Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability: future developments in the European Union
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| Language: | English |
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Springer
2003
|
| Series: | Tort and insurance law
5 |
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| Online Access: | Contributor biographical information Publisher description Table of contents only Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXI, 408 S. 23 cm |
| ISBN: | 3211838635 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability |b future developments in the European Union |c Michael Faure (ed.) ; with contributions by James Boyd ... [et al.] |
| 264 | 1 | |a Wien |b Springer |c 2003 | |
| 300 | |a XXI, 408 S. |c 23 cm | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 1 | |a Tort and insurance law |v 5 | |
| 610 | 2 | 7 | |a Europäische Union |0 (DE-588)5098525-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 7 | |a Aansprakelijkheid |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Verzekeringsrecht |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Liability for environmental damages |z European Union countries | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Insurance, Pollution liability |z European Union countries | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Umwelthaftung |0 (DE-588)4236015-8 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 651 | 4 | |a Europäische Union. Mitgliedsstaaten | |
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| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Umwelthaftung |0 (DE-588)4236015-8 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Faure, Michael G. |d 1958- |e Sonstige |0 (DE-588)123921287 |4 oth | |
| 830 | 0 | |a Tort and insurance law |v 5 |w (DE-604)BV014088056 |9 5 | |
| 856 | 4 | |u http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-b.html |3 Contributor biographical information | |
| 856 | 4 | |u http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-d.html |3 Publisher description | |
| 856 | 4 | |u http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-t.html |3 Table of contents only | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung UB Regensburg |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016510344&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
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| adam_text |
Table
of
Contents
List of Contributors
.XVII
List of Abbreviations
.XIX
Editorial Foreword and Introduction (Michael
Faure)
.1
A. Reasons for this Book
.1
B. History of the White Paper
.1
С
Focus
.2
D. Methodology and Structure
.4
E. Words of Thanks
.5
Part I. Financial Assurance Issues of Environmental Liability
(Michael
Faure
and David Grimeaud)
.7
I. Introduction
.8
A. Purpose of this Study
.8
B. Focus on the White Paper
.8
С
Methodology
.9
1.
Comparative Law
.9
2.
Economic Analysis
.10
3.
Integration: Comparative Law and Economics Approach
.11
D. Policy Orientation
.12
E. Subsidiarity?
.12
F. Integration
.14
G. Limits
.15
H.Goal.15
I. Researchers Involved and Academic Framework
.16
J. Structure
.16
II. Principles of Liability: A Theoretical Framework
.18
A. Introduction
.18
B. Goals of Accident Law: Economic Principles of Accident Law
.19
1.
Prevention and Compensation
.19
2.
Optimal Liability Rules: Basic Ideas
.20
a) Optimal Care Levels
.21
b) Negligence
.21
c) Strict Liability
.22
d) Differences
.22
e) Bilateral Accidents
.23
C. Negligence or Strict Liability for Environmental Harm?
.23
1.
The Model
.24
VIH
Table of Contents
2.
Negligence
.25
a) Optimal Incentives
.25
b) Learned Hand Rule
.26
3.
Strict Liability
.27
a) Optimal Incentives
.27
b) Influence of the Activity Level
.28
c) A Test for Strict Liability
.28
4.
Legal Justifications for Strict Liability
.29
a) Improving the Situation of the Victim?
.29
b) Redistribution?
.30
5.
Strict Liability for Environmental Harm?
.31
6.
Polluter Pays Principle
.32
a) Sources
.32
b) Economic Interpretation
.33
c) Consequences for Environmental Liability
.33
D. A Few Refinements
.34
1.
Information Differences
.34
2.
Insolvency: Strict Liability Versus Negligence
.35
3.
Positive Externalities
.36
E. White Paper on Environmental Liability
.37
1.
Balanced Approach
.37
2.
Nuances
.38
3.
Remedy for Insolvency?
.39
F. Environmental Regulation
.39
1.
Criteria for Safety Regulation
.40
a) Information Asymmetry as a Criterion for Regulatory Intervention
.40
b) Insolvency Risk
.41
c) The Threat of a Liability Suit
.41
d) Administrative Costs
.42
2.
The Need to Regulate Environmental Pollution
.42
3.
Safety Regulation in Practice
.44
4.
Necessity to Combine Liability and Regulation
.45
G. Retroactivity?
.46
1.
Introduction
.46
2.
Statutes of Limitation
.46
3.
Examples
.47
4.
Principles of Efficient and Fair Compensation
.49
5.
Time Lapse and Incentives to Prevent Accidents
.49
6.
Justice and Compensation Considerations
.50
7.
White Paper: No Retroactivity
.50
III. Possible Defences
.52
A. Introduction
.52
B. Force
Majeure
.53
1.
Economic Justification
.53
2.
Examples: Belgian Case Law
.53
3.
Efficient Case Law
.54
C. Justificative Effect of Following Regulation
.55
1.
Importance of Licenses
.55
2.
Economic Rationale
.55
3.
No "Second Guessing"
.57
4.
Justificative Effect in the White Paper?
.57
D.
Development
Risk
.58
1.
Liability to Provide Incentives for Innovation?
.58
2.
Prospective Overruling as a Solution to the Dilemma
.59
3.
Development Risk Defence: Incentives to Innovate
.60
E. Contributory Negligence
.61
F. "First-Use" Defence
.63
G. Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
.65
1.
Small Firms, Small Pollution?
.65
2.
