Energizing our future: rational choices for the 21st century
Saved in:
| Main Authors: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Hoboken, NJ
Wiley
2008
|
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXVI, 390 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9780471790532 |
Staff View
MARC
| LEADER | 00000nam a2200000 c 4500 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | BV023304256 | ||
| 003 | DE-604 | ||
| 005 | 20100127 | ||
| 007 | t | ||
| 008 | 080519s2008 ad|| |||| 00||| eng d | ||
| 010 | |a 2007023154 | ||
| 020 | |a 9780471790532 |c cloth |9 978-0-471-79053-2 | ||
| 024 | 3 | |a 9780471790532 | |
| 035 | |a (OCoLC)140107958 | ||
| 035 | |a (DE-599)BSZ277940761 | ||
| 040 | |a DE-604 |b ger | ||
| 041 | 0 | |a eng | |
| 049 | |a DE-1102 |a DE-634 |a DE-898 | ||
| 050 | 0 | |a TJ163.2 | |
| 082 | 0 | |a 333.79 |2 22 | |
| 084 | |a AR 26300 |0 (DE-625)8599: |2 rvk | ||
| 084 | |a ZP 3000 |0 (DE-625)157937: |2 rvk | ||
| 100 | 1 | |a Wilson, John R. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Energizing our future |b rational choices for the 21st century |c John R. Wilson ; Griffin Burgh |
| 264 | 1 | |a Hoboken, NJ |b Wiley |c 2008 | |
| 300 | |a XXVI, 390 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Power resources | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Prognose |0 (DE-588)4047390-9 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Energievorrat |0 (DE-588)4070814-7 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Energievorrat |0 (DE-588)4070814-7 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Prognose |0 (DE-588)4047390-9 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Burgh, Griffin |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m HBZ Datenaustausch |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016488655&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| 999 | |a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016488655 | ||
Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1804137634560212992 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgment xvii
Introduction: Rising Energy Costs xix
PART I A TRILOGY OF POPULAR MISCONCEPTIONS 1
1 Global Wanning 3
Conventional Wisdom, 4
CO2 and the Carbon Cycle, 7
The Greenhouse Effect, 10
Recent Climate Changes, 11
Carbon Dioxide, 13
Other Global Wanning Forcing Agents , 15
Water Vapor, 15
Methane, 20
Nitrous Oxide, 21
Ozone, 22
Sulfur, 24
Other Pollutants, 24
Carbon-Based and Other Particulates, 26
Solar Influences—Insolation and Irradiance, 26
Global Net Primary Productivity (NPP), 30
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 32
vi CONTENTS
IPCC Report Conclusions, 34
Footnote on the IPCC, 35
Dealing with Global Warming, 36
Can Anything Be Done?, 37
The Kyoto Protocol, 38
2 The Hydrogen Economy (Aka, the Impossible Dream) 41
The Promise of Hydrogen, 42
The Scale of the Task—Why Replace Gasoline?, 42
Replacing Fuels Other than Gasoline, 43
Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel, 44
Hydrogen Production Methods, 44
Water-Splitting Processes—Overview, 47
Hydrogen from Electrolysis, 48
Electrolytic Hydrogen Production, 49
Oxygen By-products, 49
Energy Consumption and Electrolyzer Efficiency, 50
Electrolysis: Emissions, 53
Electrolysis: Economics, 53
Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons, 54
Thermal and Catalytic Reforming from Natural Gas, 54
Catalytic Thermochemical Reforming, 55
Scaling Issues—Up and Down, 56
Combustion CO2 from Reforming, 57
Hydrogen Production Costs, 59
Natural Gas Reserves and Hydrogen, 61
Natural Gas and Hydrogen Manufacture, 62
Other Hydrogen Production Methods, 62
Photoelectrolysis, 63
Biomass Conversion to Hydrogen, 64
Hydrogen Production—Summary, 65
Safety Considerations, 66
Transporting and Distributing Hydrogen, 67
Compressing Hydrogen, 68
Liquid Hydrogen, 69
Pipelining Hydrogen, 70
Pipeline Leakage Losses, 73
Road Tanker Transportation of Hydrogen, 73
Hydrogen Leakage Losses, 74
Transportation and Distribution Alternatives, 75
Distributed Manufacturing of Hydrogen, 75
By Electrolysis. 75
By Reforming, 76
Hydrogen Reformer Reliability, 76
Hydrogen Reformer Safety, 76
CONTENTS vii
Onboard Manufacture of Hydrogen, 77
Hydrogen Storage, 77
Hydrogen Storage Approaches, 78
Compressed Hydrogen Gas: Containment Technologies
for 5000-10,000 psig, 78
Liquid Hydrogen: Cryogenic Containment, 80
Storage in Metals and Metal Hydrides, 84
Background on Metal Hydrides, 86
Complex Hydrides, 89
Catalyzed Hydrogen Adsorption and/or Desorption, 91
Feasibility of Metal Hydrides as Storage Media, 92
Hydrogen Adsorption/Desorption: Chemical Hydrides , 92
Hydride Slurries for Hydrogen Storage and Transportation, 93
Possible Nonmetal Hydrides/Hydrogen Carriers, 95
Hydrocarbons via Partial Dehydrogenation, 96
Carbon-Based Adsorption Systems, 97
Graphite, 97
Graphitic Nanotubes, 98
Zeolites, 99
Novel Hydrogen Storage Methods, 99
Hydrogen Carriers, 101
Ammonia, 101
Methanol, 103
Hydrogen Storage and DOE Criteria, 103
Storage Implications for Light-Duty Vehicles, 104
Hydrogen Storage with No Gravimetric or Volumetric
Capacity Constraints, 112
Hydrogen Storage Assessment, 112
Hydrogen Safety, 114
Some Additional Safety Issues, 115
Summary of Hydrogen Issues, 116
3 Nuclear Energy and the Plutonium Economy 117
The Influence of Nuclear Energy, 117
Evolution of Reactor Designs, 122
Generation IV Reactors, 123
Fuel Recycling and Mixed Oxide Fuel, 125
Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) Use in Light-Water Reactors, 125
Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) Production and Processing, 126
Fast-Breeder Reactors, 127
Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR), 128
Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR), 128
Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR), 129
Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR), 131
Very High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR), 133
viii CONTENTS
Radioactive Waste Disposal, 134
Nuclear Facility Decommissioning, 137
Decommissioning Examples, 139
Transmutation of Nuclear Wastes, 140
Uranium Supply Concerns, 142
Supply Projections, 146
Uranium from Seawater, 150
Uncertainty about Safe and Sustainable Reactor Technology, 151
The Problem in Ontario, Canada, 152
Fusion Power, 153
The Future is Dimming on Nuclear Power, 153
PART II ENERGY OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE 155
4 Conventional Oil and Oil Reserves 157
Oil Reserves, 158
Conventional Natural Gas, 164
Unconventional Oil, 167
Unconventional Gas, 168
Coal-Bed Methane (CBM), 169
Tight Gas, 170
Stranded or Orphaned Gas, 170
A Short (Age) Summary, 171
Who Really Sets Oil Prices?, 171
Future Supply, Demand, and Pricing, 172
Oil, 172
Natural Gas and Synthetics, 175
5 Coal and Bituminous Reserves 178
Coal, 179
The Lurgi Process (Coal to Syngas or High BTU Fuel Gas), 182
The Hygas Process (Coal to SNG), 183
The Bi-Gas Process (Coal to SNG), 183
The CO2 Acceptor Process, 183
Other Coal Processes, 186
Underground Processing of Coal, 186
Other Important Alternative Energy Sources, 187
Municipal Waste, 188
6 Biomass and Ethanol 189
Current Availability, 189
Biomass Conversion Technologies, 191
Prepreparation, 191
CONTENTS ij
Conversion, 191
Enzymatic Saccharification of Cellulose, 192
Steam Explosion, 192
Saccharification and Fermentation, 192
Conversion Products and By-Products, 193
Sugars, 193
Value-Added Products (e.g., Ethanol, Polymers), 193
By-Products, 193
Animal Feed, 193
Lignin and Lignin Derivatives, 194
Cellulose Derivatives, 194
Other Raw Materials for Biomass, 194
Large-Scale, High-Value End Products from Non-Corn
Biomass Conversion, 195
Chemicals from Corn, 195
Available Technologies for Chemicals Production
from Biomass, 196
Acid Hydrolysis of Biomass Cellulose, 196
Countercurrent Hydrolysis, 197
Enzymatic Hydrolysis, 197
Commercialization, 198
Cost Implications of Biomass Use, 198
Net Energy Balances, 199
Manufacturing Efficiency, 200
The Thermodynamics of Growing Corn, 201
The Thermodynamics of Processing Corn into Ethanol, 202
Ethanol Production Efficiencies, 206
Corn Production in the United States, 207
Federal Subsidies for Ethanol, 208
Longer Term Ethanol Prospects, 208
Final Ethanol Observations, 209
7 Methanol 211
Possible Fossil Sources of Syngas, 214
Methanol as an Energy Carrier, 215
Methanol Manufacturing and Applications, 216
8 Diesel and Biodiesel 219
Clean Diesel Fuel and Diesel Fuel Substitutes, 219
The Diesel Market: The Future of Diesel Engines and Diesel Fuels, 219
Diesel Engine Emissions, 222
Biodiesel, 223
What is Biodiesel?, 224
Advantages of Biodiesel, 227
x CONTENTS
Disadvantages of Biodiesel, 233
Oxidative and Hydrolytic Stability, 234
Use in Diesel Hybrids, 236
Alternatives to Vegetable Oil-Based Biodiesel for Diesel Substitution, 236
Other Alcohols in Petroleum Diesel, 236
Other Oxygenated Additives in Petroleum Diesel, 237
Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) or Biomass-to-Liquid (BTL) Products as
Diesel Substitutes, 238
Diesel Fuels and Fuel Substitutes—Summary and Discussion, 241
Diesel Fuel Conclusions, 243
9 Solar Energy and Photovoltaics 245
Solar Radiation, 245
Scattered, Beam, and Albedo Radiation, 246
Solar Insolation, 247
Direct Solar Energy, 248
Passive and Active Solar Heating, 248
Solar Photovoltaic Systems, 250
General Operation of PV Cells, 251
PV Types, 253
Amorphous Silicon, 253
Single-Crystalline Silicon, 254
Polycrystalline Silicon, 255
Polycrystalline Thin Films, 255
Polycrystalline Thin-Film Materials, 255
Multijunction PV Cells, 257
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, 257
Organic Solar Cells (OSC), 258
Grid-Connected Solar Energy, 259
PV Solar Energy Prices, 259
PV Manufacturing Giants, 260
Future Outlook, 261
10 Fuel Cells for Stationary and Mobile Use 263
Fuel Cell Principles, 264
Types of Fuel Cell, 264
The Importance of FC Operating Temperatures, 265
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane/Proton Exchange Membrane
Fuel Cell (PEMFC), 266
Regenerative PEM Cells, 269
The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell, 269
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs), 271
Hybrid Power Systems Incorporating SOFCs, 272
Other Important Fuel Cells, 273
CONTENTS xi
The Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC), 273
The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC), 273
The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), 273
Fuels for Fuel Cells, 274
Hydrogen—A Bad Choice for Fuel Cells, 274
Real-World Fuel Cell Efficiencies, 276
User Expectations, 278
Onboard Fuel Storage Requirements, 279
Realistic DOE Objectives, 280
Current Status, 281
Appendix 1 FAQ on Energy and Hydrogen 285
Introduction, 285
Questions on Basic Facts, 285
Appendix 2 Terms and Definitions 325
Selected Terms and Conditions Courtsy H.S.D.Q.E., 325
Index 373
INDEX
Page references followed by t indicate material in tables.
Absorption, in monoethanolamine. 57
Acid hydrolysis, of biomass cellulose,
196-197
Active solar heating. 248-250
Active solar systems, large, 249-250
Adiabatic compression. 68
Adsorbents, efficacy of, 106
Adsorption substrates, microporous. 99
Adsorption systems, carbon-based, 97-99
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (ACR). 128
Agribusiness economy, biodiesel and, 242
Agricultural residues
for biomass ethanol production. 190
cost of. 190
Agricultural waste, for ethanol conversion,
190
Alanates, as hydrogen carriers. 89
Albedo radiation, 246
Alcohols, in petroleum diesel, 236-237
Ai Gore camp. 3. See also Gore, Al
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, 96
Alkali metal hvdroxides, 95
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC). 273
Alkaline hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell,
264. 265
Alkyl monoester biofuels, 235t
Alternate-technology vehicles. 311
Alternative energies, justifications for. xvii
Alternative energy sources. 187-188
rational. 164
Alternative fuels, 40
from coal, 178
hydrogen as. 44
technology of, xv
Alternative hydrocarbons, xxiii
Aluminum pressure vessels. 80
AM 1.5D radiation, 246
Ammonia. See also Anhydrous ammonia
as a hydrogen carrier. 101-102
toxicity of, 102, 106
Ammonia borane, 95
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) technology.
253-254
Anaerobic fermentation procedures. 188
Energizing Our Future: Rational Choices for the 21st Century, by John R. Wilson
and Griffin Burgh
Copyright 2008 John Wiley Sons. Inc.
