarbeitung (DE-588)4006684-8 s DE-604 Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 s Bildgebendes Verfahren (DE-588)4006617-4 s 1\p DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016583491&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | McLean, Ian S. 1949- Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation Astronomical instruments Imaging systems in astronomy Instruments Bildverarbeitung (DE-588)4006684-8 gnd Bildgebendes Verfahren (DE-588)4006617-4 gnd Astronomische Beobachtung (DE-588)4202460-2 gnd Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4006684-8 (DE-588)4006617-4 (DE-588)4202460-2 (DE-588)4003311-9 |
| title | Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation |
| title_auth | Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation |
| title_exact_search | Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation |
| title_full | Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation Ian S. McLean |
| title_fullStr | Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation Ian S. McLean |
| title_full_unstemmed | Electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation Ian S. McLean |
| title_short | Electronic imaging in astronomy |
| title_sort | electronic imaging in astronomy detectors and instrumentation |
| title_sub | detectors and instrumentation |
| topic | Astronomical instruments Imaging systems in astronomy Instruments Bildverarbeitung (DE-588)4006684-8 gnd Bildgebendes Verfahren (DE-588)4006617-4 gnd Astronomische Beobachtung (DE-588)4202460-2 gnd Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd |
| topic_facet | Astronomical instruments Imaging systems in astronomy Instruments Bildverarbeitung Bildgebendes Verfahren Astronomische Beobachtung Astronomie |
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