Passing on of Environmental Costs
.66
IV. Main Principles in a Few Legal Systems
.68
A. Introduction
.68
B. Legal Basis for Liability in a Few Legal Systems
.69
1.
Belgium and Flanders
.69
a) Civil Law with Modern Features
.69
b) Liability for Negligence
.70
i. Fault
.71
ii. Damage
.71
iii.
Causation
.73
c) Strict Liability
.75
i. Civil Code
.75
ii. Strict Liability in Statutes
.75
d) Proposals of the Interuniversity Commission
.77
i. The Interuniversity Commission
.77
ii. Problems with the Existing Environmental Liability System
.78
iii.
Parts
7
and
9
of the Draft Decree on Environmental Policy
.78
iv.
The Proposed Liability Regime
.79
e) Liability of Soil Clean-up in Flanders
.79
i. Waste Decree of
2
July
1981.79
ii. Soil Clean-up Decree of
22
February
1995.80
iii.
Liability for New Soil Pollution
.80
iv.
Liability for Past Pollution
.81
f) Summary
.82
2.
United Kingdom
.83
a) Negligence, Nuisance and Strict Liability
.83
b) Further Developments and Limits of the Rylands v. Fletcher Rule
.85
c) Statutory Strict Liability for Soil Pollution
.87
3.
The
1986
Swedish Environmental Damage Act
.91
a) Codified Civil Liability for Environmental Damage
.91
b) Codified Liability for Soil Pollution
.93
4.
The
1990
German Environmental Liability Act
and the General Civil Liability Rules
.94
a) German Civil Code: A Fault-Based Liability Regime
.94
b) Liability for Environmental Damage: Statutory Strict Liability
.95
i. The
1996
Water Management Act
.95
ii. The
1990
Environmental Liability Act
.95
c) Soil Pollution: Statutory Strict Liability
.98
5.
France
.100
a) Fault-Based Liability, Strict Liability and Good Neighbourliness
.100
b) Liability for Soil Pollution
.103
С
Retrospectivity?
.105
1.
Belgium and Flanders
.105
χ
Table of
Contents
2.
The Netherlands
.107
3.
United Kingdom
.111
D. Defences
.! 11
1.
Belgium and Flanders
.111
a) Regulatory Compliance Defence?
.111
b) Interuniversity Commission
.112
c) First-Use Defence
.113
2.
The Netherlands
.113
a) Justificative Effect of Licenses
.113
b) First-Use Defence
.114
3.
Sweden
.114
4.
Germany
.116
5.
France
.117
E. Summary
.118
1.
Goal of the Comparative Analysis
.118
2.
Main Principles
.118
3.
Retrospectivity
.119
4.
Defences
.120
5.
Again: Insolvency Risk
.122
V. Insurability of Environmental Harm
.123
A. Introduction
.123
B. Predictability of the Risk as Starting Point
.125
1.
Risk Aversion and Insurance
.125
2.
Applied to Environmental Insurance
.125
a) Uncertainty and "Insurer Ambiguity"
.125
b) Cooperation Between insurers Versus Competition Policy
.127
3.
Predictability of the Liability Regime in the White Paper
.129
a) Strict Liability for Biodiversity and Contaminated Sites
.129
b) Formulations of "Environmental Damage"
.133
i. Interuniversity Commission of Flanders
.133
ii. Personal Injury
.134
iii.
Property Injury
.135
iv.
Pure Economic Losses
.136
v. Natural Resource Damages
.138
vi.
Summary
.141
c) Defences
.143
С
Capacity
.144
1.
Techniques to Increase Capacity: General
.144
2.
Example: Pooling by Insurers
.145
3.
Pooling Versus Competition Policy
.147
4.
Policy Perspective
.149
a) Limited Capacity and Insurability
.149
b) Reliability of Information on Capacity
.150
D. Moral Hazard
.152
1.
Importance of the Concept
.152
2.
Remedies
.152
a) Monitoring
.152
b) Exposing the Insured to Risk
.153
c) Combination
.153
E. Adverse Selection
.154
F. Risk Differentiation
.155
Table
of
Contents
XI
1.
Risk Differentiation: Theory
.155
2.
Risk Differentiation: The Dutch Case
.156
3.
Monitoring via Policy and License Conditions
.157
4.
Instruments to Check 'Ecological Reliability'
.158
5.
The Need for Specialization
.159
G. Causal Uncertainty
.160
1.
Examples
.160
2.
Legal Solutions, Economic Problems
.161
3.
For the Insurability
.162
H. Joint and Several and Channelling of Liability
.163
1.
Joint and Several Liability
.163
a) Deterrence
.163
b) Insurance
.164
2.
Channelling
.165
a) Deterrence
.165
b) To Increase Insurability?
.165
c) White Paper
.166
I. Insurability of Long-Tail Risks
.166
1.
Sudden Events Versus Long-Tail Risks
.166
2.
Foreseeable Risks
.167
a) Principle: Insurability
.167
b) Example: Product Liability Directive
.168
3.
Retroactive Liability: Uninsurability
.169
4.
Cover in Time
.170
a) Options
.170
b) Changes
.171
c) Legal Responses
.172
d) Acceptability of "Claims-Made"?
.173
e) Other Remedies
.174
f) Policy Relevance
.175
J. Statutes of Limitations and the Financing of "Sins of the Past"
.176
1.
Statutes of Limitation and Insurance
.176
2.
Financing of Past Pollution
.177
a) Insurers?
.177
b) Compensation Funds?
.178
c) Government?