373
374
INDEX
Anhydrous ammonia. 274. See also
Ammonia
for hydrogen storage, 102
Animal feed, as biomass conversion
by-products. 193-194
An Inconvenient Truth, 4
Antarctic temperature, climate forcings
contributing to. 4
Anthropogenic activity, CO2 generated by, 12
Anthropogenic carbon dioxide, 30
Anthropogenic contribution, effect on global
warming, 12. 13
Arrhenius, Svante. 8
ASTM D-6751 Biodiesel Specification/
Standard. 23It
Atmospheric carbon dioxide, man-made
contributions to. 14
Atmospheric water vapor, influence on
global warming, 15-20
Automobile emissions, 26
regulating, 223
Automobile fuel cell efficiencies, 266-269
Automobiles, user expectations for,
278-279
Autothermal reforming, 56, 213
Average global temperature, 29
Bacteria, photosynthetic, 64
Battery-electric vehicles, 320-321
Battery-powered electric vehicles, 287-289
Battery technology, 321
Beam radiation, 246
Beryllium compounds, toxicity of, 94-95
Bi-Gas process, 183
Big industry carbon dioxide producers,
13
Big oil. 65
Biodiesel. 203, 223-236. See also Biodiesel
fuels
advantages of, 227-233
Clean Air Act and, 232
COj control obtained from, 242
cost of. 242
defined, 224-227
demand for, 233t
disadvantages of, 233-234
foreign oil dependency and, 232
positive impacts of. 243-244
production capacity of, 217
soybean conversion to, 207
sulfur content of. 229
use in diesel hybrids, 236
Biodiesel fuels. See also Biodiesel
average emissions impact of, 23It
European DIN 51606 Standard for,
227-229, 230t
methanol in the production of, 217
properties summary for, 228t
Biodiesel process, commercial development
of, 232
Biodiesel products
antioxidants in, 235
variation in, 233
Biodiesel Standard DIN V 51606, 227-229,
230
Biofuels, oxidative stability of, 234-235
Biomass
alternative raw materials for, 194-198
availability of, 189-191
chemicals production from, 196
cost implications of using, 198-199
Biomass Canada, 195
Biomass cellulose, acid hydrolysis of,
196-197
Biomass conversion, 63, 64-65
non-corn, 195
Biomass conversion processes,
commercialization of, 198
Biomass conversion products/by-products,
193-194
Biomass conversion technologies, 191-193
Biomass International, 195
Biomass pyrolysis, 6, 55
Biomass-to-liquid (BTL) fuels, 223
Biomass-to-liquid products, as diesel
substitutes, 238-241
Biomass waste, 188
Bio-oils, 65
Biosphere, as part of the carbon cycle, 31, 32
Bituminous reserves, 180
Boiling-water reactors, 151
BP Solar, 260-261. See also British
Petroleum (BP)
Breakthrough technologies, 65
British Petroleum (BP), 159. See also BP
Solar
BTU value, of biodiesel, 234
Buckyballs, as hydrogen storage media, 98
Bulk storage, off-vehicle, 107-111
Buoy uranium recovery method, 151
INDEX
375
Bush Administration hydrogen program,
324
By-product oxygen, 311
Cadmium telluride (CdTe), 256
Calcium hydride, 94
California Air Resources Board (CARB),
NOT emissions target, 223
Canada. See also Biomass Canada; Ontario
Power Generation; Shell Canada SCGP
plant
energy future of, 176
proven natural gas reserves in, 167
Canadian crude oil, 172
Canadian Oil Sands, 167, 171
development of, 160
Canadian oil sources, xxiv
CANDU reactors, 152
Canola oil, analysis of, 225t
Capacity constraints, hydrogen storage
without, 112
Carbohydrate conversion, 196
Carbon, removing from coal, 179. See also
Coal entries
Carbonate mineral deposition, 9
Carbonate-silicate cycle, 9
Carbon-based adsorbents, 106
Carbon-based adsorption systems, 97-99
Carbon-based particulates, as global
warming forcing agents, 26
Carbon-based sorbents, 98-99
Carbon cycle, CO2 and, 7-10
Carbon dioxide, 13-14. See also CO2 entries
plant growth and, 13
Carbon dioxide contribution, exaggeration
of, 19
Carbon dioxide emissions, 42
control of, 30
Carbon dioxide model of global wanning, 36
Carbon dioxide sinks, 14
Carbon emissions, largest producers of, 39
Carbon fullerenes, as hydrogen storage
media, 98
Carbon transfers, exchange methods
accounting for, 8-10
Car technology, short-term change in, 322
Catalytic steam methane reforming (SMR)
process, 55
Catalytic thermochemical reforming,
55-56
Catalyzed hydrogen adsorption/desorption,
91-92
Cell reactions, maximum equilibrium
efficiencies for, 51
Cellulases, 197
genetic engineering of, 193
Cellulose, enzymatic saccharification of, 192
Cellulose conversion technologies, 196
Cellulose derivatives, as biomass conversion
by-products, 194
Cellulosic biomass, 189
acid hydrolysis of, 196-197
in fuel ethanol production, 191
Cellulosic conversion methods, 191-193
Cellulosic municipal waste, conversion into
ethanol, 194-195
Centralized hydrogen production model,
309-310
Centralized-production hydrogen economy,
297
Cetane numbers, 227
Chemical hydrides, 92-93, 95
Chemical industry, use of methanol in, 216
Chemical processes, manufacturing
efficiency of, 200-201
Chemicals, from corn, 195
Chemicals production technologies, 196
Chemosynthesis, 31
Chernobyl disaster, 118
China, oil demand from, ]74
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), in the ozone
depletion process, 22
Clathrates, 168
hydrogen capacity of, 106-107
Clean Air Act of 1990, 214
Clean coal gasification technology,
176
Clean coal-to-gas technologies, 185-186
Clean diesel engines, performance data
for, 220t
Clean diesel fuel, 219-222
Clean diesel technology, 243
Clean energy technologies, 38
Climate change, 5
carbon sequestration and, 315
recent, 11-12
Climate models, IPCC, 33-34
Closed loop fast breeder reactor designs,
128
Club Rome, xviii
376
INDEX
CO2. See also Carbon dioxide entries
carbon cycle and, 7-10
combustion energies per ton of, 57t
as a consequence of global
warming, 20
conversion into carbonic acid, 9-10
diffusion into water, 8-9
recent geologic history of, 6-7
uses for, 58
CO2 Acceptor process, 183-186
CO2 atmospheric emissions, 291
comparison of, 63
CO2 concentration, seasonal cycles in, 10
CO2 exchange system, 8
CO2 levels
increase in, 4
short-term variability of, 34
CO2 production, reduction in, 37
Coal. See also Carbon entries
clean processing methods for, 182-186
hydrogen from, 61
underground processing of, 186-187
Coal-based methanol, 283
Coal-bed methane (CBM), 165, 169-171
Coal coke, 178-179
Coal fired power-generating facilities, 314
Coal gas, 178
Coal gasification, 184
Coal processes, alternative, 186
Coal reserves, 178-188
U.S., 179, 180
worldwide, 181—182t
Cold filter plugging point (CFPP), 234
Combined heat and power (CHP)
applications, solid oxide fuel cells
in, 272
Combustion CO2, from reforming, 57-59
Combustion emissions, 13
Commonwealth of Independent States,
natural uranium from, 148. See also
Russian Federation
Complex hydrides, 85, 86, 89-91
Composite pressure vessels, 80
Compressed gases
data on, 7It
difficulties in storing, 79
Compressed hydrogen gas, storing and
transporting, 78-80
Condensed gases, data on, 7It
Consumer electronic devices, photovoltaics
in, 250
Conventional natural gas, 164-171
recovery of, 166
Conventional oil production, 158
Conventional oil reserves, depletion of, 162
Copper indium diselenide (CIS), 256
Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS),
256
Corn
chemicals from, 195
combustion enthalpy of, 202
thermodynamics of growing, 201-207
Corn ethanol, net energy balance of, 191
Corn production, in the United States, 207-
208
Corrective actions, impact on global
warming, 14
Costs, electrolysis-related, 53-54
Countercurrent hydrolysis, 197
Covalent hydrides, 85
Cropland, utilization of, 207
Cryogenic containment, 81
Cryogenic propellants, 82
Crystalline molecular compounds, for
hydrogen storage, 100
Cycloalkanes, reversible dehydrogenation
of, 96
Dangling bonds, 254
Decision-making process, assumptions
underlying, 1
DECON nuclear facility decommissioning
method, 138
Dedicated energy crops, 190-191
Deep sea gas production, 165
Dehydrogenation. See also Partial
dehydrogenation
Demand adjusted consumption slope,
164
Department of Energy (DOE). See also
DOE entries
fuel storage system performance targets,
105, 107, 112-113, 114
hydrogen storage program, 80
Destructive distillation, 46
DeWeese, Tom, 39
Diesel automobiles, nonturbocharged,
221-222
INDEX
377
Diesel-engine hybrids, 295
Diesel engines
emissions from, 222-223
future of, 219-221
in freight-carrying trucks, 222
in the United States, 221
Diesel fuels
advantages of. 243
clean, 219
future of, 221
substitutes for, 219-222
Diesel hybrid vehicles, biodiesel in, 236
Diesel market, 219
Diesel-powered vehicles, high efficiency,
311
Diesel substitutes, gas-to-liquid or biomass-
to-liquid products as, 238-241
Diffuse solar gain, 246
Direct conversion hydrogen generation, 64
Direct-injection gasoline engines. 323
Direct-methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), 212.
216, 269-271
applications of, 270
Direct solar energy. 248-250
Direct solar installations, subsidies for. 250
Discovered oil reserves. 158
Discretionary uranium inventory, 147
Distributed hydrogen manufacturing
¦ network. 308
Distributed hydrogen production, 292
Distributed manufacturing, 75-76, 297
Distributed reformer model, 311
Distributed reforming, 77
Distribution, of hydrogen, 67-75
Distribution alternatives, for hydrogen, 75-77
Distribution infrastructure issues, hydrogen-
related. 289-290
DOE criteria, hydrogen storage and, 103—
104. See also Department of Energy
(DOE)
DOE objectives, for LDV transportation,
28Ot
DOE targets, current status of, 281-284
Domestic gas supplies, developing, 176
Domestic oil producers, 172
Drake oil well, 157
Dupont Nation membrane, 266
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC), 257-258
preparing, 258
Earth, gradual warming of, 4
Earth cycles, variability of, 3
Earth s climate, longer history of, 6-7
Easy oil, 172
E-diesel, unofficial standard for, 237t
Education, importance of, xvi
Effective compression, 84
Efficiency, in energy conversion, 2
Efficiency chain, 275-276
Electrical supply, dependence on nuclear
energy, 117-118
Electricity generation, nuclear share in. 120
Electric vehicles, battery-powered. 287-289
Electrolysis
distributed manufacturing of hydrogen
by, 75
economics of, 53-54
efficiency of, 52
emissions from. 53
energy consumption and electrolyzer
efficiency in, 50-53
in hydrogen production, 14 15, 48-54
Electrolytic hydrogen, cost of, 59-60
Electrolytic hydrogen generator. 307-308
Electrolytic oxygen, 49-50
Electrolyzers
capital costs of, 53
efficiency of. 50
Electron hole migration. 252
Emissions
diesel engine. 222-223
effect of biodiesel on. 231
electrolysis, 53
GTL and BTL fuels and, 242-243
paniculate, 222-223
sulfur, 24, 25
Endothermic hydrogen reaction. 88
Energy, frequently asked questions
concerning. 285-324
Energy choices, rational. 3
Energy consumption, xv
profligate, 38
Energy conversion, 62-63
Energy costs, rising, xvii-xxiv
Energy crops, 190
dedicated, 190-191
Energy economics, hydrogen, 72
Energy efficiency policies, 175
Energy footprint, sustainable, xvi
378
INDEX
Energy industry
hydrogen acceptance by, 316-317
role of, xv-xvi
Energy Information Administration (EIA),
159
Energy opportunity costs, 202, 203
Energy options, rational assessment of, 1
Energy policy, xiii
approaches to, 36
Energy requirements, for hydrogen
compression, 68—69
Energy reserves, xix-xxi
Energy sources, xiv
alternative, 187-188
depletion of, xviii
Energy supply disruption, xiv
Energy supply problems, in Ontario,
Canada, 152
Energy sustainability, transformation to, xiv
Energy technology
complexity of, xvii-xviii
irrational approach to, 1
Enthalpy. 50, 51t
ENTOMB nuclear facility decommissioning
technique, 139
Environmental impact, of the Shell Coal
Gasification Process, 185
Environmental status
extreme views regarding, xiii
truth about, xvii
Enzymatic hydrolysis, 197
Enzymatic saccharification. of cellulose, 192
Enzymatic saccharification/fermentation,
192-193
Enzyme hydrolysis technology, 192
Estimated Additional Resources I
(EAR-I), 146
Estimated Additional Resources II
(EAR-II), 146
Estimated Ultimately Recoverable (EUR)
global oil reserves, 174
Ethanol, 283-284
annual com crop for producing, 208
comparison with other fuels, 209-210
as a diesel fuel component, 236
federal subsidies for, 208
future prospects for, 208-209
manufacture of, 209
net energy balance for, 200
net energy use in producing, 204-205t
pathways for producing from biomass, 203
production costs of, 199
production efficiencies of, 206-207, 210
production efficiency calculation for, 201
production of, 196
as a replacement for gasoline, 206-207
thermodynamics of processing corn into,
202-207
Ethanol conversion, 190
Ethanol market, growth in, 198-199
Ethylene glycol alkyl ethers, 238
Europe, biodiesel use in, 224
European clean diesel technology, 243
European diesel fuel, 221, 222
Evacuated tube thermal collectors, 248-249
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), 223, 241
Exothermic hydrogen reaction, 88
Extreme environmental remedies,
justifications for, xvii
Factual decision making, framework for, 1-2
Factual truth, widespread disregard for, xiii
FAME fuels, tallow-based, 234. See also
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs)
Farmland, utilization of, 207
Fast-breeder reactors (FBRs), 127-131, 154
Fast reactors
gas-cooled, 128, 129
lead-cooled, 128-129, 130
sodium-cooled, 129-131
Fatty acid methyl ester fuel components,
property data for, 225t
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), 226t,
227, 231. See also FAME fuels
Fatty acids, chemical structure and
properties of, 226t
Federal subsidies, for ethanol, 208
Fertilizer, net energy balance for, 200
Filament-wound storage vessels, 79
Fischer-Tropsch technology, 239
Fission transmutation process, 141
Flash point, of biodiesel products, 229-230
Flat plate thermal collectors, 248
Flow resistance, 72
Foreign energy supplies, U.S. dependence
on, 62
Forestry waste, 190
Formed thermal collectors, 248
INDEX
379
Fossil fuels, net energy balance for, 199-200
France
MOX reprocessing in, 126
nuclear power generation in, 120
Free energy, 50, 5It
Fuel assembly, 134
Fuel cell autos, onboard reforming of
gasoline for, 306
Fuel cell efficiencies
in-vehicle, 295
real-world, 276-278
Fuel cells, 42
ammonia, 101-102
comparison of, 267-268t
direct-methanol, 216
early, 263
fuels for, 265, 274
hydrogen, 274-276
intrinsically available work from, 50
operating temperatures of, 265-266
place in power generation, 296
principles of, 264
for stationary and mobile use, 263-284
types of, 264-274
variety of fuels for, 264
Fuel cell technology, further advances in, 290
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), 321-322
efficiency of, 104
on-the-road efficiencies of, 277-278
operational, 298-304t
performance targets for, 279
Fuel cycle, in generation IV reactors,
123-124
Fuel gases
from coal, 178, 183-186
comparison of, 282t
Fuels
alternative, 40
combinations of, 283
comparison of, 282t
energy densities of, 217t
pipelined, 70t
Fuel storage requirements, onboard, 279—284
Fuel-tax increase, xxi
Fuel-to-electric power efficiencies, 266,
271-272, 274
Fuel transition, complexity of, xix
Fusion energy/power, 153, 313-314
Future, energy options for, xxiv
Gas
high pressure above-ground storage of,
111
orphaned, 170-171
tight, 170
unconventional, 168-169
Gas consumption, xxi-xxiii
Gas-cooled fast reactors (GFRs), 128, 129
Gas discoveries, xx
Gasholders, 111
Gas hydrates, hydrogen-containing,
106-107
Gasoline
benefits of, 105
from natural gas, 239
phase-out process for, 43
U.S. wholesale price of, 60
Gasoline-fueled vehicles, tank capacities
of, 103
Gasoline-hydrogen cars, 319-320
Gasoline-methanol blends, 214
Gasoline use, in the United States, 60,
207-208
Gas permeation barrier, 79
Gas reserves, xx-xxi
estimating, 158
Gas supplies, domestic, 176
Gas-to-liquid (GTL) products, 171
as diesel substitutes, 238-241
Generation I reactors, 122
Generation II reactors, 122
Generation III reactors, 123
Generation-IV International Forum (GIF),
123, 124,128
Generation IV reactors, 123-125
Georgetown U fuel cell program, 274
Global gas reserves, 164—165
Global net primary productivity (NPP),
30-32
Global oil reserves, 163
Global radiation, 246, 247
Global temperature, anthropogenic
contributions to, 4
Global warming (GW), xiv, 3-40
as a cause versus a result, 5
commonly held myths about, 30
controlling, 37-38
as a cyclic event, 17
dealing with, 36-37
380
INDEX
Global warming (continued)
methane release and, 168
as a normal, natural event, 36, 37-38
positive effects of, 38
primary causes of, 36
proposed remedies for, 30
protection from the effects of, 37
sources and mechanisms of, 11-12
opposing camps concerning, 3
Global warming forcing agents, 15-30
insolation and irradiance, 26-30
methane. 20-21
nitrous oxide. 21-22
ozone. 22—24
particulates, 26
pollutants. 24-25
sulfur. 24
water vapor. 15-20
Global warming gases, 36
Global warming models, disagreement on,
36
Global weather, modeling the complexity
of. 36
Gloom-and-doom-sayers, xvii
Glycerol by-product, from biodiesel, 232-233
Gore, Al. 4. See also Al Gore camp
Graphite, hydrogen adsorption by, 97-98
Graphitic nanotubes, hydrogen absorption
by. 98-99
Gravimetric energy density. 111-112
Greenhouse effect, 8, 10
Greenhouse gas emissions, hydrogen and,
42
Greenhouse gases, 10
absorption wavelengths of. 18t
heat trapping efficiency of, 19t
increases in, 4
non-CO2. 25
nuclear fuel production, 118
overlap of absorption bands of, 17t, 18
Grid-connected solar energy, 259
Gross Heating Value (GHV), 69
Hi adsorption, by metals, 86-87. See also
Hydrogen entries
Hansen. James, global warming predictions
by, 35
Heat islands, 29. See also Therm- entries
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs)
hydrogen storage for, 107, 112
storage technologies for, 78
Heavy metals, filtering from water, 150
Heterojunction electric fields, 255
High BTU waste. 188
High efficiency diesel-powered vehicles,
311
Higher Heating Value (HHV), 69, 70, 71t
High level nuclear wastes, 134
storage locations for, 137
Highly enriched uranium (HEU), 143
from Russian nuclear weapons, 147
High pressure electrolysis cells, 52
High pressure hydrogen gas, 71,
105. 106
High temperature gas-cooled reactors
(HTGRs), 122,128
Hindenburg airship fire, 293
Hot potassium carbonate (HPC) process,
57-58
Hot water systems
active, 249
passive, 248
H-PEDOT polymer, 79
Hubbert curve, 158, 161-162
Hubbert oil peak, 175
Hybrid power systems, solid oxide fuel cells
in, 272
Hybrid vehicles, 319-320, 321-322
performance targets for, 279
Hydrane process, 184
Hydrate research and development (R D),
168, 169
Hydride-forming reaction, 89
Hydride powder, 90-91
Hydrides, maximum possible hydrogen
content of. 90t. See also Nonmetallic
hydrides
Hydride slurries, 93-95
Hydride systems, recharging, 91-92
Hydrocarbon fuels
replacing, xv
in solid oxide fuel cells, 272
Hydrocarbon reforming, 65
Hydrocarbon resources, xxii
Hydrocarbons
alternative, xxiii
hydrogen from, 54-61
via partial dehydrogenation, 96
INDEX
381
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), in the
ozone depletion process, 22-23
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 25
Hydrogen. See also H2 adsorption; Liquid
hydrogen
as an alternative fuel, 44
biomass conversion to, 64—65
for a car fleet, 310-311
centrally produced, 296-297
competition with gasoline, 308-309
as a competitive threat, 316
compressing, 68, 294
compressing for automotive storage
tanks, 307-308
current PR about, 323
dangers associated with, 292-293
density of, 67-68
distributed manufacturing of, 75-76
energy-equivalent amount of, 104
fossil-fuel energy and, 286
frequently asked questions concerning,
285-324
as a high-quality form of energy, 286
historic uses, of-44
from hydrocarbons, 54—61
inefficiency of, 293-296
issues related to, 116
lightness of, 286-287
low pressure storage for, 111
manufacture by electrolysis. 294
manufacture from an energy source, 276
National Research Council report on, 53
nuclear energy as a source of, 118
onboard manufacture of, 77
oxygen consumption and, 318
pipelining, 70-73
point-of-use production of, 76
promise of, 42
pumping power requirement for, 72-73
pure, 42, 309
road tanker transportation of, 73-74
safety considerations related to, 66-67,
105,114-116
sources of energy for conversion into, 312
storage in metals and metal hydrides, 84-
86
as a supplementary fuel, 305
theoretical energy recoverable from,
58-59
transportation and distribution
alternatives for, 75-77
transporting and distributing, 60,
67-75
as a universal fuel supply, 41
Hydrogen adsorption/desorption process,
88-89
catalyzed, 91-92
chemical hydrides in, 92-93
Hydrogen adsorption potential, 97-98
Hydrogenation reaction, 88, 254
Hydrogen carriers, 93, 101-103
Hydrogen combustion, CO2 emissions
from, 58
Hydrogen dissociation reaction, 87
Hydrogen distribution infrastructure, 67
Hydrogen economy, xiv, xviii, 41-116,
285, 288
adoption of renewable energy and, 314
climate and, 317
coal and nuclear power stations for.
