Plant physiological ecology:
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| Main Authors: | , , |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New York, NY
Springer
2008
|
| Edition: | 2. ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXIX, 604 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. 254 mm x 178 mm |
| ISBN: | 9780387783406 0387783407 9780387783413 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Lambers, Hans |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Plant physiological ecology |c Hans Lambers ; F. Stuart Chapin ; Thijs L. Pons |
| 250 | |a 2. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a New York, NY |b Springer |c 2008 | |
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| 650 | 4 | |a Plant ecophysiology | |
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1804137706499866624 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
Foreword to Second Edition (by David
T. Clarkson) v
About the Authors
vii
Foreword to First Edition (by David
T. Clarkson)
ix
Acknowledgments
xi
Abbreviations
xiii
1.
Assumptions and Approaches
1
Introduction
—
History, Assumptions, and Approaches
1
1
What
b
Ecophysiology?
1
2
The Roots of Ecophysiology
1
3
Physiological Ecology and the Distribution of Organisms
2
4
Time Scale of Plant Response to Environment
4
5
Conceptual and Experimental Approaches
6
6
New Directions in Ecophysiology
7
7
The Structure of the Book
7
References
8
2.
Photosynthesis, Respiration, and
Long-Distance
Transport
11
2A. Photosynthesis
11
1
Introduction
11
2
General Characteristics of the Photosynthetic Apparatus
11
2.1
The Light and Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis
11
2.1.1
Absorption of Photons
12
2.1.2
Fate of the Excited Chlorophyll
13
2.1.3
Membrane-Bound Photosynthetic Electron
Transport and Bioenergetics
14
2.1.4
Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction
14
2.1.5
Oxygénation
and
Photorespiration
15
XVII
Contents
2.2
Supply and Demand of CO2 in the Photosynthetic Process
16
2.2.1
Demand for CO2
-
the CO2
-
Response Curve
16
2.2.2
Supply of CO2—
Stomatal
and Boundary Layer
Conductances
21
2.2.3
The
Mesophyll
Conductance
22
Response of Photosynthesis to Light
26
3.1
The Light Climate Under a Leaf Canopy
26
3.2
Physiological, Biochemical, and Anatomical Differences
Between Sun and Shade Leaves
27
3.2.1
The Light-Response Curve of Sun and Shade Leaves
27
3.2.2
Anatomy and
Ultrastructure
of Sun and Shade Leaves
29
3.2.3
Biochemical Differences Between Shade and Sun
Leaves
32
3.2.4
The Light-Response Curve of Sun and Shade
Leaves Revisited
33
3.2.5
The Regulation of Acclimation
35
3.3
Effects of Excess Irradiance
36
3.3.1
Photoinhibition
—
Protection by Carotenoids of the
Xanthophyll Cycle
36
3.3.2
Chloroplast
Movement in Response to Changes in
Irradiance
41
3.4
Responses to Variable Irradiance
42
3.4.1
Photosynthetic Induction
43
3.4.2
Light Activation of Rubisco
43
3.4.3
Post-illumination CO2 Assimilation and Sunfleck-
Utilization Efficiency
45
3.4.4
Metabolite Pools in Sun and Shade Leaves
45
3.4.5
Net Effect of Sunflecks on Carbon Gain and
Growth
47
Partitioning of the Products of Photosynthesis and Regulation
by Feedback
47
4.1
Partitioning Within the Cell
47
4.2
Short-Term Regulation of Photosynthetic Rate by
Feedback
48
4.3
Sugar-Induced Repression of Genes Encoding
Calvin-Cycle Enzymes
51
4.4
Ecological Impacts Mediated by Source-Sink Interactions
51
Responses to Availability of Water
51
5.1
Regulation of
Stomatal
Opening
53
5.2
The A—Cc Curve as Affected by Water Stress
54
5.3
Carbon-Isotope Fractionation in Relation to Water-Use
Efficiency
56
5.4
Other Sources of Variation in Carbon-Isotope Ratios in C3
Plants
57
Effects of Soil Nutrient Supply on Photosynthesis
58
6.1
The Photosynthesis
—
Nitrogen Relationship
58
6.2
Interactions of Nitrogen, Light, and Water
59
6.3
Photosynthesis, Nitrogen, and Leaf Life Span
59
Photosynthesis and Leaf Temperature: Effects and Adaptations
60
7.1
Effects of High Temperatures on Photosynthesis
60
7.2
Effects of Low Temperatures on Photosynthesis
61
Effects of Air Pollutants on Photosynthesis
63
Q
Plants
64
9.1
Introduction
64
9.2
Biochemical and Anatomical Aspects
64
Contents xix
9.3
Intercellular and Intracellular
Transport
of Metabolites
of the C4 Pathway
67
9.4
Photosynthetic Efficiency and Performance at High and
Low Temperatures
68
9.5
Сз—
Q
Intermediates
71
9.6
Evolution and Distribution of C4 Species
73
9.7
Carbon-Isotope Composition of C4 Species
75
10
CAM Plants
75
10.1
Introduction
75
10.2
Physiological, Biochemical, and Anatomical Aspects
76
10.3
Water-Use Efficiency
79
10.4
Incomplete and Facultative CAM Plants
79
10.5
Distribution and Habitat of CAM Species
80
10.6
Carbon-Isotope Composition of CAM Species
81
11
Specialized Mechanisms Associated with Photosynthetic
Carbon Acquisition in Aquatic Plants
82
11.1
Introduction
82
11.2
The CO2 Supply in Water
82
11.3
The Use of Bicarbonate by Aquatic Macrophytes
83
11.4
The Use of CO2 from the Sediment
84
11.5
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) in Aquatic Plants
85
11.6
Carbon-Isotope Composition of Aquatic Plants
85
11.7
The Role of Aquatic Macrophytes in Carbonate
Sedimentation
85
12
Effects of the Rising CO2 Concentration in the Atmosphere
87
12.1
Acclimation of Photosynthesis to Elevated CO2
Concentrations
89
12.2
Effects of Elevated CO2 on Transpiration
—
Differential
Effects on C3, Q, and CAM Plants
90
13
Summary: What Can We Gain from Basic Principles and Rates
of Single-Leaf Photosynthesis?
90
References
91
2B. Respiration
101
1
Introduction
101
2
General Characteristics of the Respiratory System
101
2.1
The Respiratory Quotient
101
2.2
Glycolysis, the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, and the
Tricarboxylic (TCA) Cycle
103
2.3
Mitochondrial Metabolism
103
2.3.1
The Complexes of the Electron-Transport Chain
104
2.3.2
A Cyanide-Resistant Terminal
Oxidase
105
2.3.3
Substrates, Inhibitors, and Uncouplers
105
2.3.4
Respiratory Control
106
2.4
A Summary of the Major Points of Control of Plant
Respiration
107
2.5
ATP Production in Isolated Mitochondria and In Vivo
107
2.5.1
Oxidative Phosphorylation: The Chemiosmotic
Model
107
2.5.2
ATP Production In Vivo
107
2.6
Regulation of Electron Transport via the Cytochrome
and the Alternative Paths
109
2.6.1
Competition or Overflow?