.178
VI. Compulsory Insurance?
_.180
A. Introduction
.180
B. Increasing the Expected Utility of Responsible Parties
.181
C. Information Problems
.182
D. Insolvency
.183
E. Potential Dangers of Compulsory Insurance
.185
1.
Moral Hazard
.185
2.
Concentration on Insurance Markets
.185
F. Further Warnings
.186
1.
Dependence upon Insurance Market
.186
2.
Necessity of Cooperation with Insurers
.187
3.
Environmental Liability Insurance "Grown Up"?
.188
4.
Duty to Accept?
.189
G. Legal Practice
.189
H. Policy Recommendation
.192
XII Table of
Contents
VII. Financial
Limits
on Liability?
.194
A. Introduction
.194
Β.
Financial Caps in the Legal Debate
.195
С
Financial Caps in Tort Liability: The Risk Neutral Case
.197
1.
Financial Caps and the Deterrence of Accidents
.197
2.
Subsidisation Effect
.198
D. Financial Caps Under Risk Aversion Without Liability Insurance
.199
E. Financial Caps to Increase Insurability?
.200
1.
Capacity as Insurability Problem
.200
2.
Limitation of the Duty to Insure
.201
3.
Contractual Limitations
.202
4.
Unlimited Liability to Control Moral Hazard
.202
F. Policy Considerations
.202
G. Policy Recommendation
.204
VIII.
lnterdependencies Between Liability and Insurance
.207
A. Introduction
.207
B. First-Party Versus Third-Party Insurance
.208
С
Assurabilité
Oblige?
.209
D.
Policy
.210
IX. Alternatives to Liability Insurance
.212
A. Introduction
.212
B. Self-Insurance
.214
1.
Reserves Versus Insurance
.214
2.
Tax Deductible Reserves and 'Captives'
.215
3.
Reserves as Secured Transactions
.215
4.
Self-Insurance as Deductible
.216
5.
Evaluation
.216
C. First-Party and Direct Insurance
.217
1.
Theory
.217
2.
First-Party Insurance for Polluted Sites in the Netherlands
.219
a) Dissatisfaction with Existing Coverages
.219
b) Environmental Damage Insurance: Main Features
.221
c) Evaluation
.223
d) Compatibility with Competition Policy
.224
D. Ex Ante Guarantees and Deposits: The Flemish Example
.225
1.
Obligation of Financial Security: A Balanced Approach
.225
2.
Optional Financial Caps
.226
3.
Deposits
.228
4.
A Flexible Solution
.228
E. Risk-Sharing Agreements
.229
1.
Risk-Sharing by Operators: Principles
.229
2.
Practicability of Pools: The Nuclear Example
.231
3.
Risk-Sharing Agreements: Examples
.232
a) Price-Anderson Act
.232
b) P&I Clubs
.232
c) Nuclear Liability: Recent Developments
.233
4.
Risk Sharing Versus Insurance for Environmental Damage
.234
F. Compensation Funds
.235
1.
Introduction
.235
Table
of
Contents
XIII
2.
The Various Funds
.236
a) Limitation Fund
.236
b) Advancement Fund
.237
c) Guarantee Fund
.238
d) A General Environmental Fund
.238
3.
General Principles of Fair and Efficient Compensation
.239
4.
Funds Versus Insurance
.240
a) Risk Differentiation
.240
b) Costs
.241
5.
A Compensation Fund for Environmental Damage
.241
a) Guarantee Fund
.242
b) Restoration Fund
.242
6.
Summary
.243
X. Summary and Policy Recommendations
.245
A. Efficiency of the White Paper Liability Regime
.245
1.
Importance of Some Theoretical Principles
.245
2.
Mitigated Strict Liability Rule
.245
3.
No Retroactivity
.246
4.
Defences
.246
B. Insurability of the White Paper Liability Regime
.247
1.
"Willingness to Insure" Is Decisive
.247
2.
Predictability
.247
3.
Advice to Insurers
.248
4.
Advice to the Policymaker
.248
C. Alternative Financial Arrangements
.250
D. Environmental Damage Without Liability
.251
E. Influence of Competition Policy
.252
F. Concluding Remarks
.253
Part II. Market-Based Analysis of the Financial Assurance Issues of
Environmental Liability
.257
XI. A Market-Based Analysis of Financial Insurance Issues Associated
with US Natural
Ressource
Damage Liability (James Boyd)
.258
A. Introduction
.258
1.
Financial Assurance in the United States
.258
2.
The Intersection of NRD Law and Financial Assurance Regulations
.259
3.
Organisation of the Report
.260
B. The Conceptual Justification for FARs
.260
1.
Liability and Cost Internalization
.261
2.
Financial Assurance as a Performance Bond
.262
3.
Reduced Litigation and Administrative Costs
.263
4.
The Impact on Firms" Decisionmaking
.263
C. Natural Resources Damages Law
.263
1.
NRDs Under Federal Law
.264
a) The Physical. Legal, and Economic Definitions of NRD
.265
b) The Distinction Between Remediation and Restoration
.266
c) Administrative Procedures and Authority
.266
2.
NRDs Under State Law
.267
3.
NRDs and Citizens" Standing to Sue
.268
Table of Contents
a) The Common Law Basis
.268
b) The Federal Basis
.269
D. NRD Damage Assessment and Valuation
.271
1.
The Regulatory Development of Assessment Procedures
.271
2.
The Current Rules
.273
E. Financial Responsibility for Natural Resource Damages
.276
1.