313-314
National Research Council report on, 80
technical obstacles to, 289-290
Hydrogen explosions, 116, 293
Hydrogen-filling stations, 75
Hydrogen fires, 293
Hydrogen flame, 115-116
Hydrogen flow rate, 72
Hydrogen fuel cells, 274-276
benchtop efficiency of, 88
efficiency of, 276, 287
reducing the cost of, 305
Hydrogen-fueled vehicles. See also
Hydrogen vehicles
DOE criteria for, 103
storage system in, 104
ventilation of, 114
Hvdrogen Fuel Initiative, 41
Hydrogen industry, development from
scratch, 291-292
Hydrogen leakage, 71-72. 73, 79
losses from, 74-75
Hydrogen leak/flame detection, 115
Hydrogen manufacture. See also Hydrogen
production entries
costs of, 53-54
natural gas and. 62
water consumption and, 317
382
INDEX
Hydrogen manufacturing industry, safety
record of, 115
Hydrogen-metal (H-M) systems, evolution
of, 86
Hydrogen pipelines, 297-305
Hydrogen production. See also Hydrogen
manufacture; Hydrogen production
methods
carbon release from, 59
costs of, 59-61
distributed versus centralized, 311
efficiency losses associated with, 278
from natural gas, 61, 62
summary of, 65-66
uses for, 46-47
Hydrogen production methods, 44-54
alternative, 62-65
electrolysis, 44-45, 48-54
water splitting, 45-46, 47-48
Hydrogen reformers
reliability of, 76
safety of, 76-77
Hydrogen research, 316
Hydrogen storage, 77-91, 285-286. See also
Hydrogen storage methods; Hydrogen
transportation/storage
approaches to, 78-91
assessment of, 112-114
without capacity constraints, 112
in cars, 306-307
costs of, 113
DOE criteria and, 103-104
nanoapproach to, 100
new materials for, 114
Hydrogen storage media, effective, 106
Hydrogen storage methods, novel, 99-101
Hydrogen storage systems, heating and
cooling requirements of, 90
Hydrogen storage tanks, 80
Hydrogen transition, 322-323
crash program for, 323
Hydrogen transportation/storage, hydride
slurries for, 93-95
Hydrogen user industry, accidents in, 115
Hydrogen vehicles, major challenges related
to, 305. See also Hydrogen-fueled
vehicles
Hydrolysis
of cellulose, 192
countercurrent, 197
enzymatic, 197
Hygas process, 183
Hythane mixtures, 297-305
Impacts, permanent versus transient, 2
Imported energy, dependence on, 42-43
Inconvenient Truth, An, 4
India, oil demand from, 174
Industrial activities, carbon dioxide from, 14
Inferred oil reserves, 158
Inorganic cycle, carbon transfer via, 10
Insolation, as a global warming forcing
agent, 26-30. See also Solar insolation
Intergovernmental panel on climate change
(IPCC), 32-34. See also IPCC reports
Iogen bioethanol plant, 192
Ionic hydrides, 85
IPCC reports, 11-12, 32-34. See also
Intergovernmental panel on climate
change (IPCC)
conclusions of, 34—35
Irradiance, as a global warming forcing
agent, 26-30
Isothermal compression, 68, 69
ITER project, 153
Japan power-demonstration reactor,
decommissioning of, 140
Jet-A fuel, 283
JP-8 jet fuel, 283
Junk facts, xiii
Junk science, xviii
Kellogg Transport Reactor, 186
Knowledge gap, xviii
Kyocera Corporation, 260
Kyoto Protocol, xviii
alternative views on, 39
failures of, 38-39
revision of, 39
Kyoto Treaty, 3, 36, 72
claims made by proponents of, 7
ineffectiveness of, 37
Land-based gas production, 165
LDV applications, hydrogen storage for,
108-1 lOt. See also Light duty vehicles
(LDVs)
INDEX
383
LDV transportation
DOE objectives for, 280t
realistic objectives for, 28It
Lead-cooled fast reactors (LFRs), 128-129,
130
Lean-burn direct-injection (LBDI) gasoline
engine, 295
Less-developed countries, CO2 emissions in,
38-39
Light duty military vehicles, liquid
hydrogen storage for, 83-84
Light duty vehicles (LDVs). See also LDV
entries; Light duty military vehicles
hydrogen storage in, 78
storage implications for, 104-112
Light metal hydrides, 106
Light-water reactors (LWRs), 122, 123, 151
mixed oxide fuel in, 125-126
Lignin/lignin derivatives, as biomass
conversion by-products, 194
Limits to Growth, The (Club Rome), xviii
Linde cryogenic tank, 82
Liquefied hydrogen dormancy period, 82
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), xxii
comparison to methanol, 215-216
importation of, 62, 167
Liquid ammonia, storage of hydrogen as, 102
Liquid hydrocarbon fuel supply, 209
Liquid hydrogen, 69-70, 80-84,
105-106, 296
containers for, 81
manufacture of, 83
realistic standards for, 281
safe handling of, 82-83
shipping, 81
storage of, 83-84
as vehicle fuel, 307
Lithium batteries, 320
Lithium ion batteries, 288
Lithospheric carbon, 8
Little Ice Age, 27, 28
temperature changes around, 12
Localized data, extrapolating to a complex
system, 5
Long term energy needs, xiv
Lovins, Amory, 316, 321, 322
Low-carbon energy supply, 297
Low level wastes (LLW), 135
storage fees for, 140
Low level waste volumes, 136t
Low molecular weight hydrocarbons, 283
Lurgi process, 182-183
Magnesium alanates, 92
Magnesium hydride, 94
Magnesium hydroxide, 94
Magnox reactors, 128
Manufacturing efficiency, of a chemical
process, 200-201
Mass extinction, historical perspective on. 7
Maunder minima, 28
Maximum equilibrium efficiencies, for cell
reactions, 51
Medieval Wanning Period. 27, 28, 38
MegaMethanol technology, 213
Metal hydrides, 85
background on, 86-89
complex, 89-91
hydrogen release by, 88
hydrogen storage in, 84-86. 101
as storage media, 92
types of, 85-86
Metal hydride storage system, 104
Metallic hydride slurries, 94
Metallurgical coke, 179
Metals, hydrogen storage in, 84-86
Methane
coal-bed, 169-171
as a global warming forcing agent. 20-21
sources of, 21
syngas from, 213, 214
Methane hydrate deposits, gas production
from, 165
Methane hydrates, 168
exploiting, 169
Methane release rates, 21
Methanol, 211-218
applications of, 215, 216-218
emissions and, 218
as an energy carrier, 215-216, 217
as a fuel, 216-217
as a hydrogen carrier, 103
in internal combustion engines. 215
lifecycle cost of, 306
as a motor fuel, 214
production of, 212, 213
as a transportation fuel, 211
world market for, 215
384
INDEX
Methanol crossover problem, 270-271
Methanol fuel cell, 270
Methunol-gasoline blends, 214
Methanol manufacturing, 67, 216-218
overseas. 213
Methanol reformers. 56, 310
Methyl ester biodiesel fuels, property data
for, 226t
Methyl tallowate. 229
Methyl tertbutyl ether (MTBE), 214,
237. 306
Microballoons, for hydrogen storage, 100
Middle distillate liquid (MDL) products, 239
Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel. 125-126
production and processing of. 126-127
uranium-plutonium. 147-148
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), 273-274
Molten metal technologies, 128
Monoethanolamine (MEA). absorption in. 57
Monolithic cell. 258
Montreal Protocol, 23
Multijunction cell technology, 63
Multijunction PV cells, 257
Municipal solid waste (MSW), 190
Municipal waste
as an alternative energy source, 188
cellulosic, 194-195
Nanoapproach. to hydrogen storage, 100
Nanostructured graphite, 97
Nanotube hydrogen absorption, 98-99
National Research Council reports, 53, 80
Natural gas, 175-177. See also
Conventional natural gas; Liquefied
natural gas (LNG); Orphaned natural
gas: Proven natural gas reserves;
Synthetic natural gas (SNG)
from coal beds, 170
conventional, 164-171
conversion into hydrogen, 294-295
as a hydrogen source, 61. 62, 312-313
hydrogen manufacture and, 62
running cars on, 66-67, 319
thermal and catalytic reforming from,
54-55
transportation of. 70
world reserves of, 61-62
Natural gas-fueled vehicles, 66-67, 319
Natural gas leakage losses, 75
Natural gas prices. 164
Natural gas reserves. 61-67
by country. 166t
depictions of, 165
depletion of, 315-316
Natural gas spot prices, 59
Natural gas supplies, xxii, 66
Natural oils, conversion into biodiesel, 227
n-doped semiconductor, 251, 254
Neat alcohol fuels, 214
Net energy balances, 191, 199-201
Net primary productivity (NPP), 30-32
satellite data on, 31-32
Niederaichbach reactor, decommissioning
of, 139
Nitrogen, anthropogenic additions of, 21
Nitrogen levels, in biodiesel, 229
Nitrogen oxide (NOt) emissions, 222,
223, 241
Nitrous oxide, as a global warming forcing
agent, 21-22
Non-CO? greenhouse gases, 25
Non-corn biomass conversion, large-scale,
high-value end products from, 195
Non-gasoline fuels, replacing, 43
Nonmetal hydrides/hydrogen carriers,
95-96
Nonmetallic hydrides, 106
North America, hydrogen industry in, 290
North American conventional oil reserves,
depletion of, 162
Nuclear energy. See also Nuclear power
entries
influence of, 117-122
safety record of, 117
supplies of, xx
Nuclear facilities, maintenance and disposal
in. 137
Nuclear facility decommissioning, 137-140
examples of, 139-140
factors influencing, 138
techniques for, 138-139
Nuclear fuel, disposing of, 141
Nuclear power, xiv. See also Nuclear energy
future of, 153
renewed interest in, 118-119
Nuclear Power 2010, 123
Nuclear power industry, 154
Nuclear power plants, worldwide, 120-121
INDEX
385
Nuclear power stations, decommissioning
costs for, 140
Nuclear reactor designs, evolution of,
122-125
Nuclear reactors, 118
legislative acts related to, 123
production capacity factor for, 152
Nuclear waste(s)
disposal of, 134-142
safe repository for, 136
Nuclear waste transmutation, 140-142
beneficial impacts of, 141-142
Oceans
acidity of, 13
influence of CO2 on, 37
primary production in, 31
Off-board hydrogen storage, 107-111
Offshore methane hydrates, exploiting, 169
Oil
future supply, demand, and pricing for,
172-175
growing demand for, 171
unconventional, 167-168
worldwide availability of, 175
Oil Gas Journal, 159
Oil commodity traders, impact on oil prices.
172
Oil consumption, xxi-xxiii
Oil discoveries, xx
Oilfields, early, 157-158
Oil prices
OPEC control over, 174
responsibility for setting, 171-172
rising, 162-163
worldwide volatility in, 164
Oil production
peaks in, xviii
U.S., xv
Oil recovery technologies, enhanced, 160
Oil reserves, xx-xxi, 158-164
estimating, 158, 159
forecast of, 163-164
recoverable, xxiii
untapped, 162
viable, 159
Oil sand reserves, 171. See also Canadian
Oil Sands
Oil sands bitumen, xxiii
Oil shortage, status of, 171
Oil traders, 164
Onboard compressed gas storage, 84
Onboard fuel storage requirements,
279-284
system, 104
Onboard hydrogen storage, 78
Onboard reforming, 77
Ontario Power Generation, difficulties
facing, 152
Open-fuel cycle reactors, 142
Organic solar cells (OSC). 258-259
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC)
control over oil prices. 172. 174
oil production by, 173t
Orinoco Belt bituminous crudes, 167-168
Orinoco Oil Belt, xxiii-xxiv. 175
development of, 160
Orphaned gas, 170-171, 176
Orphaned natural gas, 239
Oxygenated additives, 242
effect on emissions, 241
in petroleiun diesel, 237-238
Oxygenated diesel fuel substitutes, 23 8t
Oxygenated fuels, 243
Oxygen by-products, of electrolytic
hydrogen production, 49-50
Oxygen disposal, 75
Ozone, as a global warming forcing agent,
22-24
Ozone cycle, 23
Ozone depletion process, 22-23
Ozone Hole, 24
Ozone layer, hydrogen harm to, 318
Ozone reports, polar region. 5
Palladium, 86
PAMPAS polymer, 79
Parallel-hybrid gasoline/electric drive train
technology, 277
Partial dehydrogenation, hydrocarbons via,
96
Partial oxidation/ceramic membrane
reactors, 56
Partial oxidation (POx) processes, 56-57.