109
2.6.2
The Intricate Regulation of the Alternative
Oxidase
110
xx
Contents
2.6.3
Mitochondrial NAD(P)H Dehydrogenases
That
Are Not Linked to Proton
Extrasion
112
3
The Ecophysiological Function of the Alternative Path
112
3.1
Heat Production
112
3.2
Can We Really Measure the Activity of the Alternative
Path? U3
3.3
The Alternative Path as an Energy Overflow
114
3.4
NADH Oxidation in the Presence of a High Energy Charge
117
3.5
NADH Oxidation to Oxidize Excess
Redox
Equivalents
from the
Chloroplast
117
3.6
Continuation of Respiration When the Activity of the
Cytochrome Path Is Restricted
118
3.7
A Summary of the Various Ecophysiological Roles of the
Alternative
Oxidase
118
4
Environmental Effects on Respiratory Processes
119
4.1
Flooded,
Hypoxie,
and Anoxic Soils
119
4.1.1
Inhibition of Aerobic Root Respiration
119
4.1.2
Fermentation
119
4.1.3
Cytosolic Acidosis
120
4.1.4
Avoiding Hypoxia: Aerenchyma Formation
121
4.2
Salinity and Water Stress
122
4.3
Nutrient Supply
123
4.4
Irradiance
123
4.5
Temperature
127
4.6
Low
pH
and High Aluminum Concentrations
129
4.7
Partial Pressures of CO2
130
4.8
Effects of Plant Pathogens
131
4.9
Leaf Dark Respiration as Affected by Photosynthesis
132
5
The Role of Respiration in Plant Carbon Balance
132
5.1
Carbon Balance
132
5.1.1
Root Respiration
132
5.1.2
Respiration of Other Plant Parts
133
5.2
Respiration Associated with Growth, Maintenance,
and Ion Uptake
134
5.2.1
Maintenance Respiration
134
5.2.2
Growth Respiration
136
5.2.3
Respiration Associated with Ion Transport
140
5.2.4
Experimental Evidence
140
6
Plant Respiration: Why Should It Concern Us from an
Ecological Point of View?
143
References
144
2C.
Long-Distance
Transport of Assimilates
151
1
Introduction
151
2
Major Transport Compounds in the Phloem: Why Not Glucose?
151
3
Phloem Structure and Function
153
3.1
Symplastic and Apoplastic Transport
154
3.2
Minor Vein Anatomy
154
3.3
Sugar Transport against a Concentration Gradient
155
4
Evolution and Ecology of Phloem Loading Mechanisms
157
5
Phloem Unloading
157
6
The Transport Problems of Climbing Plants
160
7
Phloem Transport: Where to Move from Here?
161
References
Contents
xx¡
3. Plant Water
Relations
163
1
Introduction
163
1.1
The Role of Water in
Plant
Functioning
163
1.2
Transpiration as an Inevitable Consequence of Photosynthesis
164
2
Water Potential
165
3
Water Availability in Soil
165
3.1
The Field Capacity of Different Soils
169
3.2
Water Movement Toward the Roots
170
3.3
Rooting Profiles as Dependent on Soil Moisture Content
171
3.4
Roots Sense Moisture Gradients and Grow Toward Moist
Patches
173
4
Water Relations of Cells
174
4.1
Osmotic Adjustment
175
4.2
Cell-Wall Elasticity
175
4.3
Osmotic and Elastic Adjustment as Alternative Strategies
177
4.4
Evolutionary Aspects
178
5
Water Movement Through Plants
178
5.1
The Soil—Plant—Air Continuum
178
5.2
Water in Roots
179
5.3
Water in Stems
183
5.3.1
Can We Measure Negative Xylem Pressures?
185
5.3.2
The Flow of Water in the Xylem
186
5.3.3
Cavitation or Embolism: The Breakage of the Xylem
Water Column
188
5.3.4
Can Embolized Conduits Resume Their Function?
191
5.3.5
Trade-off Between Conductance and Safety
192
5.3.6
Transport Capacity of the Xylem and Leaf Area
194
5.3.7
Storage of Water in Stems
195
5.4
Water in Leaves and Water Loss from Leaves
196
5.4.1
Effects of Soil Drying on Leaf Conductance
196
5.4.2
The Control of
Stomatal
Movements and
Stomatal
Conductance
199
5.4.3
Effects of Vapor Pressure Difference or Transpiration Rate
on
Stomatal
Conductance
201
5.4.4
Effects of Irradiance and CO2 on
Stomatal
Conductance
203
5.4.5
The
Cuticular
Conductance and the Boundary Layer
Conductance
203
5.4.6
Stomatal
Control: A Compromise Between Carbon Gain
and Water Loss
204
6
Water-Use Efficiency
206
6.1
Water-Use Efficiency and Carbon-Isotope Discrimination
206
6.2
Leaf Traits That Affect Leaf Temperature and Leaf Water Loss
207
6.3
Water Storage in Leaves
209
7
Water Availability and Growth
210
8
Adaptations to Drought
211
8.1
Desiccation Avoidance: Annuals and Drought-Deciduous
Species
211
8.2
Dessication Tolerance: Evergreen Shrubs
212
8.3
Resurrection Plants
212
9
Winter Water Relations and Freezing Tolerance
214
10
Salt Tolerance
216
11
Final Remarks: The Message That Transpires
216
References
217
xxii Contents
4.
Leaf
Energy Budgets:
Effects of
Radiation
and Temperature
225
4A. The Plant s Energy Balance
1
Introduction
225
2
Energy Inputs and Outputs
225
2.1
Short Overview of a Leaf s Energy Balance
225
2.2
Short-Wave Solar Radiation
226
2.3
Long-Wave Terrestrial Radiation
229
2.4
Convective Heat Transfer
230
2.5
Evaporative Energy Exchange
232
2.6
Metabolic Heat Generation
234
3
Modeling the Effect of Components of the Energy
Balance on Leaf Temperature
234
4
A Summary of Hot and Cool Topics
235
References
235
4B. Effects of Radiation and Temperature
1
Introduction
237
2
Radiation
237
2.1
Effects of Excess Irradiance
237
2.2
Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation
237
2.2.1
Damage by UV
238
2.2.2
Protection Against UV: Repair or Prevention
238
3
Effects of Extreme Temperatures
239
3.1
How Do Plants Avoid Damage by Free Radicals
at Low Temperature?
239
3.2
Heat-Shock Proteins
241
3.3
Are
Isoprene
and
Monoterpene
Emissions an Adaptation
to High Temperatures?
241
3.4
Chilling Injury and Chilling Tolerance
242
3.5
Carbohydrates and Proteins Conferring Frost
Tolerance
243
4
Global Change and Future Crops
244
References
244
5.
Scaling-Up Gas Exchange and Energy Balance
from the Leaf to the Canopy Level
247
1
Introduction
247
2
Canopy Water Use
247
3
Canopy CO2 Fluxes
251
4
Canopy Water-Use Efficiency
252
5
Canopy Effects on Microclimate: A Case Study
253
6
Aiming for a Higher Level
253
References
253
6.
Mineral Nutrition
255
1
Introduction
255
2
Acquisition of Nutrients
255
2.1
Nutrients in the Soil
255
2.1.1
Nutrient Availability as Dependent on Soil Age
255
Contents
xx¡¡¡
2.1.2
Nutrient Supply Rate
257
2.1.3
Nutrient Movement to the Root Surface
259
2.2
Root Traits That Determine Nutrient Acquisition
262
2.2.1
Increasing the Roots Absorptive Surface
262
2.2.2
Transport Proteins: Ion Channels and Carriers
263
2.2.3
Acclimation and Adaptation of Uptake Kinetics
265
2.2.4
Acquisition of Nitrogen
269
2.2.5
Acquisition of Phosphorus
270
2.2.6
Changing the Chemistry in the Rhizosphere
275
2.2.7
Rhizosphere Mineralization
279
2.2.8
Root Proliferation in Nutrient-Rich Patches: Is It
Adaptive?
280
2.3
Sensitivity Analysis of Parameters Involved in Phosphate
Acquisition
282
3
Nutrient Acquisition from Toxic or Extreme Soils
284
3.1
Acid Soils
284
3.1.1
Aluminum
Toxicity
284
3.1.2
Alleviation of the
Toxicity
Symptoms by Soil
Amendment
287
3.1.3
Aluminum Resistance
287
3.2
Calcareous Soils
288
3.3
Soils with High Levels of Heavy Metals
289
3.3.1
Why Are the Concentrations of Heavy
Metals in Soil High?
289
3.3.2
Using Plants to Clean or Extract Polluted
Water and Soil: Phytoremediation and Phytomining
290
3.3.3
Why Are Heavy Metals So Toxic to Plants?