Overview of the Rules
.276
2.
Required Coverage and Liability Limits
.277
3.
Are Coverage Limits Appropriate?
.279
4.
Allowable Mechanisms
.279
a) Insurance and Surety Bonds
.279
b) Self-Insurance
.281
c) Financial Guaranty (Indemnity)
.282
5.
Financial Assurance for NRDs Associated with Onshore Facilities
.282
6.
State Financial Assurance Requirements
.284
F. Concerns of Insurers and Potentially Responsible Parties
.285
1.
"Direct Action" and Insurer Refusals to Provide Coverage
.286
2.
Risk, NRD Assessment Methods, and Insurability
.288
3.
Calls for Legislative Reform
.290
G. The Insurance Market
.291
1.
Compliance Costs
.292
2.
Coverage Availability
.292
3.
The Scale and Frequency of NRD Claims
.294
4.
Adverse Selection and Moral Hazard
.296
H. Financial Assurance in a Broader Context
.296
1.
Coverage Rates
.297
2.
Retroactivity and Availability of Affordable Coverage
.298
3.
Overcoming the Problem of Retroactivity
.299
I. Voluntary Provision of Environmental Insurance
.300
J. Conclusion
.302
XII.
A Market-Based Analysis of the Financial Assurance Issues of
Environmental Liability Taking Special Account of Germany, Austria,
Italy and Spain (Christian Lahnstein)
.303
A. Introduction
.303
B. In Which Respects Are the Environmental Liability Regimes Similar to the
Commission's Scheme, and in Which Do They Depart from Its Approach?.
306
1.
Defining the Subject
.306
2.
Ecological Damage
.307
3.
Restoration and Compensation of Ecological Damage as Part of the
Licensing or Authorization Process (ex ante)
.308
4.
Ex Post Liability for Restoration and Compensation of Ecological
Damage: The Present Legal Foundations
.310
a) Environmental Liability Under Civil Law
.311
b) Liability Under Environmental Protection and Nature Conservation
Law
.312
5.
Ex Post Liability: Approaches Under the Law Applying
.312
a) Reimbursement of Expenses from Agency Relationships
.313
b) State Authority to Act and Regulate
.313
c) The Liability Law Approach: Allocation of Objects of Legal
Protection
.
3t4
Table
of
Contents
XV
і.
State
or
General Public.314
ii.
Private
Individuals and Associations
.315
6.
Conclusion
.316
C.
Description of the Environmental Liability Insurance Markets
.317
1.
The Influence of Liability Insurance on Liability Law
.317
a) Influence on Prevention
.317
i. Anticipation of Liability Situations
.318
ii. Segmentation and Premium Differentiation
.318
iii.
Technical Analyses and Inspections
.319
iv.
Insurance of Loss Minimization Costs
.319
b) Influence on Compensation
.320
i. Gradual Implementation of Liability Law in Basic Areas of
Application
.320
ii. Further Development of Liability Law
.321
2.
Definition of Environmental Liability Damage and Area of
Application of This Definition in Liability Insurance
.322
a) Definition and Area of Application in Liability Law
.322
b) Definition and Area of Application in Liability Insurance
.322
3.
Environmental Liability Damage Under the Various Covers
.323
a) Motor, Aviation and Marine Liability Insurances
.323
b) Relation to Employers' Liability
.323
i. Concept of Environmental Damage Irrelevant in Employer's
Liability Insurance
.323
ii. Exclusion of Employer's Liability in Specific Environmental
Liability Covers
.324
iii.
Impact of Environmental Liability on Employer's Liability?
.324
c) Relation to Product Liability
.324
i. The Importance of Product Liability in Connection with
Environmental Damage
.324
ii. Tacit Cover of Environmental Damage in Product Liability
Insurance
.325
d) Public Liability Insurance
.326
i. Italy and Spain
.326
ii. Germany and Austria
.326
iii.
Coverage Problems
.327
iv.
Sums Insured and Tariff Structures
.328
4.
Compulsory and Voluntary Liability Insurance
.328
D. Conclusions
.330
Part III. Concluding Remarks (Michael
Faure).
.331
XIII.
Concluding Remarks
._332
A. Introduction
.332
B.
Strict Liability for Environmental Damage
.333
С
Defences
.334
D. Insurability
.335
1.
Predictability of Damage to Biodiversity
.335
2.
Capacity
.337
3.
Moral Hazard and Adverse Selection
.337
4.
Other Issues Affecting Insurability
.338
E. Compulsory Insurance
.339
F. Alternatives to Liability Insurance
.341
XVI Table of
Contents
XIV.
List of References
.344
Annex
1.
White Paper on Environmental Liability
.363
Annex
2.
Technical Annex
.391
Index
.399 |
| adam_txt |
Table
of
Contents
List of Contributors
.XVII
List of Abbreviations
.XIX
Editorial Foreword and Introduction (Michael
Faure)
.1
A. Reasons for this Book
.1
B. History of the White Paper
.1
С
Focus
.2
D. Methodology and Structure
.4
E. Words of Thanks
.5
Part I. Financial Assurance Issues of Environmental Liability
(Michael
Faure
and David Grimeaud)
.7
I. Introduction
.8
A. Purpose of this Study
.8
B. Focus on the White Paper
.8
С
Methodology
.9
1.
Comparative Law
.9
2.
Economic Analysis
.10
3.