See also POx (partial oxidation) gas
Particulates, as global warming forcing
agents, 26
386
INDEX
Passenger-carrying vehicles, hydrogen
storage for, 112
Passive solar heating. 248-250
p-doped semiconductor, 251-252, 254
Peak Oil Report (Hirsch), xviii
PEM cell power densities, 266. See also
Proton exchange membrane (PEM)
fuel cells
PEMFC fuel, 269. See also Polymer
electrolyte membrane/proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
PennWell Corporation, 159
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), 25
Personal transportation, user expectations
for. 278-279
Personal vehicles
DOE objectives for. 103
hydrogen for. 66-67
Petroconsultants, 159
Petroleum-derived energy sources,
pervasive use of, 4
Petroleum diesel fuel
alcohols in, 236-237
oxygenated additives in, 237-238
as a solution for fuel shortages, 241
Petroleum products, transport of, 73-74
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), 273
Photobiological technology, 64
Photoelectric effect, 251
Photoelectrochemical (PEC) light
harvesting systems, 63
Photoelectrolysis. 63
Photosynthesis, 31
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, 245. See also PV
entries
effkiences of, 254t
multijunction, 257
polycrystalline silicon. 255
Photovoltaic systems
international applications for, 250-251
solar, 250-251
Phytoplankton, 32
p-I-n structure, 254
Pipelines
infrastructure of, 70
leakage losses from, 73
Plant growth rate studies, 13
Plutonium-239, 124, 125
Plutonium economy. 154
p/n junction, 252
Polar regions, ozone reports in, 5
Political agendas, in IPCC reports,
32-33
Pollutants, as global warming forcing
agents, 24-25
Polycrystalline silicon devices, 255
Polycrystalline thin films, 255
materials for, 255-257
Polymer electrolyte membrane/proton
exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC), 266-269
Polyoxyethers, 237
Possible oil reserves, xix, xx, 158
Power producers, difficulties facing, 152
POx (partial oxidation) gas, 55. See also
Partial oxidation (POx) processes
Prepreparation technologies, biomass
conversion, 191
Pressure-composition-temperature (PCT)
curves, 88
Pressure vessel, gravimetric energy density
of, 111-112
Pressurized-water reactors, 151
Primary producers, 31
Primary production, 30-31
Probable oil reserves, xix, xx, 158
Producer uranium inventory, 147
Product liability, in the transportation
industry, 289
Product streams, removing carbon dioxide
from, 57
Pronuclear argument, 121
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel
cells, 49, 86, 264. See also PEM cell
power densities
regenerative, 269
Proven coal reserves, 178
Proven natural gas reserves, 166
in Canada, 167
Proven oil reserves, xix, xx, 158
for oil-producing countries, 160t
Pure hydrogen, 42
cost of, 309
PV cells, operation of, 251-255. See also
Photovoltaic entries
PV manufacturers, major, 260-261
PV materials, breakthrough advances from,
253-255
INDEX
387
PV semiconductor, 251
PV solar energy prices, 259-260
Pyrolysis
biomass, 55, 65
coal, 179
R-22 refrigerants, 23
Radioactive waste disposal, 134-142
Radioactive waste materials, levels of, 134
RAR uranium reserves, 148. See also
Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR)
Reactor fuel, 124-125
recycling of, 125
Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV), disposal of,
139
Reactors, number by age, 138
Reactor technology, safe and sustainable,
151-152
Real-world fuel cell efficiencies, 276-278
Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR), 146.
See also RAR uranium reserves
Recoverable oil, estimates of, 174-175
Recycled hydroxide, hydride regeneration
from, 94
Red Book, 149
Reformer furnace fuels, 55
Reformers
maintenance of, 66
reliability of, 76
Reforming
autothermal, 56
combustion COj from, 57-59
distributed manufacturing of hydrogen
by, 76
hydrocarbon, 65
reactions, 48
thermal and catalytic, 54—55
thermochemical, 56-57
Remedial actions, current direction of,
36-37
Re-radiation trapping, 18
Reserves, xix-xxi
Reserves growth, 159
Resources, recoverability of, xix
Reversible cell reaction, 50-51
Reynolds number, 72
Russian Federation, as a uranium market
supplier. 143, 144. See also
Commonwealth of Independent States
Saccharification/fermentation, enzymatic,
192-193. See also Simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation
(SSF)
Safety issues, hydrogen-related, 114-116
SAFSTOR nuclear facility
decommissioning strategy, 138-139
Sasol Slurry Phase Distillate Process, 186
Scalability, 2
Scattered radiation, 246
Scrubbing technology, for CO2
removal, 58
Seawater, uranium from, 150-151
Selexol Process, 58
Semibitumen oil, xxiii
Shale oil deposits, U.S., 167
Shale oils, xxiii
Sharp Corporation, 260
Shell Canada SCGP plant, 185
Shell Coal Gasification Process (SCGP), 185
Shell Solar, 261
Shippingport reactor, decommissioning
of, 139
Sieverts Law, 88
Silicon-based solar cells, 250
Silicon PV cells, 251
Simple hydrides, 85, 86
Simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation (SSF), 192-193, 197
Single-crystalline silicon cells, 254—255
Small to medium sized reactors (SMRs),
119
Sodium alanate, 90, 91
Sodium borate, 94
Sodium borohydride, regeneration of, 93
Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs), 129-131
Solar cells
dye-sensitized, 257-258
organic, 258-259
Solar electric system, utility-tied. 259
Solar energy, 245-250
direct, 248-250
future outlook for, 261-262
grid-connected, 259
power generation via. 52-53
Solar farms, 261
Solar heating, passive and active, 248-250
Solar influences, as global warming forcing
agents, 26-30
388
INDEX
Solar insolation, 247. See also Insolation
Solar magnetic cycles, 27, 28
Solar photovoltaic market installations,
worldwide, 261
Solar photovoltaic power, 312
Solar photovoltaic systems. 250-251
Solar radiation, 245-250
standard measure of, 245
Solar thermal collectors, types of, 248
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), 271-272
advantages of, 272
hybrid power systems incorporating, 272
Source-to-use analysis, 275t
Source-to-use energy efficiencies, 277t
realistic, 296t
South African Sasol process, 186
Soybean esters, properties of, 229t
Soybean oil
analysis of, 225t
nitrogen, suifur, and phosphorus contents
of, 229
Space programs, hydrogen cooling/storing
techniques for, 81
Spent fuel, recycling of, 96
Staebler-Wronski effect, 254
Stationary fuel cells, 269
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
technology, 167
Steam explosion technology, 192
Steam-hydrocarbon reforming, 48
Steam-hydrocarbon reformer furnace,
54-55
Steam methane reforming (SMR) process,
55,213
modified, 55
Steam reforming process, 54
Storage media, metal hydrides as, 92
Storage technologies, most promising, 105
Stranded gas, 170-171, 176. See also
Orphaned entries
Subnanostructured metal grids, for hydrogen
storage. 100-101
Subsidies, for ethanol, 208
Sugars, as biomass conversion products,
193. See also Saccharifkation/
fermentation
Sulfur, as a global warming forcing agent,
24
Sulfur hexafluoride. 25
Sun
impact on earth temperature, 28
influences on climate change, 29
SunFuel (SunDiesel), 240
Supercharged metals, 87
Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR),
131-132
Superphenix reactor, decommissioning of,
140
Sustainability, xvi, 2
Sustainable mobility, 318-319
Swing fuel, 194
Synthane process, 184
Synthesis gas (syngas), 45, 46, 47, 56. See
also Synthetic natural gas (SNG)
biomass-based, 283
from coal, 182-183,215
conversion to methanol, 103, 212
fossil sources of, 214-215
from methane, 213, 214
Synthesized liquid fuels, value of, 240-241
Synthetic diesel fuels, 239
Synthetic fuels
from biomass, 242
coal as a source of, 179
Synthetic natural gas (SNG), 176. See also
Synthesis gas (syngas)
from coal, 183
Tallow-based methyl ester biodiesel,
233-234
Thermal Depolymerization process, 188
Thermal mass materials, 248
Thermal technologies, for biomass
conversion to hydrogen, 64—65
Thermochemical processes, improving, 56
Thermochemical reforming, 65
catalytic, 55-56
scaling issues related to, 56-57
Thermodynamic factuality, 1
Thermodynamic processes, efficiencies of,
51. See also Heat islands
Thin-film cells, 255
Third-world countries, clean energy
technology in, 40
Three Gorges Dam, 45
Three Mile Island, 118
Tight gas, xxiii, 170, 176
Titanium hydride, 86
INDEX
389
Town gas, 179
Transmutation, 141
Transport, of hydrogen, 67-75
Transportation, hydrogen storage for, 78
Transportation activities, carbon dioxide
from, 14
Transportation alternatives, for hydrogen,
75-77
Transportation costs, hydrogen, 74
Transportation fuel
biodiesel as, 224
price of, xxi
Transportation industry, hydrogen safety
in, 114
Transuranics (TRUs), removal of, 141
Transuranic waste materials, 134-135
Tree species, as raw materials for biomass,
194
Tropospheric ozone, 22
Turbocharged diesel engines, 220
Turbulent flow, 72
ULSD diesel fuel, 239-240. See also Ultra
low sulfur diesel (ULSD)
Ultimately recoverable oil, 174
Ultimately recoverable reserves, xix, xx
Ultra low sulfur diese! (ULSD), 221, 223.
See also ULSD diesel fuel
Unconventional gas, 168-169
Unconventional oil, xxiii, 167-168
world reserves of, 175
Underground coal gasification (UCG),
186-187
Underground hydrogen storage, 101
Undiscovered recoverable gas reserves,
166-167
United Nations Framework Classification
(UNFC) for Energy and Mineral
Resources, 158
United States. See also Department of
Energy (DOE); Federal subsidies;
National Research Council reports;
U.S. entries
availability of coal in, 180
biodiesel standards in, 229
corn production in, 207-208
demand for biodiesel in. 233t
dependence on natural gas, 309
exploration activities in, xxii
growing dependence on imported gas,
176
hydrocarbon resources in, xxiii
natural gas supply in, 166, 167
nuclear energy in, 121
oil and gas consumption in, xxi
oil prices in, 174
oil production by, xv
tight gas reserve data for, 170
transportation fuel use in, 43
wholesale gasoline prices in, 60
UP1 Reprocessing Plant, decommissioning
of, 140
Uranium
captive production of, 148
from the Commonwealth of Independent
States, 148
inventories of, 147
mined and processed, 148
prices of, 126
production and supply forecast for. 145
reprocessed. 147-148
from seawater, 150-151
sources of. 143
supply concerns related to, 142-151
supply projections for, 146-149
Uranium-235, 124
Uranium-238, 124
Uranium industry, supply issues in, 149
Uranium ore reserves, xx. See also Uranium
reserves
by grade, 147t
Uranium ore yield, estimating, 148-149
Uranium-plutonium mixed oxide fuel.