291
3.3.4
Heavy-Metal-Resistant Plants
291
3.3.5
Biomass Production of Sensitive
and Resistant Plants
296
3.4
Saline Soils: An Ever-Increasing Problem in Agriculture
296
3.4.1
Glycophytes and Halophytes
297
3.4.2
Energy-Dependent Salt Exclusion from Roots
297
3.4.3
Energy-Dependent Salt Exclusion from the Xylem
298
3.4.4
Transport of Na+ from the Leaves to the Roots
and Excretion via Salt Glands
298
3.4.5
Compartmentation of Salt Within the Cell
and Accumulation of Compatible Solutes
301
3.5
Hooded Soils
301
4
Plant Nutrient-Use Efficiency
302
4.1
Variation in Nutrient Concentration
302
4.1.1
Tissue Nutrient Concentration
302
4.1.2
Tissue Nutrient Requirement
303
4.2
Nutrient Productivity and Mean Residence Time
304
4.2.1
Nutrient Productivity
304
4.2.2
The Mean Residence Time of Nutrients
in the Plant
304
4.3
Nutrient Loss from Plants
306
4.3.1
Leaching Loss
306
4.3.2
Nutrient Loss by Senescence
307
4.4
Ecosystem Nutrient-Use Efficiency
308
5
Mineral Nutrition: A Vast Array of
Adaptationsand
Acclimations
310
References
310
xxiv
Contents
7.
Growth and Allocation
321
1
Introduction: What Is Growth?
321
2
Growth of Whole Plants and Individual Organs
321
2.1
Growth of Whole Plants
322
2.1.1
A High Leaf Area Ratio Enables Plants to Grow Fast
322
2.1.2
Plants with High Nutrient Concentrations Can Grow
Faster
322
2.2
Growth of Cells
323
2.2.1
Cell Division and Cell Expansion: The
Lockhart
Equation
323
2.2.2
Cell-Wall Acidification and Removal of Calcium Reduce
Cell-Wall Rigidity
324
2.2.3
Cell Expansion in
Meristems
Is Controlled by Cell-Wall
Extensibility and Not by
Turgor
327
2.2.4
The Physical and Biochemical Basis of Yield Threshold
and Cell-Wall Yield Coefficient
328
2.2.5
The Importance of
Meristem
Size
328
3
The Physiological Basis of Variation in RGR
—
Plants Grown with Free
Access to Nutrients
328
3.1
SLA Is a Major Factor Associated with Variation in RGR
330
3.2
Leaf Thickness and Leaf Mass Density
332
3.3
Anatomical and Chemical Differences Associated with Leaf
Mass Density
332
3.4
Net Assimilation Rate, Photosynthesis, and Respiration
333
3.5
RGR and the Rate of Leaf Elongation and Leaf Appearance
333
3.6
RGR and Activities per Unit Mass
334
3.7
RGR and Suites of Plant Traits
334
4
Allocation to Storage
335
4.1
The Concept of Storage
336
4.2
Chemical Forms of Stores
337
4.3
Storage and Remobilization in Annuals
337
4.4
The Storage Strategy of Biennials
338
4.5
Storage in Perennials
338
4.6
Costs of Growth and Storage: Optimization
340
5
Environmental Influences
340
5.1
Growth as Affected by Irradiance
341
5.1.1
Growth in Shade
341
5.1.2
Effects of the Photoperiod
345
5.2
Growth as Affected by Temperature
346
5.2.1
Effects of Low Temperature on Root Functioning
346
5.2.2
Changes in the Allocation Pattern
346
5.3
Growth as Affected by Soil Water Potential and Salinity
347
5.3.1
Do Roots Sense Dry Soil and Then Send Signals
to the Leaves?
348
5.3.2
ABA and Leaf Cell-Wall Stiffening
348
5.3.3
Effects on Root Elongation
348
5.3.4
A Hypothetical Model That Accounts for Effects
of Water Stress on Biomass Allocation
349
5.4
Growth at a Limiting Nutrient Supply
349
5.4.1
Cycling of Nitrogen Between Roots and Leaves
349
5.4.2
Hormonal Signals That Travel via the Xylem
to the Leaves
350
5.4.3
Signals That Travel from the Leaves to the Roots
351
5.4.4
Integrating Signals from the Leaves and the Roots
351
Contents xxv
5.4.5
Effects of Nitrogen Supply on Leaf Anatomy and
Chemistry
352
5.4.6
Nitrogen Allocation to Different Leaves, as Dependent
on Incident Irradiance
352
5.5
Plant Growth as Affected by Soil Compaction
354
5.5.1
Effects on Biomass Allocation: Is ABA Involved?
354
5.5.2
Changes in Root Length and Diameter: A Modification
of the
Lockhart
Equation
354
5.6
Growth as Affected by Soil Flooding
355
5.6.1
The Pivotal Role of
Ethylene
356
5.6.2
Effects on Water Uptake and Leaf Growth
357
5.6.3
Effects on Adventitious Root Formation
358
5.6.4
Effects on Radial Oxygen Loss
358
5.7
Growth as Affected by Submergence
358
5.7.1
Gas Exchange
359
5.7.2
Perception of Submergence and Regulation of Shoot
Elongation
359
5.8
Growth as Affected by Touch and Wind
360
5.9
Growth as Affected by Elevated Concentrations of CO2
in the Atmosphere
361
6
Adaptations Associated with Inherent Variation in Growth Rate
362
6.1
Fast- and Slow-Growing Species
362
6.2
Growth of Inherently Fast- and Slow-Growing Species Under
Resource-Limited Conditions
363
6.2.1
Growth at a Limiting Nutrient Supply
364
6.2.2
Growth in the Shade
364
6.3
Are There Ecological Advantages Associated with a High or
Low RGR?
364
6.3.1
Various Hypotheses
364
6.3.2
Selection on RGRmax Itself, or on Traits That Are
Associated with
RGR^?
365
6.3.3
An Appraisal of Plant Distribution Requires Information
on Ecophysiology
366
7
Growth and Allocation: The Messages About Plant Messages
367
References
367
8.
Life Cycles: Environmental Influences and Adaptations
375
1
2
Introduction
375
Seed Dormancy and Germination
375
2.1
Hard Seed Coats
376
2.2
Germination Inhibitors in the Seed
377
2.3
Effects of Nitrate
378
2.4
Other External Chemical Signals
378
2.5
Effects of Light
380
2.6
Effects of Temperature
382
2.7
Physiological Aspects
oí
Dormancy
384
2.8
Summary of Ecological Aspects of Seed Germination
and Dormancy
385
Developmental Phases
385
3.1
Seedling Phase
385
3.2
Juvenile Phase
386
3.2.1
Delayed Flowering in Biennials
387
3.2.2
Juvenile and Adult Traits
388
XXVI
Contents
3.2.3
Vegetative
Reproduction
388
3.2.4
Delayed Greening During Leaf Development
in Tropical Trees
390
3.3
Reproductive Phase
391
3.3.1
Timing by Sensing Daylength: Long-Day
and Short-Day Plants
391
3.3.2
Do Plants Sense the Difference Between a Certain
Daylength in Spring and Autumn?
393
3.3.3
Timing by Sensing Temperature: Vernalization
393
3.3.4
Effects of Temperature on Plant Development
394
3.3.5
Attracting Pollinators
394
3.3.6
The Cost of Flowering
395
3.4
Fruiting
396
3.5
Senescence
397
4
Seed Dispersal
397
4.1
Dispersal Mechanisms
397
4.2
Life-History Correlates
398
5
The Message to Disperse: Perception, Transduction,
and Response
398
References
398
9.
Biotte
Influences
403
9A. Symbiotic Associations
403
1
Introduction
403
2
Mycorrhizas
403
2.1
Mycorrhizal Structures: Are They Beneficial for Plant
Growth?