Integration: Comparative Law and Economics Approach
.11
D. Policy Orientation
.12
E. Subsidiarity?
.12
F. Integration
.14
G. Limits
.15
H.Goal.15
I. Researchers Involved and Academic Framework
.16
J. Structure
.16
II. Principles of Liability: A Theoretical Framework
.18
A. Introduction
.18
B. Goals of Accident Law: Economic Principles of Accident Law
.19
1.
Prevention and Compensation
.19
2.
Optimal Liability Rules: Basic Ideas
.20
a) Optimal Care Levels
.21
b) Negligence
.21
c) Strict Liability
.22
d) Differences
.22
e) Bilateral Accidents
.23
C. Negligence or Strict Liability for Environmental Harm?
.23
1.
The Model
.24
VIH
Table of Contents
2.
Negligence
.25
a) Optimal Incentives
.25
b) Learned Hand Rule
.26
3.
Strict Liability
.27
a) Optimal Incentives
.27
b) Influence of the Activity Level
.28
c) A Test for Strict Liability
.28
4.
Legal Justifications for Strict Liability
.29
a) Improving the Situation of the Victim?
.29
b) Redistribution?
.30
5.
Strict Liability for Environmental Harm?
.31
6.
Polluter Pays Principle
.32
a) Sources
.32
b) Economic Interpretation
.33
c) Consequences for Environmental Liability
.33
D. A Few Refinements
.34
1.
Information Differences
.34
2.
Insolvency: Strict Liability Versus Negligence
.35
3.
Positive Externalities
.36
E. White Paper on Environmental Liability
.37
1.
Balanced Approach
.37
2.
Nuances
.38
3.
Remedy for Insolvency?
.39
F. Environmental Regulation
.39
1.
Criteria for Safety Regulation
.40
a) Information Asymmetry as a Criterion for Regulatory Intervention
.40
b) Insolvency Risk
.41
c) The Threat of a Liability Suit
.41
d) Administrative Costs
.42
2.
The Need to Regulate Environmental Pollution
.42
3.
Safety Regulation in Practice
.44
4.
Necessity to Combine Liability and Regulation
.45
G. Retroactivity?
.46
1.
Introduction
.46
2.
Statutes of Limitation
.46
3.
Examples
.47
4.
Principles of Efficient and Fair Compensation
.49
5.
Time Lapse and Incentives to Prevent Accidents
.49
6.
Justice and Compensation Considerations
.50
7.
White Paper: No Retroactivity
.50
III. Possible Defences
.52
A. Introduction
.52
B. Force
Majeure
.53
1.
Economic Justification
.53
2.
Examples: Belgian Case Law
.53
3.
Efficient Case Law
.54
C. Justificative Effect of Following Regulation
.55
1.
Importance of Licenses
.55
2.
Economic Rationale
.55
3.
No "Second Guessing"
.57
4.
Justificative Effect in the White Paper?
.57
D.
Development
Risk
.58
1.
Liability to Provide Incentives for Innovation?
.58
2.
Prospective Overruling as a Solution to the Dilemma
.59
3.
Development Risk Defence: Incentives to Innovate
.60
E. Contributory Negligence
.61
F. "First-Use" Defence
.63
G. Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
.65
1.
Small Firms, Small Pollution?
.65
2.
Passing on of Environmental Costs
.66
IV. Main Principles in a Few Legal Systems
.68
A. Introduction
.68
B. Legal Basis for Liability in a Few Legal Systems
.69
1.
Belgium and Flanders
.69
a) Civil Law with Modern Features
.69
b) Liability for Negligence
.70
i. Fault
.71
ii. Damage
.71
iii.
Causation
.73
c) Strict Liability
.75
i. Civil Code
.75
ii. Strict Liability in Statutes
.75
d) Proposals of the Interuniversity Commission
.77
i. The Interuniversity Commission
.77
ii. Problems with the Existing Environmental Liability System
.78
iii.
Parts
7
and
9
of the Draft Decree on Environmental Policy
.78
iv.
The Proposed Liability Regime
.79
e) Liability of Soil Clean-up in Flanders
.79
i. Waste Decree of
2
July
1981.79
ii. Soil Clean-up Decree of
22
February
1995.80
iii.
Liability for New Soil Pollution
.80
iv.
Liability for Past Pollution
.81
f) Summary
.82
2.
United Kingdom
.83
a) Negligence, Nuisance and Strict Liability
.83
b) Further Developments and Limits of the Rylands v. Fletcher Rule
.85
c) Statutory Strict Liability for Soil Pollution
.87
3.
The
1986
Swedish Environmental Damage Act
.91
a) Codified Civil Liability for Environmental Damage
.91
b) Codified Liability for Soil Pollution
.93
4.
The
1990
German Environmental Liability Act
and the General Civil Liability Rules
.94
a) German Civil Code: A Fault-Based Liability Regime
.94
b) Liability for Environmental Damage: Statutory Strict Liability
.95
i. The
1996
Water Management Act
.95
ii. The
1990
Environmental Liability Act
.95
c) Soil Pollution: Statutory Strict Liability
.98
5.
France
.100
a) Fault-Based Liability, Strict Liability and Good Neighbourliness
.100
b) Liability for Soil Pollution
.103
С
Retrospectivity?
.105
1.
Belgium and Flanders
.105
χ
Table of
Contents
2.
The Netherlands
.107
3.
United Kingdom
.111
D. Defences
.! 11
1.
Belgium and Flanders
.111
a) Regulatory Compliance Defence?