147-148
Uranium reserves, 143-146. See also
Uranium ore reserves
estimated quantities of, 146
types of, 145-146
US Energy Policy Act of 2005. 123
U.S. oil production peak, 161
U.S. road diesel fuel. 221
Utility-tied solar electric system. 259
Utility uranium inventory, 147
Value-added biomass conversion products,
193
van t Hoff equation, 89
Vanadium, 106
390
INDEX
Vanadium hydride, 86
Vegetable oil-based biodiesel, alternatives
to, 236
Vegetable oils
in biodiesel manufacture, 227
carbon chain distribution of, 234t
as fuels, 225
modified, 232
Vehicles. See also Alternate-technology
vehicles: Battery-electric vehicles;
Battery-powered electric vehicles;
Diesel hybrid vehicles; Diesel-powered
vehicles; Electric vehicles; Fuel cell
vehicles (FCVs); Gasoline-fueled
vehicles; Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs);
High efficiency diesel-powered
vehicles; Hybrid vehicles; Hydrogen-
fueled vehicles; Hydrogen vehicles;
Light duty military vehicles; Light duty
vehicles (LDVs); Natural gas-fueled
vehicles; Passenger-carrying vehicles;
Personal vehicles
fuel cell, 298-304t
natural gas-fueled, 66-67
user expectations for, 278-279
Velikhov, Yevgeny, 154
Venezuela, hydrocarbon reserves in, xxiii
Very high-temperature reactors (VHTRs),
122,133-134
Volcanic emissions, 26
Warming phases, repetitive, 12
Water, electrolysis of, 48-49
Water gas, 47, 179
Water-gas shift reaction, 213
Water-splitting, 45^6, 47^*8
reforming using, 54
Water splitting systems,
photoelectrochemical, 64
Water vapor
atmospheric, 14
as a global warming forcing agent, 15-20,
27-28
ocean heating from, 27-28
Water vapor levels, increasing, 16
Well-to-wheels analyses, of petroleum
fuel use, 295
Well-to-wheels energy efficiencies, 277t,
288
realistic, 296t
Wind energy power generation, 52-53, 312
World nuclear energy capacity, 148
Worldwide hydrogen industry, 291
Yankee Rowe nuclear power plant,
decommissioning of, 139
Yttria-stabilized zirconia electrolytes, 271
Yucca Mountain project, 135-136, 140
Zeolites, hydrogen storage capacity of, 99
Zero Boil Off (ZBO) technology, 82
Zero Emissions Coal Alliance Corporation
(ZECA), 183
CO2 acceptor technology of, 184
Zero-emissions coal technologies, 185
Ziegler-Natta hydrogenation catalysts, 92
|
| adam_txt |
CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgment xvii
Introduction: Rising Energy Costs xix
PART I A TRILOGY OF POPULAR MISCONCEPTIONS 1
1 Global Wanning 3
Conventional Wisdom, 4
CO2 and the Carbon Cycle, 7
The Greenhouse Effect, 10
Recent Climate Changes, 11
Carbon Dioxide, 13
Other Global Wanning "Forcing Agents", 15
Water Vapor, 15
Methane, 20
Nitrous Oxide, 21
Ozone, 22
Sulfur, 24
Other Pollutants, 24
Carbon-Based and Other Particulates, 26
Solar Influences—Insolation and Irradiance, 26
Global Net Primary Productivity (NPP), 30
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 32
vi CONTENTS
IPCC Report Conclusions, 34
Footnote on the IPCC, 35
Dealing with Global Warming, 36
Can Anything Be Done?, 37
The Kyoto Protocol, 38
2 The Hydrogen Economy (Aka, the Impossible Dream) 41
The Promise of Hydrogen, 42
The Scale of the Task—Why Replace Gasoline?, 42
Replacing Fuels Other than Gasoline, 43
Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel, 44
Hydrogen Production Methods, 44
Water-Splitting Processes—Overview, 47
Hydrogen from Electrolysis, 48
Electrolytic Hydrogen Production, 49
Oxygen By-products, 49
Energy Consumption and Electrolyzer Efficiency, 50
Electrolysis: Emissions, 53
Electrolysis: Economics, 53
Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons, 54
Thermal and Catalytic Reforming from Natural Gas, 54
Catalytic Thermochemical Reforming, 55
Scaling Issues—Up and Down, 56
Combustion CO2 from Reforming, 57
Hydrogen Production Costs, 59
Natural Gas Reserves and Hydrogen, 61
Natural Gas and Hydrogen Manufacture, 62
Other Hydrogen Production Methods, 62
Photoelectrolysis, 63
Biomass Conversion to Hydrogen, 64
Hydrogen Production—Summary, 65
Safety Considerations, 66
Transporting and Distributing Hydrogen, 67
Compressing Hydrogen, 68
Liquid Hydrogen, 69
Pipelining Hydrogen, 70
Pipeline Leakage Losses, 73
Road Tanker Transportation of Hydrogen, 73
Hydrogen Leakage Losses, 74
Transportation and Distribution Alternatives, 75
Distributed Manufacturing of Hydrogen, 75
By Electrolysis. 75
By Reforming, 76
Hydrogen Reformer Reliability, 76
Hydrogen Reformer Safety, 76
CONTENTS vii
Onboard Manufacture of Hydrogen, 77
Hydrogen Storage, 77
Hydrogen Storage Approaches, 78
Compressed Hydrogen Gas: Containment Technologies
for 5000-10,000 psig, 78
Liquid Hydrogen: Cryogenic Containment, 80
Storage in Metals and Metal Hydrides, 84
Background on Metal Hydrides, 86
Complex Hydrides, 89
Catalyzed Hydrogen Adsorption and/or Desorption, 91
Feasibility of Metal Hydrides as Storage Media, 92
Hydrogen Adsorption/Desorption: "Chemical Hydrides", 92
Hydride Slurries for Hydrogen Storage and Transportation, 93
Possible Nonmetal Hydrides/Hydrogen Carriers, 95
Hydrocarbons via Partial Dehydrogenation, 96
Carbon-Based Adsorption Systems, 97
Graphite, 97
Graphitic Nanotubes, 98
Zeolites, 99
Novel Hydrogen Storage Methods, 99
Hydrogen Carriers, 101
Ammonia, 101
Methanol, 103
Hydrogen Storage and DOE Criteria, 103
Storage Implications for Light-Duty Vehicles, 104
Hydrogen Storage with No Gravimetric or Volumetric
Capacity Constraints, 112
Hydrogen Storage Assessment, 112
Hydrogen Safety, 114
Some Additional Safety Issues, 115
Summary of Hydrogen Issues, 116
3 Nuclear Energy and the Plutonium Economy 117
The Influence of Nuclear Energy, 117
Evolution of Reactor Designs, 122
Generation IV Reactors, 123
Fuel Recycling and Mixed Oxide Fuel, 125
Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) Use in Light-Water Reactors, 125
Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) Production and Processing, 126
Fast-Breeder Reactors, 127
Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR), 128
Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR), 128
Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR), 129
Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR), 131
Very High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR), 133
viii CONTENTS
Radioactive Waste Disposal, 134
Nuclear Facility Decommissioning, 137
Decommissioning Examples, 139
Transmutation of Nuclear Wastes, 140
Uranium Supply Concerns, 142
Supply Projections, 146
Uranium from Seawater, 150
Uncertainty about Safe and Sustainable Reactor Technology, 151
The Problem in Ontario, Canada, 152
Fusion Power, 153
The Future is Dimming on Nuclear Power, 153
PART II ENERGY OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE 155
4 Conventional Oil and Oil Reserves 157
Oil Reserves, 158
Conventional Natural Gas, 164
"Unconventional" Oil, 167
"Unconventional" Gas, 168
Coal-Bed Methane (CBM), 169
"Tight" Gas, 170
Stranded or Orphaned Gas, 170
A Short (Age) Summary, 171
Who Really Sets Oil Prices?, 171
Future Supply, Demand, and Pricing, 172
Oil, 172
Natural Gas and Synthetics, 175
5 Coal and Bituminous Reserves 178
Coal, 179
The Lurgi Process (Coal to Syngas or High BTU Fuel Gas), 182
The Hygas Process (Coal to SNG), 183
The Bi-Gas Process (Coal to SNG), 183
The CO2 Acceptor Process, 183
Other Coal Processes, 186
Underground Processing of Coal, 186
Other Important Alternative Energy Sources, 187
Municipal Waste, 188
6 Biomass and Ethanol 189
Current Availability, 189
Biomass Conversion Technologies, 191
Prepreparation, 191
CONTENTS ij
Conversion, 191
Enzymatic Saccharification of Cellulose, 192
Steam Explosion, 192
Saccharification and Fermentation, 192
Conversion Products and By-Products, 193
Sugars, 193
Value-Added Products (e.g., Ethanol, Polymers), 193
By-Products, 193
Animal Feed, 193
Lignin and Lignin Derivatives, 194
Cellulose Derivatives, 194
Other Raw Materials for Biomass, 194
Large-Scale, High-Value End Products from Non-Corn
Biomass Conversion, 195
Chemicals from Corn, 195
Available Technologies for Chemicals Production
from Biomass, 196
Acid Hydrolysis of Biomass Cellulose, 196
Countercurrent Hydrolysis, 197
Enzymatic Hydrolysis, 197
Commercialization, 198
Cost Implications of Biomass Use, 198
Net Energy Balances, 199
Manufacturing Efficiency, 200
The Thermodynamics of Growing Corn, 201
The Thermodynamics of Processing Corn into Ethanol, 202
Ethanol Production Efficiencies, 206
Corn Production in the United States, 207
Federal Subsidies for Ethanol, 208
Longer Term Ethanol Prospects, 208
Final Ethanol Observations, 209
7 Methanol 211
Possible Fossil Sources of Syngas, 214
Methanol as an Energy Carrier, 215
Methanol Manufacturing and Applications, 216
8 Diesel and Biodiesel 219
"Clean Diesel" Fuel and Diesel Fuel Substitutes, 219
The Diesel Market: The Future of Diesel Engines and Diesel Fuels, 219
Diesel Engine Emissions, 222
Biodiesel, 223
What is Biodiesel?, 224
Advantages of Biodiesel, 227
x CONTENTS
Disadvantages of Biodiesel, 233
Oxidative and Hydrolytic Stability, 234
Use in Diesel Hybrids, 236
Alternatives to Vegetable Oil-Based Biodiesel for Diesel Substitution, 236
Other Alcohols in Petroleum Diesel, 236
Other Oxygenated Additives in Petroleum Diesel, 237
Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) or Biomass-to-Liquid (BTL) Products as
Diesel Substitutes, 238
Diesel Fuels and Fuel Substitutes—Summary and Discussion, 241
Diesel Fuel Conclusions, 243
9 Solar Energy and Photovoltaics 245
Solar Radiation, 245
Scattered, Beam, and Albedo Radiation, 246
Solar Insolation, 247
Direct Solar Energy, 248
Passive and Active Solar Heating, 248
Solar Photovoltaic Systems, 250
General Operation of PV Cells, 251
PV Types, 253
Amorphous Silicon, 253
Single-Crystalline Silicon, 254
Polycrystalline Silicon, 255
Polycrystalline Thin Films, 255
Polycrystalline Thin-Film Materials, 255
Multijunction PV Cells, 257
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, 257
Organic Solar Cells (OSC), 258
Grid-Connected Solar Energy, 259
PV Solar Energy Prices, 259
PV Manufacturing Giants, 260
Future Outlook, 261
10 Fuel Cells for Stationary and Mobile Use 263
Fuel Cell Principles, 264
Types of Fuel Cell, 264
The Importance of FC Operating Temperatures, 265
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane/Proton Exchange Membrane
Fuel Cell (PEMFC), 266
Regenerative PEM Cells, 269
The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell, 269
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs), 271
Hybrid Power Systems Incorporating SOFCs, 272
Other Important Fuel Cells, 273
CONTENTS xi
The Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC), 273
The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC), 273
The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), 273
Fuels for Fuel Cells, 274
Hydrogen—A Bad Choice for Fuel Cells, 274
Real-World Fuel Cell Efficiencies, 276
User Expectations, 278
Onboard Fuel Storage Requirements, 279
Realistic DOE Objectives, 280
Current Status, 281
Appendix 1 FAQ on Energy and Hydrogen 285
Introduction, 285
Questions on Basic Facts, 285
Appendix 2 Terms and Definitions 325
Selected Terms and Conditions Courtsy H.S.D.Q.E., 325
Index 373
INDEX
Page references followed by t indicate material in tables.
Absorption, in monoethanolamine. 57
Acid hydrolysis, of biomass cellulose,
196-197
Active solar heating. 248-250
Active solar systems, large, 249-250
Adiabatic compression. 68
Adsorbents, efficacy of, 106
Adsorption substrates, microporous. 99
Adsorption systems, carbon-based, 97-99
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (ACR). 128
Agribusiness economy, biodiesel and, 242
Agricultural residues
for biomass ethanol production. 190
cost of. 190
Agricultural waste, for ethanol conversion,
190
Alanates, as hydrogen carriers. 89
Albedo radiation, 246
Alcohols, in petroleum diesel, 236-237
"Ai Gore camp." 3. See also Gore, Al
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, 96
Alkali metal hvdroxides, 95
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC). 273
Alkaline hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell,
264. 265
Alkyl monoester biofuels, 235t
Alternate-technology vehicles. 311
Alternative energies, justifications for. xvii
Alternative energy sources. 187-188
rational. 164
Alternative fuels, 40
from coal, 178
hydrogen as. 44
technology of, xv
Alternative hydrocarbons, xxiii
Aluminum pressure vessels. 80
AM 1.5D radiation, 246
Ammonia. See also Anhydrous ammonia
as a hydrogen carrier. 101-102
toxicity of, 102, 106
Ammonia borane, 95
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) technology.
253-254
Anaerobic fermentation procedures. 188
Energizing Our Future: Rational Choices for the 21st Century, by John R. Wilson
and Griffin Burgh
Copyright 2008 John Wiley Sons. Inc.
373
374
INDEX
Anhydrous ammonia. 274. See also
Ammonia
for hydrogen storage, 102
Animal feed, as biomass conversion
by-products. 193-194
An Inconvenient Truth, 4
Antarctic temperature, climate forcings
contributing to. 4
Anthropogenic activity, CO2 generated by, 12
Anthropogenic carbon dioxide, 30
Anthropogenic contribution, effect on global
warming, 12. 13
Arrhenius, Svante. 8
ASTM D-6751 Biodiesel Specification/
Standard. 23It
Atmospheric carbon dioxide, man-made
contributions to. 14
Atmospheric water vapor, influence on
global warming, 15-20
Automobile emissions, 26
regulating, 223
Automobile fuel cell efficiencies, 266-269
Automobiles, user expectations for,
278-279
Autothermal reforming, 56, 213
Average global temperature, 29
Bacteria, photosynthetic, 64
Battery-electric vehicles, 320-321
Battery-powered electric vehicles, 287-289
Battery technology, 321
Beam radiation, 246
Beryllium compounds, toxicity of, 94-95
Bi-Gas process, 183
"Big industry" carbon dioxide producers,
13
"Big oil." 65
Biodiesel. 203, 223-236. See also Biodiesel
fuels
advantages of, 227-233
Clean Air Act and, 232
COj control obtained from, 242
cost of. 242
defined, 224-227
demand for, 233t
disadvantages of, 233-234
foreign oil dependency and, 232
positive impacts of. 243-244
production capacity of, 217
soybean conversion to, 207
sulfur content of. 229
use in diesel hybrids, 236
Biodiesel fuels. See also Biodiesel
average emissions impact of, 23It
European DIN 51606 Standard for,
227-229, 230t
methanol in the production of, 217
properties summary for, 228t
Biodiesel process, commercial development
of, 232
Biodiesel products
antioxidants in, 235
variation in, 233
Biodiesel Standard DIN V 51606, 227-229,
230
Biofuels, oxidative stability of, 234-235
Biomass
alternative raw materials for, 194-198
availability of, 189-191
chemicals production from, 196
cost implications of using, 198-199
Biomass Canada, 195
Biomass cellulose, acid hydrolysis of,
196-197
Biomass conversion, 63, 64-65
non-corn, 195
Biomass conversion processes,
commercialization of, 198
Biomass conversion products/by-products,
193-194
Biomass conversion technologies, 191-193
Biomass International, 195
Biomass pyrolysis, 6, 55
Biomass-to-liquid (BTL) fuels, 223
Biomass-to-liquid products, as diesel
substitutes, 238-241
Biomass waste, 188
Bio-oils, 65
Biosphere, as part of the carbon cycle, 31, 32
Bituminous reserves, 180
Boiling-water reactors, 151
BP Solar, 260-261. See also British
Petroleum (BP)
"Breakthrough" technologies, 65
British Petroleum (BP), 159. See also BP
Solar
BTU value, of biodiesel, 234
Buckyballs, as hydrogen storage media, 98
Bulk storage, off-vehicle, 107-111
Buoy uranium recovery method, 151
INDEX
375
Bush Administration hydrogen program,
324
By-product oxygen, 311
Cadmium telluride (CdTe), 256
Calcium hydride, 94
California Air Resources Board (CARB),
NOT emissions target, 223
Canada. See also Biomass Canada; Ontario
Power Generation; Shell Canada SCGP
plant
energy future of, 176
proven natural gas reserves in, 167
Canadian crude oil, 172
Canadian Oil Sands, 167, 171
development of, 160
Canadian oil sources, xxiv
CANDU reactors, 152
Canola oil, analysis of, 225t
Capacity constraints, hydrogen storage
without, 112
Carbohydrate conversion, 196
Carbon, removing from coal, 179. See also
Coal entries
Carbonate mineral deposition, 9
Carbonate-silicate cycle, 9
Carbon-based adsorbents, 106
Carbon-based adsorption systems, 97-99
Carbon-based particulates, as global
warming forcing agents, 26
Carbon-based sorbents, 98-99
Carbon cycle, CO2 and, 7-10
Carbon dioxide, 13-14. See also CO2 entries
plant growth and, 13
Carbon dioxide contribution, exaggeration
of, 19
Carbon dioxide emissions, 42
control of, 30
Carbon dioxide model of global wanning, 36
Carbon dioxide sinks, 14
Carbon emissions, largest producers of, 39
Carbon fullerenes, as hydrogen storage
media, 98
Carbon transfers, exchange methods
accounting for, 8-10
Car technology, short-term change in, 322
Catalytic steam methane reforming (SMR)
process, 55
Catalytic thermochemical reforming,
55-56
Catalyzed hydrogen adsorption/desorption,
91-92
Cell reactions, maximum equilibrium
efficiencies for, 51
Cellulases, 197
genetic engineering of, 193
Cellulose, enzymatic saccharification of, 192
Cellulose conversion technologies, 196
Cellulose derivatives, as biomass conversion
by-products, 194
Cellulosic biomass, 189
acid hydrolysis of, 196-197
in fuel ethanol production, 191
Cellulosic conversion methods, 191-193
Cellulosic municipal waste, conversion into
ethanol, 194-195
Centralized hydrogen production model,
309-310
Centralized-production hydrogen economy,
297
Cetane numbers, 227
"Chemical hydrides," 92-93, 95
Chemical industry, use of methanol in, 216
Chemical processes, manufacturing
efficiency of, 200-201
Chemicals, from corn, 195
Chemicals production technologies, 196
Chemosynthesis, 31
Chernobyl disaster, 118
China, oil demand from, ]74
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), in the ozone
depletion process, 22
Clathrates, 168
hydrogen capacity of, 106-107
Clean Air Act of 1990, 214
"Clean coal" gasification technology,
176
Clean coal-to-gas technologies, 185-186
"Clean diesel" engines, performance data
for, 220t
"Clean diesel" fuel, 219-222
Clean diesel technology, 243
"Clean energy" technologies, 38
Climate change, 5
carbon sequestration and, 315
recent, 11-12
Climate models, IPCC, 33-34
"Closed loop" fast breeder reactor designs,
128
Club Rome, xviii
376
INDEX
CO2. See also Carbon dioxide entries
carbon cycle and, 7-10
combustion energies per ton of, 57t
as a consequence of global
warming, 20
conversion into carbonic acid, 9-10
diffusion into water, 8-9
recent geologic history of, 6-7
uses for, 58
CO2 Acceptor process, 183-186
CO2 atmospheric emissions, 291
comparison of, 63
CO2 concentration, seasonal cycles in, 10
CO2 exchange system, 8
CO2 levels
increase in, 4
short-term variability of, 34
CO2 production, reduction in, 37
Coal. See also Carbon entries
clean processing methods for, 182-186
hydrogen from, 61
underground processing of, 186-187
Coal-based methanol, 283
Coal-bed methane (CBM), 165, 169-171
Coal coke, 178-179
Coal fired power-generating facilities, 314
Coal gas, 178
Coal gasification, 184
Coal processes, alternative, 186
Coal reserves, 178-188
U.S., 179, 180
worldwide, 181—182t
Cold filter plugging point (CFPP), 234
Combined heat and power (CHP)
applications, solid oxide fuel cells
in, 272
Combustion CO2, from reforming, 57-59
Combustion emissions, 13
Commonwealth of Independent States,
natural uranium from, 148. See also
Russian Federation
Complex hydrides, 85, 86, 89-91
Composite pressure vessels, 80
Compressed gases
data on, 7It
difficulties in storing, 79
Compressed hydrogen gas, storing and
transporting, 78-80
Condensed gases, data on, 7It
Consumer electronic devices, photovoltaics
in, 250
Conventional natural gas, 164-171
recovery of, 166
Conventional oil production, 158
Conventional oil reserves, depletion of, 162
Copper indium diselenide (CIS), 256
Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS),
256
Corn
chemicals from, 195
combustion enthalpy of, 202
thermodynamics of growing, 201-207
Corn ethanol, net energy balance of, 191
Corn production, in the United States, 207-
208
Corrective actions, impact on global
warming, 14
Costs, electrolysis-related, 53-54
Countercurrent hydrolysis, 197
Covalent hydrides, 85
Cropland, utilization of, 207
Cryogenic containment, 81
Cryogenic propellants, 82
Crystalline molecular compounds, for
hydrogen storage, 100
Cycloalkanes, reversible dehydrogenation
of, 96
"Dangling bonds," 254
Decision-making process, assumptions
underlying, 1
DECON nuclear facility decommissioning
method, 138
Dedicated energy crops, 190-191
Deep sea gas production, 165
Dehydrogenation. See also Partial
dehydrogenation
"Demand adjusted" consumption slope,
164
Department of Energy (DOE). See also
DOE entries
fuel storage system performance targets,
105, 107, 112-113, 114
hydrogen storage program, 80
"Destructive distillation," 46
DeWeese, Tom, 39
Diesel automobiles, nonturbocharged,
221-222
INDEX
377
Diesel-engine hybrids, 295
Diesel engines
emissions from, 222-223
future of, 219-221
in freight-carrying trucks, 222
in the United States, 221
Diesel fuels
advantages of. 243
"clean,'" 219
future of, 221
substitutes for, 219-222
Diesel hybrid vehicles, biodiesel in, 236
Diesel market, 219
Diesel-powered vehicles, high efficiency,
311
Diesel substitutes, gas-to-liquid or biomass-
to-liquid products as, 238-241
Diffuse solar gain, 246
Direct conversion hydrogen generation, 64
Direct-injection gasoline engines. 323
Direct-methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), 212.