404
2.1.1
The Infection Process
408
2.1.2
Mycorrhizal Responsiveness
410
2.2
Nonmycorrhizal Species and Their Interactions
with Mycorrhizal Species
412
2.3
Phosphate Relations
413
2.3.1
Mechanisms That Account for Enhanced
Phosphate Absorption by Mycorrhizal Plants
413
2.3.2
Suppression of Colonization at High Phosphate
Availability
415
2.4
Effects on Nitrogen Nutrition
416
2.5
Effects on the Acquisition of Water
417
2.6
Carbon Costs of the Mycorrhizal Symbiosis
418
2.7
Agricultural and Ecological Perspectives
419
3
Associations with Nitrogen-Fixing Organisms
421
3.1
Symbiotic ^Fixation Is Restricted to a Fairly Limited
Number of Plant Species
422
3.2
Host
—
Guest Specificity in the Legume
—
Rhizobium
Symbiosis
424
3.3
The Infection Process in the Legume—Rhizobium
Association
424
3.3.1
The Role of Flavonoids
425
3.3.2
Rhizobial nod Genes
425
3.3.3
Entry of the Bacteria
427
3.3.4
Final Stages of the Establishment of the Symbiosis
428
3.4
Nitrogenase Activity and Synthesis of Organic Nitrogen
429
Contents
3.5 Carbon and Energy
Metabolism
of the Nodules
431
3.6
Quantification of N2 Fixation In Situ
432
3.7
Ecological Aspects of the Nonsymbiotic Association with
N2-Fixing Microorganisms
433
3.8
Carbon Costs of the Legume
—
Rhizobium Symbiosis
434
3.9
Suppression of the Legume
—
Rhizobium Symbiosis at
Low
pH
and in the Presence of a Large Supply of
Combined Nitrogen
435
4
Endosymbionts
436
5
Plant Life Among Microsymbionts
437
References
437
9B. Ecological Biochemistry: Allelopathy and Defence
against Herbivores
445
1
Introduction
445
2
Allelopathy (Interference Competition)
445
3
Chemical Defense Mechanisms
448
3.1
Defense Against Herbivores
448
3.2
Qualitative and Quantitative Defense Compounds
451
3.3
The Arms Race of Plants and Herbivores
451
3.4
How Do Plants Avoid Being Killed by Their Own Poisons?
455
3.5
Secondary Metabolites for Medicines and Crop Protection
457
4
Environmental Effects on the Production of Secondary Plant
Metabolites
460
4.1
Abiotic Factors
460
4.2
Induced Defense and Communication Between
Neighboring Plants
462
4.3
Communication Between Plants and Their Bodyguards
464
5
The Costs of Chemical Defense
466
5.1
Diversion of Resources from Primary Growth
466
5.2
Strategies of Predators
468
5.3
Mutualistic Associations with Ants and Mites
469
6
Detoxification of Xenobiotics by Plants: Phytoremediation
469
7
Secondary Chemicals and Messages That Emerge from
This Chapter
472
References
473
9C. Effects of Microbial Pathogens
479
1
Introduction
479
2
Constitutive Antimicrobial Defense Compounds
479
3
The Plant s Response to Attack by Microorganisms
481
4
Cross-Talk Between Induced Systemic Resistance and Defense
Against Herbivores
485
5
Messages from One Organism to Another
488
References
488
9D. Parasitic Associations
491
1
Introduction
491
2
Growth and Development
492
2.1
Seed Germination
492
2.2
Haustoria Formation
493
2.3
Effects of the Parasite on Host Development
496
3
Water Relations and Mineral Nutrition
498
4
Carbon Relations
500
XXVIII
9F.
Contents
5
What Can We Extract from This Chapter?
501
References
501
Interactions Among Plants
505
1
Introduction
505
2
Theories of Competitive Mechanisms
509
3
How Do Plants Perceive the Presence of Neighbors?
509
4
Relationship of Plant Traits to Competitive Ability
512
4.1
Growth Rate and Tissue Turnover
512
4.2
Allocation Pattern, Growth Form, and Tissue Mass
Density
513
4.3
Plasticity
514
5
Traits Associated with Competition for Specific Resources
516
5.1
Nutrients
516
5.2
Water
517
5.3
Light
518
5.4
Carbon Dioxide
518
6
Positive Interactions Among Plants
521
6.1
Physical Benefits
521
6.2
Nutritional Benefits
521
6.3
Allelochemical Benefits
521
7
Plant—Microbial Symbiosis
522
8
Succession
524
9
What Do We Gain from This Chapter?
526
References
527
Carnivory
533
1
Introduction
533
2
Structures Associated with the Catching of the Prey and
Subsequent Withdrawal of Nutrients from the Prey
533
3
Some Case Studies
536
3.1
Dionaea
Muscipula
537
3.2
The Suction Traps of Utricularia
539
3.3
The Tentacles of
Drosera
541
3.4
Pitchers of
Sarracenia
542
3.5
Passive Traps of Genlisea
542
4
The Message to Catch
543
References
543
10.
Role in Ecosystem and Global Processes
545
10A. Decomposition
545
1
Introduction
545
2
Litter Quality and Decomposition Rate
546
2.1
Species Effects on Litter Quality: Links with Ecological
Strategy
546
2.2
Environmental Effects on Decomposition
547
3
The Link Between Decomposition Rate and Nutrient Supply
548
3.1
The Process of Nutrient Release
548
3.2
Effects of Litter Quality on Mineralization
549
3.3
Root Exudation and Rhizosphere Effects
550
4
The End Product of Decomposition
552
References
552
Contents xxix
10В.
Ecosystem and
Global
Processes:
Ecophysiological Controls 555
1
Introduction
555
2
Ecosystem Biomass and Production
555
2.1
Scaling from Plants to Ecosystems
555
2.2
Physiological Basis of Productivity
556
2.3
Disturbance and Succession
558
2.4
Photosynthesis and Absorbed Radiation
559
2.5
Net Carbon Balance of Ecosystems
561
2.6
The Global Carbon Cycle
561
3
Nutrient Cycling
563
3.1
Vegetation Controls over Nutrient Uptake and Loss
563
3.2
Vegetation Controls over Mineralization
565
4
Ecosystem Energy Exchange and the
Hydrologie
Cycle
565
4.1
Vegetation Effects on Energy Exchange
565
4.1.1
Albedo
565
4.1.2
Surface Roughness and Energy Partitioning
566
4.2
Vegetation Effects on the
Hydrologie
Cycle
567
4.2.1
Evapotranspiration and Runoff
567
4.2.2
Feedbacks to Climate
568
5
Moving to a Higher Level: Scaling from Physiology to the Globe
568
References
569
Glossary
573
Index
591
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
Foreword to Second Edition (by David
T. Clarkson) v
About the Authors
vii
Foreword to First Edition (by David
T. Clarkson)
ix
Acknowledgments
xi
Abbreviations
xiii
1.
Assumptions and Approaches
1
Introduction
—
History, Assumptions, and Approaches
1
1
What
b
Ecophysiology?
1
2
The Roots of Ecophysiology
1
3
Physiological Ecology and the Distribution of Organisms
2
4
Time Scale of Plant Response to Environment
4
5
Conceptual and Experimental Approaches
6
6
New Directions in Ecophysiology
7
7
The Structure of the Book
7
References
8
2.