.111
b) Interuniversity Commission
.112
c) First-Use Defence
.113
2.
The Netherlands
.113
a) Justificative Effect of Licenses
.113
b) First-Use Defence
.114
3.
Sweden
.114
4.
Germany
.116
5.
France
.117
E. Summary
.118
1.
Goal of the Comparative Analysis
.118
2.
Main Principles
.118
3.
Retrospectivity
.119
4.
Defences
.120
5.
Again: Insolvency Risk
.122
V. Insurability of Environmental Harm
.123
A. Introduction
.123
B. Predictability of the Risk as Starting Point
.125
1.
Risk Aversion and Insurance
.125
2.
Applied to Environmental Insurance
.125
a) Uncertainty and "Insurer Ambiguity"
.125
b) Cooperation Between insurers Versus Competition Policy
.127
3.
Predictability of the Liability Regime in the White Paper
.129
a) Strict Liability for Biodiversity and Contaminated Sites
.129
b) Formulations of "Environmental Damage"
.133
i. Interuniversity Commission of Flanders
.133
ii. Personal Injury
.134
iii.
Property Injury
.135
iv.
Pure Economic Losses
.136
v. Natural Resource Damages
.138
vi.
Summary
.141
c) Defences
.143
С
Capacity
.144
1.
Techniques to Increase Capacity: General
.144
2.
Example: Pooling by Insurers
.145
3.
Pooling Versus Competition Policy
.147
4.
Policy Perspective
.149
a) Limited Capacity and Insurability
.149
b) Reliability of Information on Capacity
.150
D. Moral Hazard
.152
1.
Importance of the Concept
.152
2.
Remedies
.152
a) Monitoring
.152
b) Exposing the Insured to Risk
.153
c) Combination
.153
E. Adverse Selection
.154
F. Risk Differentiation
.155
Table
of
Contents
XI
1.
Risk Differentiation: Theory
.155
2.
Risk Differentiation: The Dutch Case
.156
3.
Monitoring via Policy and License Conditions
.157
4.
Instruments to Check 'Ecological Reliability'
.158
5.
The Need for Specialization
.159
G. Causal Uncertainty
.160
1.
Examples
.160
2.
Legal Solutions, Economic Problems
.161
3.
For the Insurability
.162
H. Joint and Several and Channelling of Liability
.163
1.
Joint and Several Liability
.163
a) Deterrence
.163
b) Insurance
.164
2.
Channelling
.165
a) Deterrence
.165
b) To Increase Insurability?
.165
c) White Paper
.166
I. Insurability of Long-Tail Risks
.166
1.
Sudden Events Versus Long-Tail Risks
.166
2.
Foreseeable Risks
.167
a) Principle: Insurability
.167
b) Example: Product Liability Directive
.168
3.
Retroactive Liability: Uninsurability
.169
4.
Cover in Time
.170
a) Options
.170
b) Changes
.171
c) Legal Responses
.172
d) Acceptability of "Claims-Made"?
.173
e) Other Remedies
.174
f) Policy Relevance
.175
J. Statutes of Limitations and the Financing of "Sins of the Past"
.176
1.
Statutes of Limitation and Insurance
.176
2.
Financing of Past Pollution
.177
a) Insurers?
.177
b) Compensation Funds?
.178
c) Government?
.178
VI. Compulsory Insurance?
_.180
A. Introduction
.180
B. Increasing the Expected Utility of Responsible Parties
.181
C. Information Problems
.182
D. Insolvency
.183
E. Potential Dangers of Compulsory Insurance
.185
1.
Moral Hazard
.185
2.
Concentration on Insurance Markets
.185
F. Further Warnings
.186
1.
Dependence upon Insurance Market
.186
2.
Necessity of Cooperation with Insurers
.187
3.
Environmental Liability Insurance "Grown Up"?
.188
4.
Duty to Accept?
.189
G. Legal Practice
.189
H. Policy Recommendation
.192
XII Table of
Contents
VII. Financial
Limits
on Liability?
.194
A. Introduction
.194
Β.
Financial Caps in the Legal Debate
.195
С
Financial Caps in Tort Liability: The Risk Neutral Case
.197
1.
Financial Caps and the Deterrence of Accidents
.197
2.
Subsidisation Effect
.198
D. Financial Caps Under Risk Aversion Without Liability Insurance
.199
E. Financial Caps to Increase Insurability?
.200
1.
Capacity as Insurability Problem
.200
2.
Limitation of the Duty to Insure
.201
3.
Contractual Limitations
.202
4.
Unlimited Liability to Control Moral Hazard
.202
F. Policy Considerations
.202
G. Policy Recommendation
.204
VIII.
lnterdependencies Between Liability and Insurance
.207
A. Introduction
.207
B. First-Party Versus Third-Party Insurance
.208
С
Assurabilité
Oblige?
.209
D.
Policy
.210
IX. Alternatives to Liability Insurance
.212
A. Introduction
.212
B. Self-Insurance
.214
1.
Reserves Versus Insurance
.214
2.
Tax Deductible Reserves and 'Captives'
.215
3.
Reserves as Secured Transactions
.215
4.
Self-Insurance as Deductible
.216
5.
Evaluation
.216
C. First-Party and Direct Insurance
.217
1.
Theory
.217
2.
First-Party Insurance for Polluted Sites in the Netherlands
.219
a) Dissatisfaction with Existing Coverages
.219
b) Environmental Damage Insurance: Main Features
.221
c) Evaluation
.223
d) Compatibility with Competition Policy
.224
D. Ex Ante Guarantees and Deposits: The Flemish Example
.225
1.