216, 269-271
applications of, 270
Direct solar energy. 248-250
Direct solar installations, subsidies for. 250
Discovered oil reserves. 158
Discretionary uranium inventory, 147
Distributed hydrogen manufacturing
¦"network."" 308
Distributed hydrogen production, 292
Distributed manufacturing, 75-76, 297
"Distributed reformer" model, 311
Distributed reforming, 77
Distribution, of hydrogen, 67-75
Distribution alternatives, for hydrogen, 75-77
Distribution infrastructure issues, hydrogen-
related. 289-290
DOE criteria, hydrogen storage and, 103—
104. See also Department of Energy
(DOE)
DOE objectives, for LDV transportation,
28Ot
DOE targets, current status of, 281-284
Domestic gas supplies, developing, 176
Domestic oil producers, 172
Drake oil well, 157
Dupont Nation membrane, 266
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC), 257-258
preparing, 258
Earth, gradual warming of, 4
Earth cycles, variability of, 3
Earth's climate, longer history of, 6-7
"Easy" oil, 172
E-diesel, unofficial standard for, 237t
Education, importance of, xvi
"Effective compression,"" 84
Efficiency, in energy conversion, 2
"Efficiency chain," 275-276
Electrical supply, dependence on nuclear
energy, 117-118
Electricity generation, nuclear share in. 120
Electric vehicles, battery-powered. 287-289
Electrolysis
distributed manufacturing of hydrogen
by, 75
economics of, 53-54
efficiency of, 52
emissions from. 53
energy consumption and electrolyzer
efficiency in, 50-53
in hydrogen production, '14 15, 48-54
Electrolytic hydrogen, cost of, 59-60
Electrolytic hydrogen generator. 307-308
Electrolytic oxygen, 49-50
Electrolyzers
capital costs of, 53
efficiency of. 50
Electron hole migration. 252
Emissions
diesel engine. 222-223
effect of biodiesel on. 231
electrolysis, 53
GTL and BTL fuels and, 242-243
paniculate, 222-223
sulfur, 24, 25
Endothermic hydrogen reaction. 88
Energy, frequently asked questions
concerning. 285-324
Energy choices, rational. 3
Energy consumption, xv
profligate, 38
Energy conversion, 62-63
Energy costs, rising, xvii-xxiv
Energy crops, 190
dedicated, 190-191
"Energy economics," hydrogen, 72
Energy efficiency policies, 175
Energy footprint, sustainable, xvi
378
INDEX
Energy industry
hydrogen acceptance by, 316-317
role of, xv-xvi
Energy Information Administration (EIA),
159
Energy "opportunity costs," 202, 203
Energy options, rational assessment of, 1
Energy policy, xiii
approaches to, 36
Energy requirements, for hydrogen
compression, 68—69
Energy reserves, xix-xxi
Energy sources, xiv
alternative, 187-188
depletion of, xviii
Energy supply disruption, xiv
Energy supply problems, in Ontario,
Canada, 152
Energy sustainability, transformation to, xiv
Energy technology
complexity of, xvii-xviii
irrational approach to, 1
Enthalpy. 50, 51t
ENTOMB nuclear facility decommissioning
technique, 139
Environmental impact, of the Shell Coal
Gasification Process, 185
Environmental status
extreme views regarding, xiii
truth about, xvii
Enzymatic hydrolysis, 197
Enzymatic saccharification. of cellulose, 192
Enzymatic saccharification/fermentation,
192-193
Enzyme hydrolysis technology, 192
Estimated Additional Resources I
(EAR-I), 146
Estimated Additional Resources II
(EAR-II), 146
Estimated Ultimately Recoverable (EUR)
global oil reserves, 174
Ethanol, 283-284
annual com crop for producing, 208
comparison with other fuels, 209-210
as a diesel fuel component, 236
federal subsidies for, 208
future prospects for, 208-209
manufacture of, 209
net energy balance for, 200
net energy use in producing, 204-205t
pathways for producing from biomass, 203
production costs of, 199
production efficiencies of, 206-207, 210
production efficiency calculation for, 201
production of, 196
as a replacement for gasoline, 206-207
thermodynamics of processing corn into,
202-207
Ethanol conversion, 190
Ethanol market, growth in, 198-199
Ethylene glycol alkyl ethers, 238
Europe, biodiesel use in, 224
European clean diesel technology, 243
European diesel fuel, 221, 222
Evacuated tube thermal collectors, 248-249
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), 223, 241
Exothermic hydrogen reaction, 88
Extreme environmental remedies,
justifications for, xvii
Factual decision making, framework for, 1-2
Factual truth, widespread disregard for, xiii
FAME fuels, tallow-based, 234. See also
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs)
Farmland, utilization of, 207
Fast-breeder reactors (FBRs), 127-131, 154
Fast reactors
gas-cooled, 128, 129
lead-cooled, 128-129, 130
sodium-cooled, 129-131
Fatty acid methyl ester fuel components,
property data for, 225t
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), 226t,
227, 231. See also FAME fuels
Fatty acids, chemical structure and
properties of, 226t
Federal subsidies, for ethanol, 208
Fertilizer, net energy balance for, 200
Filament-wound storage vessels, 79
Fischer-Tropsch technology, 239
Fission transmutation process, 141
Flash point, of biodiesel products, 229-230
Flat plate thermal collectors, 248
Flow resistance, 72
Foreign energy supplies, U.S. dependence
on, 62
Forestry waste, 190
Formed thermal collectors, 248
INDEX
379
Fossil fuels, net energy balance for, 199-200
France
MOX reprocessing in, 126
nuclear power generation in, 120
Free energy, 50, 5It
"Fuel assembly," 134
Fuel cell autos, onboard reforming of
gasoline for, 306
Fuel cell efficiencies
in-vehicle, 295
real-world, 276-278
Fuel cells, 42
ammonia, 101-102
comparison of, 267-268t
direct-methanol, 216
early, 263
fuels for, 265, 274
hydrogen, 274-276
intrinsically available work from, 50
operating temperatures of, 265-266
place in power generation, 296
principles of, 264
for stationary and mobile use, 263-284
types of, 264-274
variety of fuels for, 264
Fuel cell technology, further advances in, 290
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), 321-322
efficiency of, 104
on-the-road efficiencies of, 277-278
operational, 298-304t
performance targets for, 279
Fuel cycle, in generation IV reactors,
123-124
Fuel gases
from coal, 178, 183-186
comparison of, 282t
Fuels
alternative, 40
combinations of, 283
comparison of, 282t
energy densities of, 217t
pipelined, 70t
Fuel storage requirements, onboard, 279—284
Fuel-tax increase, xxi
Fuel-to-electric power efficiencies, 266,
271-272, 274
Fuel transition, complexity of, xix
Fusion energy/power, 153, 313-314
Future, energy options for, xxiv
Gas
high pressure above-ground storage of,
111
orphaned, 170-171
"tight," 170
"unconventional," 168-169
Gas consumption, xxi-xxiii
Gas-cooled fast reactors (GFRs), 128, 129
Gas discoveries, xx
Gasholders, 111
Gas hydrates, hydrogen-containing,
106-107
Gasoline
benefits of, 105
from natural gas, 239
phase-out process for, 43
U.S. wholesale price of, 60
Gasoline-fueled vehicles, tank capacities
of, 103
Gasoline-hydrogen cars, 319-320
Gasoline-methanol blends, 214
Gasoline use, in the United States, 60,
207-208
Gas permeation barrier, 79
Gas reserves, xx-xxi
estimating, 158
Gas supplies, domestic, 176
Gas-to-liquid (GTL) products, 171
as diesel substitutes, 238-241
Generation I reactors, 122
Generation II reactors, 122
Generation III reactors, 123
Generation-IV International Forum (GIF),
123, 124,128
Generation IV reactors, 123-125
Georgetown U fuel cell program, 274
Global gas reserves, 164—165
Global net primary productivity (NPP),
30-32
Global oil reserves, 163
Global radiation, 246, 247
Global temperature, anthropogenic
contributions to, 4
Global warming (GW), xiv, 3-40
as a cause versus a result, 5
commonly held myths about, 30
controlling, 37-38
as a cyclic event, 17
dealing with, 36-37
380
INDEX
Global warming (continued)
methane release and, 168
as a normal, natural event, 36, 37-38
positive effects of, 38
primary causes of, 36
proposed remedies for, 30
protection from the effects of, 37
sources and mechanisms of, 11-12
opposing camps concerning, 3
Global warming forcing agents, 15-30
insolation and irradiance, 26-30
methane. 20-21
nitrous oxide. 21-22
ozone. 22—24
particulates, 26
pollutants. 24-25
sulfur. 24
water vapor. 15-20
Global warming gases, 36
Global warming models, disagreement on,
36
Global weather, modeling the complexity
of. 36
'"Gloom-and-doom-sayers," xvii
Glycerol by-product, from biodiesel, 232-233
Gore, Al. 4. See also "Al Gore camp"
Graphite, hydrogen adsorption by, 97-98
Graphitic nanotubes, hydrogen absorption
by. 98-99
Gravimetric energy density. 111-112
Greenhouse effect, 8, 10
Greenhouse gas emissions, hydrogen and,
42
Greenhouse gases, 10
absorption wavelengths of. 18t
heat trapping efficiency of, 19t
increases in, 4
non-CO2. 25
nuclear fuel production, 118
overlap of absorption bands of, 17t, 18
Grid-connected solar energy, 259
Gross Heating Value (GHV), 69
Hi adsorption, by metals, 86-87. See also
Hydrogen entries
Hansen. James, global warming predictions
by, 35
"Heat islands," 29. See also Therm- entries
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs)
hydrogen storage for, 107, 112
storage technologies for, 78
Heavy metals, filtering from water, 150
"Heterojunction" electric fields, 255
High BTU waste. 188
High efficiency diesel-powered vehicles,
311
Higher Heating Value (HHV), 69, 70, 71t
High level nuclear wastes, 134
storage locations for, 137
Highly enriched uranium (HEU), 143
from Russian nuclear weapons, 147
High pressure electrolysis cells, 52
High pressure hydrogen gas, 71,
105. 106
High temperature gas-cooled reactors
(HTGRs), 122,128
Hindenburg airship fire, 293
Hot potassium carbonate (HPC) process,
57-58
Hot water systems
active, 249
passive, 248
H-PEDOT polymer, 79
Hubbert curve, 158, 161-162
Hubbert oil peak, 175
Hybrid power systems, solid oxide fuel cells
in, 272
Hybrid vehicles, 319-320, 321-322
performance targets for, 279
Hydrane process, 184
Hydrate research and development (R D),
168, 169
Hydride-forming reaction, 89
Hydride powder, 90-91
Hydrides, maximum possible hydrogen
content of. 90t. See also Nonmetallic
"hydrides"
Hydride slurries, 93-95
Hydride systems, recharging, 91-92
Hydrocarbon fuels
replacing, xv
in solid oxide fuel cells, 272
Hydrocarbon reforming, 65
Hydrocarbon resources, xxii
Hydrocarbons
alternative, xxiii
hydrogen from, 54-61
via partial dehydrogenation, 96
INDEX
381
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), in the
ozone depletion process, 22-23
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 25
Hydrogen. See also H2 adsorption; Liquid
hydrogen
as an alternative fuel, 44
biomass conversion to, 64—65
for a car fleet, 310-311
centrally produced, 296-297
competition with gasoline, 308-309
as a competitive threat, 316
compressing, 68, 294
compressing for automotive storage
tanks, 307-308
current "PR" about, 323
dangers associated with, 292-293
density of, 67-68
distributed manufacturing of, 75-76
energy-equivalent amount of, 104
fossil-fuel energy and, 286
frequently asked questions concerning,
285-324
as a high-quality form of energy, 286
historic uses, of-44
from hydrocarbons, 54—61
inefficiency of, 293-296
issues related to, 116
lightness of, 286-287
low pressure storage for, 111
manufacture by electrolysis. 294
manufacture from an energy source, 276
National Research Council report on, 53
nuclear energy as a source of, 118
onboard manufacture of, 77
oxygen consumption and, 318
pipelining, 70-73
point-of-use production of, 76
promise of, 42
pumping power requirement for, 72-73
pure, 42, 309
road tanker transportation of, 73-74
safety considerations related to, 66-67,
105,114-116
sources of energy for conversion into, 312
storage in metals and metal hydrides, 84-
86
as a supplementary fuel, 305
theoretical energy recoverable from,
58-59
transportation and distribution
alternatives for, 75-77
transporting and distributing, 60,
67-75
as a universal fuel supply, 41
Hydrogen adsorption/desorption process,
88-89
catalyzed, 91-92
"chemical hydrides" in, 92-93
Hydrogen adsorption potential, 97-98
Hydrogenation reaction, 88, 254
Hydrogen carriers, 93, 101-103
Hydrogen combustion, CO2 emissions
from, 58
Hydrogen dissociation reaction, 87
Hydrogen distribution infrastructure, 67
Hydrogen economy, xiv, xviii, 41-116,
285, 288
adoption of renewable energy and, 314
climate and, 317
coal and nuclear power stations for.