Photosynthesis, Respiration, and
Long-Distance
Transport
11
2A. Photosynthesis
11
1
Introduction
11
2
General Characteristics of the Photosynthetic Apparatus
11
2.1
The "Light" and "Dark" Reactions of Photosynthesis
11
2.1.1
Absorption of Photons
12
2.1.2
Fate of the Excited Chlorophyll
13
2.1.3
Membrane-Bound Photosynthetic Electron
Transport and Bioenergetics
14
2.1.4
Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction
14
2.1.5
Oxygénation
and
Photorespiration
15
XVII
Contents
2.2
Supply and Demand of CO2 in the Photosynthetic Process
16
2.2.1
Demand for CO2
-
the CO2
-
Response Curve
16
2.2.2
Supply of CO2—
Stomatal
and Boundary Layer
Conductances
21
2.2.3
The
Mesophyll
Conductance
22
Response of Photosynthesis to Light
26
3.1
The Light Climate Under a Leaf Canopy
26
3.2
Physiological, Biochemical, and Anatomical Differences
Between Sun and Shade Leaves
27
3.2.1
The Light-Response Curve of Sun and Shade Leaves
27
3.2.2
Anatomy and
Ultrastructure
of Sun and Shade Leaves
29
3.2.3
Biochemical Differences Between Shade and Sun
Leaves
32
3.2.4
The Light-Response Curve of Sun and Shade
Leaves Revisited
33
3.2.5
The Regulation of Acclimation
35
3.3
Effects of Excess Irradiance
36
3.3.1
Photoinhibition
—
Protection by Carotenoids of the
Xanthophyll Cycle
36
3.3.2
Chloroplast
Movement in Response to Changes in
Irradiance
41
3.4
Responses to Variable Irradiance
42
3.4.1
Photosynthetic Induction
43
3.4.2
Light Activation of Rubisco
43
3.4.3
Post-illumination CO2 Assimilation and Sunfleck-
Utilization Efficiency
45
3.4.4
Metabolite Pools in Sun and Shade Leaves
45
3.4.5
Net Effect of Sunflecks on Carbon Gain and
Growth
47
Partitioning of the Products of Photosynthesis and Regulation
by "Feedback"
47
4.1
Partitioning Within the Cell
47
4.2
Short-Term Regulation of Photosynthetic Rate by
Feedback
48
4.3
Sugar-Induced Repression of Genes Encoding
Calvin-Cycle Enzymes
51
4.4
Ecological Impacts Mediated by Source-Sink Interactions
51
Responses to Availability of Water
51
5.1
Regulation of
Stomatal
Opening
53
5.2
The A—Cc Curve as Affected by Water Stress
54
5.3
Carbon-Isotope Fractionation in Relation to Water-Use
Efficiency
56
5.4
Other Sources of Variation in Carbon-Isotope Ratios in C3
Plants
57
Effects of Soil Nutrient Supply on Photosynthesis
58
6.1
The Photosynthesis
—
Nitrogen Relationship
58
6.2
Interactions of Nitrogen, Light, and Water
59
6.3
Photosynthesis, Nitrogen, and Leaf Life Span
59
Photosynthesis and Leaf Temperature: Effects and Adaptations
60
7.1
Effects of High Temperatures on Photosynthesis
60
7.2
Effects of Low Temperatures on Photosynthesis
61
Effects of Air Pollutants on Photosynthesis
63
Q
Plants
64
9.1
Introduction
64
9.2
Biochemical and Anatomical Aspects
64
Contents xix
9.3
Intercellular and Intracellular
Transport
of Metabolites
of the C4 Pathway
67
9.4
Photosynthetic Efficiency and Performance at High and
Low Temperatures
68
9.5
Сз—
Q
Intermediates
71
9.6
Evolution and Distribution of C4 Species
73
9.7
Carbon-Isotope Composition of C4 Species
75
10
CAM Plants
75
10.1
Introduction
75
10.2
Physiological, Biochemical, and Anatomical Aspects
76
10.3
Water-Use Efficiency
79
10.4
Incomplete and Facultative CAM Plants
79
10.5
Distribution and Habitat of CAM Species
80
10.6
Carbon-Isotope Composition of CAM Species
81
11
Specialized Mechanisms Associated with Photosynthetic
Carbon Acquisition in Aquatic Plants
82
11.1
Introduction
82
11.2
The CO2 Supply in Water
82
11.3
The Use of Bicarbonate by Aquatic Macrophytes
83
11.4
The Use of CO2 from the Sediment
84
11.5
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) in Aquatic Plants
85
11.6
Carbon-Isotope Composition of Aquatic Plants
85
11.7
The Role of Aquatic Macrophytes in Carbonate
Sedimentation
85
12
Effects of the Rising CO2 Concentration in the Atmosphere
87
12.1
Acclimation of Photosynthesis to Elevated CO2
Concentrations
89
12.2
Effects of Elevated CO2 on Transpiration
—
Differential
Effects on C3, Q, and CAM Plants
90
13
Summary: What Can We Gain from Basic Principles and Rates
of Single-Leaf Photosynthesis?
90
References
91
2B. Respiration
101
1
Introduction
101
2
General Characteristics of the Respiratory System
101
2.1
The Respiratory Quotient
101
2.2
Glycolysis, the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, and the
Tricarboxylic (TCA) Cycle
103
2.3
Mitochondrial Metabolism
103
2.3.1
The Complexes of the Electron-Transport Chain
104
2.3.2
A Cyanide-Resistant Terminal
Oxidase
105
2.3.3
Substrates, Inhibitors, and Uncouplers
105
2.3.4
Respiratory Control
106
2.4
A Summary of the Major Points of Control of Plant
Respiration
107
2.5
ATP Production in Isolated Mitochondria and In Vivo
107
2.5.1
Oxidative Phosphorylation: The Chemiosmotic
Model
107
2.5.2
ATP Production In Vivo
107
2.6
Regulation of Electron Transport via the Cytochrome
and the Alternative Paths
109
2.6.1
Competition or Overflow?
109
2.6.2
The Intricate Regulation of the Alternative
Oxidase
110
xx
Contents
2.6.3
Mitochondrial NAD(P)H Dehydrogenases
That
Are Not Linked to Proton
Extrasion
112
3
The Ecophysiological Function of the Alternative Path
112
3.1
Heat Production
112
3.2
Can We Really Measure the Activity of the Alternative
Path? U3
3.3
The Alternative Path as an Energy Overflow
114
3.4
NADH Oxidation in the Presence of a High Energy Charge
117
3.5
NADH Oxidation to Oxidize Excess
Redox
Equivalents
from the
Chloroplast
117
3.6
Continuation of Respiration When the Activity of the
Cytochrome Path Is Restricted
118
3.7
A Summary of the Various Ecophysiological Roles of the
Alternative
Oxidase
118
4
Environmental Effects on Respiratory Processes
119
4.1
Flooded,
Hypoxie,
and Anoxic Soils
119
4.1.1
Inhibition of Aerobic Root Respiration
119
4.1.2
Fermentation
119
4.1.3
Cytosolic Acidosis
120
4.1.4
Avoiding Hypoxia: Aerenchyma Formation
121
4.2
Salinity and Water Stress
122
4.3
Nutrient Supply
123
4.4
Irradiance
123
4.5
Temperature
127
4.6
Low
pH
and High Aluminum Concentrations
129
4.7
Partial Pressures of CO2
130
4.8
Effects of Plant Pathogens
131
4.9
Leaf Dark Respiration as Affected by Photosynthesis
132
5
The Role of Respiration in Plant Carbon Balance
132
5.1
Carbon Balance
132
5.1.1
Root Respiration
132
5.1.2
Respiration of Other Plant Parts
133
5.2
Respiration Associated with Growth, Maintenance,
and Ion Uptake
134
5.2.1
Maintenance Respiration
134
5.2.2
Growth Respiration
136
5.2.3
Respiration Associated with Ion Transport
140
5.2.4
Experimental Evidence
140
6
Plant Respiration: Why Should It Concern Us from an
Ecological Point of View?
143
References
144
2C.
Long-Distance
Transport of Assimilates
151
1
Introduction
151
2
Major Transport Compounds in the Phloem: Why Not Glucose?
151
3
Phloem Structure and Function
153
3.1
Symplastic and Apoplastic Transport
154
3.2
Minor Vein Anatomy
154
3.3
Sugar Transport against a Concentration Gradient
155
4
Evolution and Ecology of Phloem Loading Mechanisms
157
5
Phloem Unloading
157
6
The Transport Problems of Climbing Plants
160
7
Phloem Transport: Where to Move from Here?
161
References
Contents
xx¡
3. Plant Water
Relations
163
1
Introduction
163
1.1
The Role of Water in
Plant
Functioning
163
1.2
Transpiration as an Inevitable Consequence of Photosynthesis
164
2
Water Potential
165
3
Water Availability in Soil
165
3.1
The Field Capacity of Different Soils
169
3.2
Water Movement Toward the Roots
170
3.3
Rooting Profiles as Dependent on Soil Moisture Content
171
3.4
Roots Sense Moisture Gradients and Grow Toward Moist
Patches
173
4
Water Relations of Cells
174
4.1
Osmotic Adjustment
175
4.2
Cell-Wall Elasticity
175
4.3
Osmotic and Elastic Adjustment as Alternative Strategies
177
4.4
Evolutionary Aspects
178
5
Water Movement Through Plants
178
5.1
The Soil—Plant—Air Continuum
178
5.2
Water in Roots
179
5.3
Water in Stems
183
5.3.1
Can We Measure Negative Xylem Pressures?