Obligation of Financial Security: A Balanced Approach
.225
2.
Optional Financial Caps
.226
3.
Deposits
.228
4.
A Flexible Solution
.228
E. Risk-Sharing Agreements
.229
1.
Risk-Sharing by Operators: Principles
.229
2.
Practicability of Pools: The Nuclear Example
.231
3.
Risk-Sharing Agreements: Examples
.232
a) Price-Anderson Act
.232
b) P&I Clubs
.232
c) Nuclear Liability: Recent Developments
.233
4.
Risk Sharing Versus Insurance for Environmental Damage
.234
F. Compensation Funds
.235
1.
Introduction
.235
Table
of
Contents
XIII
2.
The Various Funds
.236
a) Limitation Fund
.236
b) Advancement Fund
.237
c) Guarantee Fund
.238
d) A General Environmental Fund
.238
3.
General Principles of Fair and Efficient Compensation
.239
4.
Funds Versus Insurance
.240
a) Risk Differentiation
.240
b) Costs
.241
5.
A Compensation Fund for Environmental Damage
.241
a) Guarantee Fund
.242
b) Restoration Fund
.242
6.
Summary
.243
X. Summary and Policy Recommendations
.245
A. Efficiency of the White Paper Liability Regime
.245
1.
Importance of Some Theoretical Principles
.245
2.
Mitigated Strict Liability Rule
.245
3.
No Retroactivity
.246
4.
Defences
.246
B. Insurability of the White Paper Liability Regime
.247
1.
"Willingness to Insure" Is Decisive
.247
2.
Predictability
.247
3.
Advice to Insurers
.248
4.
Advice to the Policymaker
.248
C. Alternative Financial Arrangements
.250
D. Environmental Damage Without Liability
.251
E. Influence of Competition Policy
.252
F. Concluding Remarks
.253
Part II. Market-Based Analysis of the Financial Assurance Issues of
Environmental Liability
.257
XI. A Market-Based Analysis of Financial Insurance Issues Associated
with US Natural
Ressource
Damage Liability (James Boyd)
.258
A. Introduction
.258
1.
Financial Assurance in the United States
.258
2.
The Intersection of NRD Law and Financial Assurance Regulations
.259
3.
Organisation of the Report
.260
B. The Conceptual Justification for FARs
.260
1.
Liability and Cost Internalization
.261
2.
Financial Assurance as a Performance Bond
.262
3.
Reduced Litigation and Administrative Costs
.263
4.
The Impact on Firms" Decisionmaking
.263
C. Natural Resources Damages Law
.263
1.
NRDs Under Federal Law
.264
a) The Physical. Legal, and Economic Definitions of NRD
.265
b) The Distinction Between Remediation and Restoration
.266
c) Administrative Procedures and Authority
.266
2.
NRDs Under State Law
.267
3.
NRDs and Citizens" Standing to Sue
.268
Table of Contents
a) The Common Law Basis
.268
b) The Federal Basis
.269
D. NRD Damage Assessment and Valuation
.271
1.
The Regulatory Development of Assessment Procedures
.271
2.
The Current Rules
.273
E. Financial Responsibility for Natural Resource Damages
.276
1.
Overview of the Rules
.276
2.
Required Coverage and Liability Limits
.277
3.
Are Coverage Limits Appropriate?
.279
4.
Allowable Mechanisms
.279
a) Insurance and Surety Bonds
.279
b) Self-Insurance
.281
c) Financial Guaranty (Indemnity)
.282
5.
Financial Assurance for NRDs Associated with Onshore Facilities
.282
6.
State Financial Assurance Requirements
.284
F. Concerns of Insurers and Potentially Responsible Parties
.285
1.
"Direct Action" and Insurer Refusals to Provide Coverage
.286
2.
Risk, NRD Assessment Methods, and Insurability
.288
3.
Calls for Legislative Reform
.290
G. The Insurance Market
.291
1.
Compliance Costs
.292
2.
Coverage Availability
.292
3.
The Scale and Frequency of NRD Claims
.294
4.
Adverse Selection and Moral Hazard
.296
H. Financial Assurance in a Broader Context
.296
1.
Coverage Rates
.297
2.
Retroactivity and Availability of Affordable Coverage
.298
3.
Overcoming the Problem of Retroactivity
.299
I. Voluntary Provision of Environmental Insurance
.300
J. Conclusion
.302
XII.
A Market-Based Analysis of the Financial Assurance Issues of
Environmental Liability Taking Special Account of Germany, Austria,
Italy and Spain (Christian Lahnstein)
.303
A. Introduction
.303
B. In Which Respects Are the Environmental Liability Regimes Similar to the
Commission's Scheme, and in Which Do They Depart from Its Approach?.
306
1.
Defining the Subject
.306
2.
Ecological Damage
.307
3.
Restoration and Compensation of Ecological Damage as Part of the
Licensing or Authorization Process (ex ante)
.308
4.
Ex Post Liability for Restoration and Compensation of Ecological
Damage: The Present Legal Foundations
.310
a) Environmental Liability Under Civil Law
.311
b) Liability Under Environmental Protection and Nature Conservation
Law
.312
5.
Ex Post Liability: Approaches Under the Law Applying
.312
a) Reimbursement of Expenses from Agency Relationships
.313
b) State Authority to Act and Regulate
.313
c) The Liability Law Approach: Allocation of Objects of Legal
Protection
.