313-314
National Research Council report on, 80
technical obstacles to, 289-290
Hydrogen explosions, 116, 293
Hydrogen-filling stations, 75
Hydrogen fires, 293
Hydrogen flame, 115-116
Hydrogen flow rate, 72
Hydrogen fuel cells, 274-276
"benchtop efficiency" of, 88
efficiency of, 276, 287
reducing the cost of, 305
Hydrogen-fueled vehicles. See also
Hydrogen vehicles
DOE criteria for, 103
storage system in, 104
ventilation of, 114
Hvdrogen Fuel Initiative, 41
Hydrogen industry, development from
scratch, 291-292
Hydrogen leakage, 71-72. 73, 79
losses from, 74-75
Hydrogen leak/flame detection, 115
Hydrogen manufacture. See also Hydrogen
production entries
costs of, 53-54
natural gas and. 62
water consumption and, 317
382
INDEX
Hydrogen manufacturing industry, safety
record of, 115
Hydrogen-metal (H-M) systems, evolution
of, 86
Hydrogen pipelines, 297-305
Hydrogen production. See also Hydrogen
manufacture; Hydrogen production
methods
carbon release from, 59
costs of, 59-61
distributed versus centralized, 311
efficiency losses associated with, 278
from natural gas, 61, 62
summary of, 65-66
uses for, 46-47
Hydrogen production methods, 44-54
alternative, 62-65
electrolysis, 44-45, 48-54
water splitting, 45-46, 47-48
Hydrogen reformers
reliability of, 76
safety of, 76-77
Hydrogen research, 316
Hydrogen storage, 77-91, 285-286. See also
Hydrogen storage methods; Hydrogen
transportation/storage
approaches to, 78-91
assessment of, 112-114
without capacity constraints, 112
in cars, 306-307
costs of, 113
DOE criteria and, 103-104
"nanoapproach" to, 100
"new materials" for, 114
Hydrogen storage media, effective, 106
Hydrogen storage methods, novel, 99-101
Hydrogen storage systems, heating and
cooling requirements of, 90
Hydrogen storage tanks, 80
Hydrogen transition, 322-323
crash program for, 323
Hydrogen transportation/storage, hydride
slurries for, 93-95
Hydrogen user industry, accidents in, 115
Hydrogen vehicles, major challenges related
to, 305. See also Hydrogen-fueled
vehicles
Hydrolysis
of cellulose, 192
countercurrent, 197
enzymatic, 197
Hygas process, 183
Hythane mixtures, 297-305
Impacts, permanent versus transient, 2
Imported energy, dependence on, 42-43
Inconvenient Truth, An, 4
India, oil demand from, 174
Industrial activities, carbon dioxide from, 14
"Inferred" oil reserves, 158
Inorganic cycle, carbon transfer via, 10
Insolation, as a global warming forcing
agent, 26-30. See also Solar insolation
Intergovernmental panel on climate change
(IPCC), 32-34. See also IPCC reports
Iogen bioethanol plant, 192
Ionic hydrides, 85
IPCC reports, 11-12, 32-34. See also
Intergovernmental panel on climate
change (IPCC)
conclusions of, 34—35
Irradiance, as a global warming forcing
agent, 26-30
Isothermal compression, 68, 69
ITER project, 153
Japan power-demonstration reactor,
decommissioning of, 140
Jet-A fuel, 283
JP-8 jet fuel, 283
"Junk facts," xiii
Junk science, xviii
Kellogg Transport Reactor, 186
"Knowledge gap," xviii
Kyocera Corporation, 260
Kyoto Protocol, xviii
alternative views on, 39
failures of, 38-39
revision of, 39
Kyoto Treaty, 3, 36, 72
claims made by proponents of, 7
ineffectiveness of, 37
Land-based gas production, 165
LDV applications, hydrogen storage for,
108-1 lOt. See also Light duty vehicles
(LDVs)
INDEX
383
LDV transportation
DOE objectives for, 280t
realistic objectives for, 28It
Lead-cooled fast reactors (LFRs), 128-129,
130
Lean-burn direct-injection (LBDI) gasoline
engine, 295
Less-developed countries, CO2 emissions in,
38-39
Light duty military vehicles, liquid
hydrogen storage for, 83-84
Light duty vehicles (LDVs). See also LDV
entries; Light duty military vehicles
hydrogen storage in, 78
storage implications for, 104-112
Light metal hydrides, 106
Light-water reactors (LWRs), 122, 123, 151
mixed oxide fuel in, 125-126
Lignin/lignin derivatives, as biomass
conversion by-products, 194
Limits to Growth, The (Club Rome), xviii
Linde cryogenic tank, 82
Liquefied hydrogen dormancy period, 82
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), xxii
comparison to methanol, 215-216
importation of, 62, 167
Liquid ammonia, storage of hydrogen as, 102
Liquid hydrocarbon fuel supply, 209
Liquid hydrogen, 69-70, 80-84,
105-106, 296
containers for, 81
manufacture of, 83
realistic standards for, 281
safe handling of, 82-83
shipping, 81
storage of, 83-84
as vehicle fuel, 307
Lithium batteries, 320
Lithium ion batteries, 288
Lithospheric carbon, 8
Little Ice Age, 27, 28
temperature changes around, 12
Localized data, extrapolating to a complex
system, 5
Long term energy needs, xiv
Lovins, Amory, 316, 321, 322
Low-carbon energy supply, 297
Low level wastes (LLW), 135
storage fees for, 140
Low level waste volumes, 136t
Low molecular weight hydrocarbons, 283
Lurgi process, 182-183
Magnesium alanates, 92
Magnesium hydride, 94
Magnesium hydroxide, 94
"Magnox" reactors, 128
Manufacturing efficiency, of a chemical
process, 200-201
Mass extinction, historical perspective on. 7
Maunder minima, 28
Maximum equilibrium efficiencies, for cell
reactions, 51
Medieval Wanning Period. 27, 28, 38
"MegaMethanol" technology, 213
Metal hydrides, 85
background on, 86-89
complex, 89-91
hydrogen release by, 88
hydrogen storage in, 84-86. 101
as storage media, 92
types of, 85-86
Metal hydride storage system, 104
Metallic hydride slurries, 94
Metallurgical coke, 179
Metals, hydrogen storage in, 84-86
Methane
coal-bed, 169-171
as a global warming forcing agent. 20-21
sources of, 21
syngas from, 213, 214
Methane hydrate deposits, gas production
from, 165
Methane hydrates, 168
exploiting, 169
Methane release rates, 21
Methanol, 211-218
applications of, 215, 216-218
emissions and, 218
as an energy carrier, 215-216, 217
as a fuel, 216-217
as a hydrogen carrier, 103
in internal combustion engines. 215
lifecycle cost of, 306
as a motor fuel, 214
production of, 212, 213
as a transportation fuel, 211
world market for, 215
384
INDEX
"Methanol crossover" problem, 270-271
Methanol fuel cell, 270
Methunol-gasoline blends, 214
Methanol manufacturing, 67, 216-218
overseas. 213
Methanol reformers. 56, 310
Methyl ester biodiesel fuels, property data
for, 226t
Methyl tallowate. 229
Methyl tertbutyl ether (MTBE), 214,
237. 306 '
Microballoons, for hydrogen storage, 100
Middle distillate liquid (MDL) products, 239
Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel. 125-126
production and processing of. 126-127
uranium-plutonium. 147-148
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), 273-274
Molten metal technologies, 128
Monoethanolamine (MEA). absorption in. 57
Monolithic cell. 258
Montreal Protocol, 23
Multijunction cell technology, 63
Multijunction PV cells, 257
Municipal solid waste (MSW), 190
Municipal waste
as an alternative energy source, 188
cellulosic, 194-195
"Nanoapproach." to hydrogen storage, 100
Nanostructured graphite, 97
Nanotube hydrogen absorption, 98-99
National Research Council reports, 53, 80
Natural gas, 175-177. See also
Conventional natural gas; Liquefied
natural gas (LNG); Orphaned natural
gas: Proven natural gas reserves;
Synthetic natural gas (SNG)
from coal beds, 170
conventional, 164-171
conversion into hydrogen, 294-295
as a hydrogen source, 61. 62, 312-313
hydrogen manufacture and, 62
running cars on, 66-67, 319
thermal and catalytic reforming from,
54-55
transportation of. 70
world reserves of, 61-62
Natural gas-fueled vehicles, 66-67, 319
Natural gas leakage losses, 75
Natural gas prices. 164
Natural gas reserves. 61-67
by country. 166t
depictions of, 165
depletion of, 315-316
Natural gas spot prices, 59
Natural gas supplies, xxii, 66
Natural oils, conversion into biodiesel, 227
n-doped semiconductor, 251, 254
Neat alcohol fuels, 214
Net energy balances, 191, 199-201
Net primary productivity (NPP), 30-32
satellite data on, 31-32
Niederaichbach reactor, decommissioning
of, 139
Nitrogen, anthropogenic additions of, 21
Nitrogen levels, in biodiesel, 229
Nitrogen oxide (NOt) emissions, 222,
223, 241
Nitrous oxide, as a global warming forcing
agent, 21-22
Non-CO? greenhouse gases, 25
Non-corn biomass conversion, large-scale,
high-value end products from, 195
Non-gasoline fuels, replacing, 43
Nonmetal hydrides/hydrogen carriers,
95-96
Nonmetallic "hydrides," 106
North America, hydrogen industry in, 290
North American conventional oil reserves,
depletion of, 162
Nuclear energy. See also Nuclear power
entries
influence of, 117-122
safety record of, 117
supplies of, xx
Nuclear facilities, maintenance and disposal
in. 137
Nuclear facility decommissioning, 137-140
examples of, 139-140
factors influencing, 138
techniques for, 138-139
Nuclear fuel, disposing of, 141
Nuclear power, xiv. See also Nuclear energy
future of, 153
renewed interest in, 118-119
Nuclear Power 2010, 123
Nuclear power industry, 154
Nuclear power plants, worldwide, 120-121
INDEX
385
Nuclear power stations, decommissioning
costs for, 140
Nuclear reactor designs, evolution of,
122-125
Nuclear reactors, 118
legislative acts related to, 123
production capacity factor for, 152
Nuclear waste(s)
disposal of, 134-142
safe repository for, 136
Nuclear waste transmutation, 140-142
beneficial impacts of, 141-142
Oceans
acidity of, 13
influence of CO2 on, 37
primary production in, 31
Off-board hydrogen storage, 107-111
Offshore methane hydrates, exploiting, 169
Oil
future supply, demand, and pricing for,
172-175
growing demand for, 171
"unconventional," 167-168
worldwide availability of, 175
Oil Gas Journal, 159
Oil commodity traders, impact on oil prices.
172
Oil consumption, xxi-xxiii
Oil discoveries, xx
Oilfields, early, 157-158
Oil prices
OPEC control over, 174
responsibility for setting, 171-172
rising, 162-163
worldwide volatility in, 164
Oil production
peaks in, xviii
U.S., xv
Oil recovery technologies, enhanced, 160
Oil reserves, xx-xxi, 158-164
estimating, 158, 159
forecast of, 163-164
recoverable, xxiii
untapped, 162
viable, 159
Oil sand reserves, 171. See also Canadian
Oil Sands
Oil sands bitumen, xxiii
Oil shortage, status of, 171
Oil traders, 164
Onboard compressed gas storage, 84
Onboard fuel storage requirements,
279-284
system, 104
Onboard hydrogen storage, 78
Onboard reforming, 77
Ontario Power Generation, difficulties
facing, 152
"Open-fuel cycle" reactors, 142
Organic solar cells (OSC). 258-259
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC)
control over oil prices. 172. 174
oil production by, 173t
Orinoco Belt bituminous crudes, 167-168
Orinoco Oil Belt, xxiii-xxiv. 175
development of, 160
Orphaned gas, 170-171, 176
Orphaned natural gas, 239
Oxygenated additives, 242
effect on emissions, 241
in petroleiun diesel, 237-238
Oxygenated diesel fuel substitutes, 23 8t
Oxygenated fuels, 243
Oxygen by-products, of electrolytic
hydrogen production, 49-50
Oxygen disposal, 75
Ozone, as a global warming forcing agent,
22-24
Ozone cycle, 23
Ozone depletion process, 22-23
"Ozone Hole," 24
Ozone layer, hydrogen harm to, 318
Ozone reports, polar region. 5
Palladium, 86
PAMPAS polymer, 79
Parallel-hybrid gasoline/electric drive train
technology, 277
Partial dehydrogenation, hydrocarbons via,
96
Partial oxidation/ceramic membrane
reactors, 56
Partial oxidation (POx) processes, 56-57.
See also POx (partial oxidation) gas
Particulates, as global warming forcing
agents, 26
386
INDEX
Passenger-carrying vehicles, hydrogen
storage for, 112
Passive solar heating. 248-250
p-doped semiconductor, 251-252, 254
Peak Oil Report (Hirsch), xviii
PEM cell power densities, 266. See also
Proton exchange membrane (PEM)
fuel cells
PEMFC fuel, 269. See also Polymer
electrolyte membrane/proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
PennWell Corporation, 159
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), 25
Personal transportation, user expectations
for. 278-279
Personal vehicles
DOE objectives for. 103
hydrogen for. 66-67
Petroconsultants, 159
Petroleum-derived energy sources,
pervasive use of, 4
Petroleum diesel fuel
alcohols in, 236-237
oxygenated additives in, 237-238
as a solution for fuel shortages, 241
Petroleum products, transport of, 73-74
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), 273
Photobiological technology, 64
Photoelectric effect, 251
Photoelectrochemical (PEC) light
harvesting systems, 63
Photoelectrolysis. 63
Photosynthesis, 31
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, 245. See also PV
entries
effkiences of, 254t
multijunction, 257
polycrystalline silicon. 255
Photovoltaic systems
international applications for, 250-251
solar, 250-251
Phytoplankton, 32
"p-I-n" structure, 254
Pipelines
infrastructure of, 70
leakage losses from, 73
Plant growth rate studies, 13
Plutonium-239, 124, 125
"Plutonium economy." 154
p/n junction, 252
Polar regions, ozone reports in, 5
Political agendas, in IPCC reports,
32-33
Pollutants, as global warming forcing
agents, 24-25
Polycrystalline silicon devices, 255
Polycrystalline thin films, 255
materials for, 255-257
Polymer electrolyte membrane/proton
exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC), 266-269
Polyoxyethers, 237
Possible oil reserves, xix, xx, 158
Power producers, difficulties facing, 152
POx (partial oxidation) gas, 55. See also
Partial oxidation (POx) processes
Prepreparation technologies, biomass
conversion, 191
Pressure-composition-temperature (PCT)
curves, 88
Pressure vessel, gravimetric energy density
of, 111-112
Pressurized-water reactors, 151
Primary producers, 31
Primary production, 30-31
Probable oil reserves, xix, xx, 158
Producer uranium inventory, 147
Product liability, in the transportation
industry, 289
Product streams, removing carbon dioxide
from, 57
Pronuclear argument, 121
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel
cells, 49, 86, 264. See also PEM cell
power densities
regenerative, 269
Proven coal reserves, 178
Proven natural gas reserves, 166
in Canada, 167
Proven oil reserves, xix, xx, 158
for oil-producing countries, 160t
Pure hydrogen, 42
cost of, 309
PV cells, operation of, 251-255. See also
Photovoltaic entries
PV manufacturers, major, 260-261
PV materials, breakthrough advances from,
253-255
INDEX
387
PV semiconductor, 251
PV solar energy prices, 259-260
Pyrolysis
biomass, 55, 65
coal, 179
R-22 refrigerants, 23
Radioactive waste disposal, 134-142
Radioactive waste materials, levels of, 134
RAR uranium reserves, 148. See also
Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR)
Reactor fuel, 124-125
recycling of, 125
Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV), disposal of,
139
Reactors, number by age, 138
Reactor technology, safe and sustainable,
151-152
Real-world fuel cell efficiencies, 276-278
Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR), 146.