185
5.3.2
The Flow of Water in the Xylem
186
5.3.3
Cavitation or Embolism: The Breakage of the Xylem
Water Column
188
5.3.4
Can Embolized Conduits Resume Their Function?
191
5.3.5
Trade-off Between Conductance and Safety
192
5.3.6
Transport Capacity of the Xylem and Leaf Area
194
5.3.7
Storage of Water in Stems
195
5.4
Water in Leaves and Water Loss from Leaves
196
5.4.1
Effects of Soil Drying on Leaf Conductance
196
5.4.2
The Control of
Stomatal
Movements and
Stomatal
Conductance
199
5.4.3
Effects of Vapor Pressure Difference or Transpiration Rate
on
Stomatal
Conductance
201
5.4.4
Effects of Irradiance and CO2 on
Stomatal
Conductance
203
5.4.5
The
Cuticular
Conductance and the Boundary Layer
Conductance
203
5.4.6
Stomatal
Control: A Compromise Between Carbon Gain
and Water Loss
204
6
Water-Use Efficiency
206
6.1
Water-Use Efficiency and Carbon-Isotope Discrimination
206
6.2
Leaf Traits That Affect Leaf Temperature and Leaf Water Loss
207
6.3
Water Storage in Leaves
209
7
Water Availability and Growth
210
8
Adaptations to Drought
211
8.1
Desiccation Avoidance: Annuals and Drought-Deciduous
Species
211
8.2
Dessication Tolerance: Evergreen Shrubs
212
8.3
Resurrection Plants
212
9
Winter Water Relations and Freezing Tolerance
214
10
Salt Tolerance
216
11
Final Remarks: The Message That Transpires
216
References
217
xxii Contents
4.
Leaf
Energy Budgets:
Effects of
Radiation
and Temperature
225
4A. The Plant's Energy Balance
1
Introduction
225
2
Energy Inputs and Outputs
225
2.1
Short Overview of a Leaf's Energy Balance
225
2.2
Short-Wave Solar Radiation
226
2.3
Long-Wave Terrestrial Radiation
229
2.4
Convective Heat Transfer
230
2.5
Evaporative Energy Exchange
232
2.6
Metabolic Heat Generation
234
3
Modeling the Effect of Components of the Energy
Balance on Leaf Temperature
234
4
A Summary of Hot and Cool Topics
235
References
235
4B. Effects of Radiation and Temperature
1
Introduction
237
2
Radiation
237
2.1
Effects of Excess Irradiance
237
2.2
Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation
237
2.2.1
Damage by UV
238
2.2.2
Protection Against UV: Repair or Prevention
238
3
Effects of Extreme Temperatures
239
3.1
How Do Plants Avoid Damage by Free Radicals
at Low Temperature?
239
3.2
Heat-Shock Proteins
241
3.3
Are
Isoprene
and
Monoterpene
Emissions an Adaptation
to High Temperatures?
241
3.4
Chilling Injury and Chilling Tolerance
242
3.5
Carbohydrates and Proteins Conferring Frost
Tolerance
243
4
Global Change and Future Crops
244
References
244
5.
Scaling-Up Gas Exchange and Energy Balance
from the Leaf to the Canopy Level
247
1
Introduction
247
2
Canopy Water Use
247
3
Canopy CO2 Fluxes
251
4
Canopy Water-Use Efficiency
252
5
Canopy Effects on Microclimate: A Case Study
253
6
Aiming for a Higher Level
253
References
253
6.
Mineral Nutrition
255
1
Introduction
255
2
Acquisition of Nutrients
255
2.1
Nutrients in the Soil
255
2.1.1
Nutrient Availability as Dependent on Soil Age
255
Contents
xx¡¡¡
2.1.2
Nutrient Supply Rate
257
2.1.3
Nutrient Movement to the Root Surface
259
2.2
Root Traits That Determine Nutrient Acquisition
262
2.2.1
Increasing the Roots' Absorptive Surface
262
2.2.2
Transport Proteins: Ion Channels and Carriers
263
2.2.3
Acclimation and Adaptation of Uptake Kinetics
265
2.2.4
Acquisition of Nitrogen
269
2.2.5
Acquisition of Phosphorus
270
2.2.6
Changing the Chemistry in the Rhizosphere
275
2.2.7
Rhizosphere Mineralization
279
2.2.8
Root Proliferation in Nutrient-Rich Patches: Is It
Adaptive?
280
2.3
Sensitivity Analysis of Parameters Involved in Phosphate
Acquisition
282
3
Nutrient Acquisition from "Toxic" or "Extreme" Soils
284
3.1
Acid Soils
284
3.1.1
Aluminum
Toxicity
284
3.1.2
Alleviation of the
Toxicity
Symptoms by Soil
Amendment
287
3.1.3
Aluminum Resistance
287
3.2
Calcareous Soils
288
3.3
Soils with High Levels of Heavy Metals
289
3.3.1
Why Are the Concentrations of Heavy
Metals in Soil High?
289
3.3.2
Using Plants to Clean or Extract Polluted
Water and Soil: Phytoremediation and Phytomining
290
3.3.3
Why Are Heavy Metals So Toxic to Plants?
291
3.3.4
Heavy-Metal-Resistant Plants
291
3.3.5
Biomass Production of Sensitive
and Resistant Plants
296
3.4
Saline Soils: An Ever-Increasing Problem in Agriculture
296
3.4.1
Glycophytes and Halophytes
297
3.4.2
Energy-Dependent Salt Exclusion from Roots
297
3.4.3
Energy-Dependent Salt Exclusion from the Xylem
298
3.4.4
Transport of Na+ from the Leaves to the Roots
and Excretion via Salt Glands
298
3.4.5
Compartmentation of Salt Within the Cell
and Accumulation of Compatible Solutes
301
3.5
Hooded Soils
301
4
Plant Nutrient-Use Efficiency
302
4.1
Variation in Nutrient Concentration
302
4.1.1
Tissue Nutrient Concentration
302
4.1.2
Tissue Nutrient Requirement
303
4.2
Nutrient Productivity and Mean Residence Time
304
4.2.1
Nutrient Productivity
304
4.2.2
The Mean Residence Time of Nutrients
in the Plant
304
4.3
Nutrient Loss from Plants
306
4.3.1
Leaching Loss
306
4.3.2
Nutrient Loss by Senescence
307
4.4
Ecosystem Nutrient-Use Efficiency
308
5
Mineral Nutrition: A Vast Array of
Adaptationsand
Acclimations
310
References
310
xxiv
Contents
7.
Growth and Allocation
321
1
Introduction: What Is Growth?