3t4
Table
of
Contents
XV
і.
State
or
General Public.314
ii.
Private
Individuals and Associations
.315
6.
Conclusion
.316
C.
Description of the Environmental Liability Insurance Markets
.317
1.
The Influence of Liability Insurance on Liability Law
.317
a) Influence on Prevention
.317
i. Anticipation of Liability Situations
.318
ii. Segmentation and Premium Differentiation
.318
iii.
Technical Analyses and Inspections
.319
iv.
Insurance of Loss Minimization Costs
.319
b) Influence on Compensation
.320
i. Gradual Implementation of Liability Law in Basic Areas of
Application
.320
ii. Further Development of Liability Law
.321
2.
Definition of Environmental Liability Damage and Area of
Application of This Definition in Liability Insurance
.322
a) Definition and Area of Application in Liability Law
.322
b) Definition and Area of Application in Liability Insurance
.322
3.
Environmental Liability Damage Under the Various Covers
.323
a) Motor, Aviation and Marine Liability Insurances
.323
b) Relation to Employers' Liability
.323
i. Concept of Environmental Damage Irrelevant in Employer's
Liability Insurance
.323
ii. Exclusion of Employer's Liability in Specific Environmental
Liability Covers
.324
iii.
Impact of Environmental Liability on Employer's Liability?
.324
c) Relation to Product Liability
.324
i. The Importance of Product Liability in Connection with
Environmental Damage
.324
ii. Tacit Cover of Environmental Damage in Product Liability
Insurance
.325
d) Public Liability Insurance
.326
i. Italy and Spain
.326
ii. Germany and Austria
.326
iii.
Coverage Problems
.327
iv.
Sums Insured and Tariff Structures
.328
4.
Compulsory and Voluntary Liability Insurance
.328
D. Conclusions
.330
Part III. Concluding Remarks (Michael
Faure).
.331
XIII.
Concluding Remarks
._332
A. Introduction
.332
B.
Strict Liability for Environmental Damage
.333
С
Defences
.334
D. Insurability
.335
1.
Predictability of Damage to Biodiversity
.335
2.
Capacity
.337
3.
Moral Hazard and Adverse Selection
.337
4.
Other Issues Affecting Insurability
.338
E. Compulsory Insurance
.339
F. Alternatives to Liability Insurance
.341
XVI Table of
Contents
XIV.
List of References
.344
Annex
1.
White Paper on Environmental Liability
.363
Annex
2.
Technical Annex
.391
Index
.399 |
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| geographic | Europäische Union. Mitgliedsstaaten |
| geographic_facet | Europäische Union. Mitgliedsstaaten |
| id | DE-604.BV023326337 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T20:55:42Z |
| indexdate | 2025-01-02T11:21:49Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 3211838635 |
| language | English |
| lccn | 2003267816 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016510344 |
| oclc_num | 51984543 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-521 DE-634 DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| owner_facet | DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-521 DE-634 DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| physical | XXI, 408 S. 23 cm |
| publishDate | 2003 |
| publishDateSearch | 2003 |
| publishDateSort | 2003 |
| publisher | Springer |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Tort and insurance law |
| series2 | Tort and insurance law |
| spelling | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union Michael Faure (ed.) ; with contributions by James Boyd ... [et al.] Wien Springer 2003 XXI, 408 S. 23 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Tort and insurance law 5 Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd rswk-swf Aansprakelijkheid gtt Verzekeringsrecht gtt Liability for environmental damages European Union countries Insurance, Pollution liability European Union countries Umwelthaftung (DE-588)4236015-8 gnd rswk-swf Europäische Union. Mitgliedsstaaten Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 b Umwelthaftung (DE-588)4236015-8 s DE-604 Faure, Michael G. 1958- Sonstige (DE-588)123921287 oth Tort and insurance law 5 (DE-604)BV014088056 5 http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-b.html Contributor biographical information http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-d.html Publisher description http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-t.html Table of contents only Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016510344&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union Tort and insurance law Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd Aansprakelijkheid gtt Verzekeringsrecht gtt Liability for environmental damages European Union countries Insurance, Pollution liability European Union countries Umwelthaftung (DE-588)4236015-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)5098525-5 (DE-588)4236015-8 |
| title | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union |
| title_auth | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union |
| title_exact_search | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union |
| title_full | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union Michael Faure (ed.) ; with contributions by James Boyd ... [et al.] |
| title_fullStr | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union Michael Faure (ed.) ; with contributions by James Boyd ... [et al.] |
| title_full_unstemmed | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the European Union Michael Faure (ed.) ; with contributions by James Boyd ... [et al.] |
| title_short | Deterrence, insurability, and compensation in environmental liability |
| title_sort | deterrence insurability and compensation in environmental liability future developments in the european union |
| title_sub | future developments in the European Union |
| topic | Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd Aansprakelijkheid gtt Verzekeringsrecht gtt Liability for environmental damages European Union countries Insurance, Pollution liability European Union countries Umwelthaftung (DE-588)4236015-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Europäische Union Aansprakelijkheid Verzekeringsrecht Liability for environmental damages European Union countries Insurance, Pollution liability European Union countries Umwelthaftung Europäische Union. Mitgliedsstaaten |
| url | http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-b.html http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-d.html http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0817/2003267816-t.html http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016510344&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV014088056 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT fauremichaelg deterrenceinsurabilityandcompensationinenvironmentalliabilityfuturedevelopmentsintheeuropeanunion |