See also RAR uranium reserves
Recoverable oil, estimates of, 174-175
Recycled hydroxide, hydride regeneration
from, 94
Red Book, 149
Reformer furnace fuels, 55
Reformers
maintenance of, 66
reliability of, 76
Reforming
autothermal, 56
combustion COj from, 57-59
distributed manufacturing of hydrogen
by, 76
hydrocarbon, 65
reactions, 48
thermal and catalytic, 54—55
thermochemical, 56-57
Remedial actions, current direction of,
36-37
Re-radiation trapping, 18
Reserves, xix-xxi
"Reserves growth," 159
Resources, "recoverability" of, xix
Reversible cell reaction, 50-51
Reynolds number, 72
Russian Federation, as a uranium market
supplier. 143, 144. See also
Commonwealth of Independent States
Saccharification/fermentation, enzymatic,
192-193. See also Simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation
(SSF)
Safety issues, hydrogen-related, 114-116
SAFSTOR nuclear facility
decommissioning strategy, 138-139
Sasol Slurry Phase Distillate Process, 186
Scalability, 2
Scattered radiation, 246
Scrubbing technology, for CO2
removal, 58
Seawater, uranium from, 150-151
Selexol Process, 58
Semibitumen oil, xxiii
Shale oil deposits, U.S., 167
Shale oils, xxiii
Sharp Corporation, 260
Shell Canada SCGP plant, 185
Shell Coal Gasification Process (SCGP), 185
Shell Solar, 261
Shippingport reactor, decommissioning
of, 139
Sieverts' Law, 88
Silicon-based solar cells, 250
Silicon PV cells, 251
Simple hydrides, 85, 86
Simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation (SSF), 192-193, 197
Single-crystalline silicon cells, 254—255
Small to medium sized reactors (SMRs),
119
Sodium alanate, 90, 91
Sodium borate, 94
Sodium borohydride, regeneration of, 93
Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs), 129-131
Solar cells
dye-sensitized, 257-258
organic, 258-259
Solar electric system, utility-tied. 259
Solar energy, 245-250
direct, 248-250
future outlook for, 261-262
grid-connected, 259
power generation via. 52-53
Solar farms, 261
Solar heating, passive and active, 248-250
Solar influences, as global warming forcing
agents, 26-30
388
INDEX
Solar insolation, 247. See also Insolation
Solar magnetic cycles, 27, 28
Solar photovoltaic market installations,
worldwide, 261
Solar photovoltaic power, 312
Solar photovoltaic systems. 250-251
Solar radiation, 245-250
standard measure of, 245
Solar thermal collectors, types of, 248
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), 271-272
advantages of, 272
hybrid power systems incorporating, 272
Source-to-use analysis, 275t
Source-to-use energy efficiencies, 277t
realistic, 296t
South African Sasol process, 186
Soybean esters, properties of, 229t
Soybean oil
analysis of, 225t
nitrogen, suifur, and phosphorus contents
of, 229
Space programs, hydrogen cooling/storing
techniques for, 81
Spent fuel, recycling of, 96
Staebler-Wronski effect, 254
Stationary fuel cells, 269
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
technology, 167
Steam explosion technology, 192
Steam-hydrocarbon reforming, 48
Steam-hydrocarbon reformer furnace,
54-55
Steam methane reforming (SMR) process,
55,213
modified, 55
Steam reforming process, 54
Storage media, metal hydrides as, 92
Storage technologies, most promising, 105
Stranded gas, 170-171, 176. See also
Orphaned entries
Subnanostructured metal grids, for hydrogen
storage. 100-101
Subsidies, for ethanol, 208
Sugars, as biomass conversion products,
193. See also Saccharifkation/
fermentation
Sulfur, as a global warming forcing agent,
24
Sulfur hexafluoride. 25
Sun
impact on earth temperature, 28
influences on climate change, 29
SunFuel (SunDiesel), 240
"Supercharged" metals, 87
Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR),
131-132
Superphenix reactor, decommissioning of,
140
Sustainability, xvi, 2
Sustainable mobility, 318-319
"Swing" fuel, 194
Synthane process, 184
Synthesis gas (syngas), 45, 46, 47, 56. See
also Synthetic natural gas (SNG)
biomass-based, 283
from coal, 182-183,215
conversion to methanol, 103, 212
fossil sources of, 214-215
from methane, 213, 214
Synthesized liquid fuels, value of, 240-241
Synthetic diesel fuels, 239
Synthetic fuels
from biomass, 242
coal as a source of, 179
Synthetic natural gas (SNG), 176. See also
Synthesis gas (syngas)
from coal, 183
Tallow-based methyl ester biodiesel,
233-234
"Thermal Depolymerization" process, 188
"Thermal mass" materials, 248
Thermal technologies, for biomass
conversion to hydrogen, 64—65
Thermochemical processes, improving, 56
Thermochemical reforming, 65
catalytic, 55-56
scaling issues related to, 56-57
Thermodynamic factuality, 1
Thermodynamic processes, efficiencies of,
51. See also "Heat islands"
Thin-film cells, 255
Third-world countries, clean energy
technology in, 40
Three Gorges Dam, 45
Three Mile Island, 118
"Tight gas," xxiii, 170, 176
Titanium hydride, 86
INDEX
389
"Town gas," 179
Transmutation, 141
Transport, of hydrogen, 67-75
Transportation, hydrogen storage for, 78
Transportation activities, carbon dioxide
from, 14
Transportation alternatives, for hydrogen,
75-77
Transportation costs, hydrogen, 74
Transportation fuel
biodiesel as, 224
price of, xxi
Transportation industry, hydrogen safety
in, 114
Transuranics (TRUs), removal of, 141
Transuranic waste materials, 134-135
Tree species, as raw materials for biomass,
194
Tropospheric ozone, 22
Turbocharged diesel engines, 220
Turbulent flow, 72
ULSD diesel fuel, 239-240. See also Ultra
low sulfur diesel (ULSD)
"Ultimately recoverable" oil, 174
Ultimately recoverable reserves, xix, xx
Ultra low sulfur diese! (ULSD), 221, 223.
See also ULSD diesel fuel
"Unconventional" gas, 168-169
"Unconventional" oil, xxiii, 167-168
world reserves of, 175
Underground coal gasification (UCG),
186-187
Underground hydrogen storage, 101
"Undiscovered recoverable" gas reserves,
166-167
United Nations Framework Classification
(UNFC) for Energy and Mineral
Resources, 158
United States. See also Department of
Energy (DOE); Federal subsidies;
National Research Council reports;
U.S. entries
availability of coal in, 180
biodiesel standards in, 229
corn production in, 207-208
demand for biodiesel in. 233t
dependence on natural gas, 309
exploration activities in, xxii
growing dependence on imported gas,
176
hydrocarbon resources in, xxiii
natural gas supply in, 166, 167
nuclear energy in, 121
oil and gas consumption in, xxi
oil prices in, 174
oil production by, xv
tight gas reserve data for, 170
transportation fuel use in, 43
wholesale gasoline prices in, 60
UP1 Reprocessing Plant, decommissioning
of, 140
Uranium
captive production of, 148
from the Commonwealth of Independent
States, 148
inventories of, 147
mined and processed, 148
prices of, 126
production and supply forecast for. 145
reprocessed. 147-148
from seawater, 150-151
sources of. 143
supply concerns related to, 142-151
supply projections for, 146-149
Uranium-235, 124
Uranium-238, 124
Uranium industry, supply issues in, 149
Uranium ore reserves, xx. See also Uranium
reserves
by grade, 147t
Uranium ore yield, estimating, 148-149
Uranium-plutonium mixed oxide fuel.
147-148
Uranium reserves, 143-146. See also
Uranium ore reserves
estimated quantities of, 146
types of, 145-146
US Energy Policy Act of 2005. 123
U.S. oil production peak, 161
U.S. road diesel fuel. 221
Utility-tied solar electric system. 259
Utility uranium inventory, 147
Value-added biomass conversion products,
193
van't Hoff equation, 89
Vanadium, 106
390
INDEX
Vanadium hydride, 86
Vegetable oil-based biodiesel, alternatives
to, 236
Vegetable oils
in biodiesel manufacture, 227
carbon chain distribution of, 234t
as fuels, 225
modified, 232
Vehicles. See also Alternate-technology
vehicles: Battery-electric vehicles;
Battery-powered electric vehicles;
Diesel hybrid vehicles; Diesel-powered
vehicles; Electric vehicles; Fuel cell
vehicles (FCVs); Gasoline-fueled
vehicles; Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs);
High efficiency diesel-powered
vehicles; Hybrid vehicles; Hydrogen-
fueled vehicles; Hydrogen vehicles;
Light duty military vehicles; Light duty
vehicles (LDVs); Natural gas-fueled
vehicles; Passenger-carrying vehicles;
Personal vehicles
fuel cell, 298-304t
natural gas-fueled, 66-67
user expectations for, 278-279
Velikhov, Yevgeny, 154
Venezuela, hydrocarbon reserves in, xxiii
Very high-temperature reactors (VHTRs),
' 122,133-134
Volcanic emissions, 26
Warming phases, repetitive, 12
Water, electrolysis of, 48-49
Water gas, 47, 179
Water-gas shift reaction, 213
Water-splitting, 45^6, 47^*8
reforming using, 54
Water splitting systems,
photoelectrochemical, 64
Water vapor
atmospheric, 14
as a global warming forcing agent, 15-20,
27-28
ocean heating from, 27-28
Water vapor levels, increasing, 16
"Well-to-wheels" analyses, of petroleum
fuel use, 295
"Well-to-wheels" energy efficiencies, 277t,
288
realistic, 296t
Wind energy power generation, 52-53, 312
World nuclear energy capacity, 148
Worldwide hydrogen industry, 291
Yankee Rowe nuclear power plant,
decommissioning of, 139
Yttria-stabilized zirconia electrolytes, 271
Yucca Mountain project, 135-136, 140
Zeolites, hydrogen storage capacity of, 99
Zero Boil Off (ZBO) technology, 82
Zero Emissions Coal Alliance Corporation
(ZECA), 183
CO2 acceptor technology of, 184
Zero-emissions coal technologies, 185
Ziegler-Natta hydrogenation catalysts, 92 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Wilson, John R. Burgh, Griffin |
| author_facet | Wilson, John R. Burgh, Griffin |
| author_role | aut aut |
| author_sort | Wilson, John R. |
| author_variant | j r w jr jrw g b gb |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV023304256 |
| callnumber-first | T - Technology |
| callnumber-label | TJ163 |
| callnumber-raw | TJ163.2 |
| callnumber-search | TJ163.2 |
| callnumber-sort | TJ 3163.2 |
| callnumber-subject | TJ - Mechanical Engineering and Machinery |
| classification_rvk | AR 26300 ZP 3000 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)140107958 (DE-599)BSZ277940761 |
| dewey-full | 333.79 |
| dewey-hundreds | 300 - Social sciences |
| dewey-ones | 333 - Economics of land and energy |
| dewey-raw | 333.79 |
| dewey-search | 333.79 |
| dewey-sort | 3333.79 |
| dewey-tens | 330 - Economics |
| discipline | Allgemeines Energietechnik Wirtschaftswissenschaften |
| discipline_str_mv | Allgemeines Energietechnik Wirtschaftswissenschaften |
| format | Book |
| fullrecord | <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><collection xmlns="http://www.loc.gov/MARC21/slim"><record><leader>01539nam a2200421 c 4500</leader><controlfield tag="001">BV023304256</controlfield><controlfield tag="003">DE-604</controlfield><controlfield tag="005">20100127 </controlfield><controlfield tag="007">t</controlfield><controlfield tag="008">080519s2008 ad|| |||| 00||| eng d</controlfield><datafield tag="010" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">2007023154</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9780471790532</subfield><subfield code="c">cloth</subfield><subfield code="9">978-0-471-79053-2</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="024" ind1="3" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9780471790532</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(OCoLC)140107958</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(DE-599)BSZ277940761</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="040" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-604</subfield><subfield code="b">ger</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="041" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">eng</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="049" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-1102</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-634</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-898</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="050" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">TJ163.2</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="082" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">333.79</subfield><subfield code="2">22</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">AR 26300</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)8599:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">ZP 3000</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)157937:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="100" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Wilson, John R.</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Energizing our future</subfield><subfield code="b">rational choices for the 21st century</subfield><subfield code="c">John R. Wilson ; Griffin Burgh</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Hoboken, NJ</subfield><subfield code="b">Wiley</subfield><subfield code="c">2008</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">XXVI, 390 S.</subfield><subfield code="b">Ill., graph. Darst.</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Power resources</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Prognose</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4047390-9</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Energievorrat</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4070814-7</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Energievorrat</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4070814-7</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Prognose</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4047390-9</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="5">DE-604</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Burgh, Griffin</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">HBZ Datenaustausch</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016488655&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltsverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="999" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016488655</subfield></datafield></record></collection> |
| id | DE-604.BV023304256 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T20:47:50Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:15:25Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780471790532 |
| language | English |
| lccn | 2007023154 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016488655 |
| oclc_num | 140107958 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-1102 DE-634 DE-898 DE-BY-UBR |
| owner_facet | DE-1102 DE-634 DE-898 DE-BY-UBR |
| physical | XXVI, 390 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2008 |
| publishDateSearch | 2008 |
| publishDateSort | 2008 |
| publisher | Wiley |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Wilson, John R. Verfasser aut Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century John R. Wilson ; Griffin Burgh Hoboken, NJ Wiley 2008 XXVI, 390 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Power resources Prognose (DE-588)4047390-9 gnd rswk-swf Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 gnd rswk-swf Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 s Prognose (DE-588)4047390-9 s DE-604 Burgh, Griffin Verfasser aut HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016488655&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Wilson, John R. Burgh, Griffin Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century Power resources Prognose (DE-588)4047390-9 gnd Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4047390-9 (DE-588)4070814-7 |
| title | Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century |
| title_auth | Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century |
| title_exact_search | Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century |
| title_full | Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century John R. Wilson ; Griffin Burgh |
| title_fullStr | Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century John R. Wilson ; Griffin Burgh |
| title_full_unstemmed | Energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century John R. Wilson ; Griffin Burgh |
| title_short | Energizing our future |
| title_sort | energizing our future rational choices for the 21st century |
| title_sub | rational choices for the 21st century |
| topic | Power resources Prognose (DE-588)4047390-9 gnd Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Power resources Prognose Energievorrat |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016488655&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT wilsonjohnr energizingourfuturerationalchoicesforthe21stcentury AT burghgriffin energizingourfuturerationalchoicesforthe21stcentury |