321
2
Growth of Whole Plants and Individual Organs
321
2.1
Growth of Whole Plants
322
2.1.1
A High Leaf Area Ratio Enables Plants to Grow Fast
322
2.1.2
Plants with High Nutrient Concentrations Can Grow
Faster
322
2.2
Growth of Cells
323
2.2.1
Cell Division and Cell Expansion: The
Lockhart
Equation
323
2.2.2
Cell-Wall Acidification and Removal of Calcium Reduce
Cell-Wall Rigidity
324
2.2.3
Cell Expansion in
Meristems
Is Controlled by Cell-Wall
Extensibility and Not by
Turgor
327
2.2.4
The Physical and Biochemical Basis of Yield Threshold
and Cell-Wall Yield Coefficient
328
2.2.5
The Importance of
Meristem
Size
328
3
The Physiological Basis of Variation in RGR
—
Plants Grown with Free
Access to Nutrients
328
3.1
SLA Is a Major Factor Associated with Variation in RGR
330
3.2
Leaf Thickness and Leaf Mass Density
332
3.3
Anatomical and Chemical Differences Associated with Leaf
Mass Density
332
3.4
Net Assimilation Rate, Photosynthesis, and Respiration
333
3.5
RGR and the Rate of Leaf Elongation and Leaf Appearance
333
3.6
RGR and Activities per Unit Mass
334
3.7
RGR and Suites of Plant Traits
334
4
Allocation to Storage
335
4.1
The Concept of Storage
336
4.2
Chemical Forms of Stores
337
4.3
Storage and Remobilization in Annuals
337
4.4
The Storage Strategy of Biennials
338
4.5
Storage in Perennials
338
4.6
Costs of Growth and Storage: Optimization
340
5
Environmental Influences
340
5.1
Growth as Affected by Irradiance
341
5.1.1
Growth in Shade
341
5.1.2
Effects of the Photoperiod
345
5.2
Growth as Affected by Temperature
346
5.2.1
Effects of Low Temperature on Root Functioning
346
5.2.2
Changes in the Allocation Pattern
346
5.3
Growth as Affected by Soil Water Potential and Salinity
347
5.3.1
Do Roots Sense Dry Soil and Then Send Signals
to the Leaves?
348
5.3.2
ABA and Leaf Cell-Wall Stiffening
348
5.3.3
Effects on Root Elongation
348
5.3.4
A Hypothetical Model That Accounts for Effects
of Water Stress on Biomass Allocation
349
5.4
Growth at a Limiting Nutrient Supply
349
5.4.1
Cycling of Nitrogen Between Roots and Leaves
349
5.4.2
Hormonal Signals That Travel via the Xylem
to the Leaves
350
5.4.3
Signals That Travel from the Leaves to the Roots
351
5.4.4
Integrating Signals from the Leaves and the Roots
351
Contents xxv
5.4.5
Effects of Nitrogen Supply on Leaf Anatomy and
Chemistry
352
5.4.6
Nitrogen Allocation to Different Leaves, as Dependent
on Incident Irradiance
352
5.5
Plant Growth as Affected by Soil Compaction
354
5.5.1
Effects on Biomass Allocation: Is ABA Involved?
354
5.5.2
Changes in Root Length and Diameter: A Modification
of the
Lockhart
Equation
354
5.6
Growth as Affected by Soil Flooding
355
5.6.1
The Pivotal Role of
Ethylene
356
5.6.2
Effects on Water Uptake and Leaf Growth
357
5.6.3
Effects on Adventitious Root Formation
358
5.6.4
Effects on Radial Oxygen Loss
358
5.7
Growth as Affected by Submergence
358
5.7.1
Gas Exchange
359
5.7.2
Perception of Submergence and Regulation of Shoot
Elongation
359
5.8
Growth as Affected by Touch and Wind
360
5.9
Growth as Affected by Elevated Concentrations of CO2
in the Atmosphere
361
6
Adaptations Associated with Inherent Variation in Growth Rate
362
6.1
Fast- and Slow-Growing Species
362
6.2
Growth of Inherently Fast- and Slow-Growing Species Under
Resource-Limited Conditions
363
6.2.1
Growth at a Limiting Nutrient Supply
364
6.2.2
Growth in the Shade
364
6.3
Are There Ecological Advantages Associated with a High or
Low RGR?
364
6.3.1
Various Hypotheses
364
6.3.2
Selection on RGRmax Itself, or on Traits That Are
Associated with
RGR^?
365
6.3.3
An Appraisal of Plant Distribution Requires Information
on Ecophysiology
366
7
Growth and Allocation: The Messages About Plant Messages
367
References
367
8.
Life Cycles: Environmental Influences and Adaptations
375
1
2
Introduction
375
Seed Dormancy and Germination
375
2.1
Hard Seed Coats
376
2.2
Germination Inhibitors in the Seed
377
2.3
Effects of Nitrate
378
2.4
Other External Chemical Signals
378
2.5
Effects of Light
380
2.6
Effects of Temperature
382
2.7
Physiological Aspects
oí
Dormancy
384
2.8
Summary of Ecological Aspects of Seed Germination
and Dormancy
385
Developmental Phases
385
3.1
Seedling Phase
385
3.2
Juvenile Phase
386
3.2.1
Delayed Flowering in Biennials
387
3.2.2
Juvenile and Adult Traits
388
XXVI
Contents
3.2.3
Vegetative
Reproduction
388
3.2.4
Delayed Greening During Leaf Development
in Tropical Trees
390
3.3
Reproductive Phase
391
3.3.1
Timing by Sensing Daylength: Long-Day
and Short-Day Plants
391
3.3.2
Do Plants Sense the Difference Between a Certain
Daylength in Spring and Autumn?
393
3.3.3
Timing by Sensing Temperature: Vernalization
393
3.3.4
Effects of Temperature on Plant Development
394
3.3.5
Attracting Pollinators
394
3.3.6
The Cost of Flowering
395
3.4
Fruiting
396
3.5
Senescence
397
4
Seed Dispersal
397
4.1
Dispersal Mechanisms
397
4.2
Life-History Correlates
398
5
The Message to Disperse: Perception, Transduction,
and Response
398
References
398
9.
Biotte
Influences
403
9A. Symbiotic Associations
403
1
Introduction
403
2
Mycorrhizas
403
2.1
Mycorrhizal Structures: Are They Beneficial for Plant
Growth?
404
2.1.1
The Infection Process
408
2.1.2
Mycorrhizal Responsiveness
410
2.2
Nonmycorrhizal Species and Their Interactions
with Mycorrhizal Species
412
2.3
Phosphate Relations
413
2.3.1
Mechanisms That Account for Enhanced
Phosphate Absorption by Mycorrhizal Plants
413
2.3.2
Suppression of Colonization at High Phosphate
Availability
415
2.4
Effects on Nitrogen Nutrition
416
2.5
Effects on the Acquisition of Water
417
2.6
Carbon Costs of the Mycorrhizal Symbiosis
418
2.7
Agricultural and Ecological Perspectives
419
3
Associations with Nitrogen-Fixing Organisms
421
3.1
Symbiotic ^Fixation Is Restricted to a Fairly Limited
Number of Plant Species
422
3.2
Host
—
Guest Specificity in the Legume
—
Rhizobium
Symbiosis
424
3.3
The Infection Process in the Legume—Rhizobium
Association
424
3.3.1
The Role of Flavonoids
425
3.3.2
Rhizobial nod Genes
425
3.3.3
Entry of the Bacteria
427
3.3.4
Final Stages of the Establishment of the Symbiosis
428
3.4
Nitrogenase Activity and Synthesis of Organic Nitrogen
429
Contents
3.5 Carbon and Energy
Metabolism
of the Nodules
431
3.6
Quantification of N2 Fixation In Situ
432
3.7
Ecological Aspects of the Nonsymbiotic Association with
N2-Fixing Microorganisms
433
3.8
Carbon Costs of the Legume
—
Rhizobium Symbiosis
434
3.9
Suppression of the Legume
—
Rhizobium Symbiosis at
Low
pH
and in the Presence of a Large Supply of
Combined Nitrogen
435
4
Endosymbionts
436
5
Plant Life Among Microsymbionts
437
References
437
9B. Ecological Biochemistry: Allelopathy and Defence
against Herbivores
445
1
Introduction
445
2
Allelopathy (Interference Competition)
445
3
Chemical Defense Mechanisms
448
3.1
Defense Against Herbivores
448
3.2
Qualitative and Quantitative Defense Compounds
451
3.3
The Arms Race of Plants and Herbivores
451
3.4
How Do Plants Avoid Being Killed by Their Own Poisons?
455
3.5
Secondary Metabolites for Medicines and Crop Protection
457
4
Environmental Effects on the Production of Secondary Plant
Metabolites
460
4.1
Abiotic Factors
460
4.2
Induced Defense and Communication Between
Neighboring Plants
462
4.3
Communication Between Plants and Their Bodyguards
464
5
The Costs of Chemical Defense
466
5.1
Diversion of Resources from Primary Growth
466
5.2
Strategies of Predators
468
5.3
Mutualistic Associations with Ants and Mites
469
6
Detoxification of Xenobiotics by Plants: Phytoremediation
469
7
Secondary Chemicals and Messages That Emerge from
This Chapter
472
References
473
9C. Effects of Microbial Pathogens
479
1
Introduction
479
2
Constitutive Antimicrobial Defense Compounds
479
3
The Plant's Response to Attack by Microorganisms
481
4
Cross-Talk Between Induced Systemic Resistance and Defense
Against Herbivores
485
5
Messages from One Organism to Another
488
References
488
9D. Parasitic Associations
491
1
Introduction
491
2
Growth and Development
492
2.1
Seed Germination
492
2.2
Haustoria Formation
493
2.3
Effects of the Parasite on Host Development
496
3
Water Relations and Mineral Nutrition
498
4
Carbon Relations
500
XXVIII
9F.
Contents
5
What Can We Extract from This Chapter?
501
References
501
Interactions Among Plants
505
1
Introduction
505
2
Theories of Competitive Mechanisms
509
3
How Do Plants Perceive the Presence of Neighbors?
509
4
Relationship of Plant Traits to Competitive Ability
512
4.1
Growth Rate and Tissue Turnover
512
4.2
Allocation Pattern, Growth Form, and Tissue Mass
Density
513
4.3
Plasticity
514
5
Traits Associated with Competition for Specific Resources
516
5.1
Nutrients
516
5.2
Water
517
5.3
Light
518
5.4
Carbon Dioxide
518
6
Positive Interactions Among Plants
521
6.1
Physical Benefits
521
6.2
Nutritional Benefits
521
6.3
Allelochemical Benefits
521
7
Plant—Microbial Symbiosis
522
8
Succession
524
9
What Do We Gain from This Chapter?
526
References
527
Carnivory
533
1
Introduction
533
2
Structures Associated with the Catching of the Prey and
Subsequent Withdrawal of Nutrients from the Prey
533
3
Some Case Studies
536
3.1
Dionaea
Muscipula
537
3.2
The Suction Traps of Utricularia
539
3.3
The Tentacles of
Drosera
541
3.4
Pitchers of
Sarracenia
542
3.5
Passive Traps of Genlisea
542
4
The Message to Catch
543
References
543
10.
Role in Ecosystem and Global Processes
545
10A. Decomposition
545
1
Introduction
545
2
Litter Quality and Decomposition Rate
546
2.1
Species Effects on Litter Quality: Links with Ecological
Strategy
546
2.2
Environmental Effects on Decomposition
547
3
The Link Between Decomposition Rate and Nutrient Supply
548
3.1
The Process of Nutrient Release
548
3.2
Effects of Litter Quality on Mineralization
549
3.3
Root Exudation and Rhizosphere Effects
550
4
The End Product of Decomposition
552
References
552
Contents xxix
10В.
Ecosystem and
Global
Processes:
Ecophysiological Controls 555
1
Introduction
555
2
Ecosystem Biomass and Production
555
2.1
Scaling from Plants to Ecosystems
555
2.2
Physiological Basis of Productivity
556
2.3
Disturbance and Succession
558
2.4
Photosynthesis and Absorbed Radiation
559
2.5
Net Carbon Balance of Ecosystems
561
2.6
The Global Carbon Cycle
561
3
Nutrient Cycling
563
3.1
Vegetation Controls over Nutrient Uptake and Loss
563
3.2
Vegetation Controls over Mineralization
565
4
Ecosystem Energy Exchange and the
Hydrologie
Cycle
565
4.1
Vegetation Effects on Energy Exchange
565
4.1.1
Albedo
565
4.1.2
Surface Roughness and Energy Partitioning
566
4.2
Vegetation Effects on the
Hydrologie
Cycle
567
4.2.1
Evapotranspiration and Runoff
567
4.2.2
Feedbacks to Climate
568
5
Moving to a Higher Level: Scaling from Physiology to the Globe
568
References
569
Glossary
573
Index
591 |
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| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Lambers, Hans Pons, Thijs Leendert 1948- Chapin, F. Stuart III 1944- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)12058669X (DE-588)120681935 |
| author_facet | Lambers, Hans Pons, Thijs Leendert 1948- Chapin, F. Stuart III 1944- |
| author_role | aut aut aut |
| author_sort | Lambers, Hans |
| author_variant | h l hl t l p tl tlp f s c fs fsc |
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| bvnumber | BV023349532 |
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| callnumber-search | QK717 |
| callnumber-sort | QK 3717 |
| callnumber-subject | QK - Botany |
| classification_rvk | WI 1802 WI 2010 WN 1950 |
| classification_tum | BIO 422f |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)213855663 (DE-599)DNB987258710 |
| dewey-full | 571.2 |
| dewey-hundreds | 500 - Natural sciences and mathematics |
| dewey-ones | 571 - Physiology & related subjects |
| dewey-raw | 571.2 |
| dewey-search | 571.2 |
| dewey-sort | 3571.2 |
| dewey-tens | 570 - Biology |
| discipline | Biologie |
| discipline_str_mv | Biologie |
| edition | 2. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| genre | (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Aufsatzsammlung |
| id | DE-604.BV023349532 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T21:04:38Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:16:33Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780387783406 0387783407 9780387783413 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016533164 |
| oclc_num | 213855663 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-703 DE-M49 DE-BY-TUM DE-20 DE-29T DE-11 DE-634 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| owner_facet | DE-703 DE-M49 DE-BY-TUM DE-20 DE-29T DE-11 DE-634 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| physical | XXIX, 604 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. 254 mm x 178 mm |
| publishDate | 2008 |
| publishDateSearch | 2008 |
| publishDateSort | 2008 |
| publisher | Springer |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Lambers, Hans Verfasser aut Plant physiological ecology Hans Lambers ; F. Stuart Chapin ; Thijs L. Pons 2. ed. New York, NY Springer 2008 XXIX, 604 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. 254 mm x 178 mm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Plant ecophysiology Pflanzenphysiologie (DE-588)4045580-4 gnd rswk-swf Pflanzen (DE-588)4045539-7 gnd rswk-swf Autökologie (DE-588)4143684-2 gnd rswk-swf Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content Autökologie (DE-588)4143684-2 s Pflanzen (DE-588)4045539-7 s DE-604 Pflanzenphysiologie (DE-588)4045580-4 s Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 s 1\p DE-604 Pons, Thijs Leendert 1948- Verfasser (DE-588)12058669X aut Chapin, F. Stuart III 1944- Verfasser (DE-588)120681935 aut Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016533164&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Lambers, Hans Pons, Thijs Leendert 1948- Chapin, F. Stuart III 1944- Plant physiological ecology Plant ecophysiology Pflanzenphysiologie (DE-588)4045580-4 gnd Pflanzen (DE-588)4045539-7 gnd Autökologie (DE-588)4143684-2 gnd Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4045580-4 (DE-588)4045539-7 (DE-588)4143684-2 (DE-588)4045575-0 (DE-588)4143413-4 |
| title | Plant physiological ecology |
| title_auth | Plant physiological ecology |
| title_exact_search | Plant physiological ecology |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Plant physiological ecology |
| title_full | Plant physiological ecology Hans Lambers ; F. Stuart Chapin ; Thijs L. Pons |
| title_fullStr | Plant physiological ecology Hans Lambers ; F. Stuart Chapin ; Thijs L. Pons |
| title_full_unstemmed | Plant physiological ecology Hans Lambers ; F. Stuart Chapin ; Thijs L. Pons |
| title_short | Plant physiological ecology |
| title_sort | plant physiological ecology |
| topic | Plant ecophysiology Pflanzenphysiologie (DE-588)4045580-4 gnd Pflanzen (DE-588)4045539-7 gnd Autökologie (DE-588)4143684-2 gnd Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Plant ecophysiology Pflanzenphysiologie Pflanzen Autökologie Pflanzenökologie Aufsatzsammlung |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016533164&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT lambershans plantphysiologicalecology AT ponsthijsleendert plantphysiologicalecology AT chapinfstuart plantphysiologicalecology |