The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides:
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| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Boca Raton [u.a.]
Taylor & Francis
2008
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | Includes bibliographical references |
| Physical Description: | XI, 276 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9781420059755 |
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MARC
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| 100 | 1 | |a Yu, Simon J. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides |c Simon J. Yu |
| 264 | 1 | |a Boca Raton [u.a.] |b Taylor & Francis |c 2008 | |
| 300 | |a XI, 276 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Includes bibliographical references | ||
| 650 | 0 | |a Insecticides / Textbooks | |
| 650 | 0 | |a Insecticides / Toxicology / Textbooks | |
| 650 | 0 | |a Insecticides / Physiological effect / Textbooks | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Insecticides | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Insecticides - Effets physiologiques | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Insecticides - Toxicologie | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Insecticides |v Textbooks | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Insecticides |x Physiological effect |v Textbooks | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Insecticides |x Toxicology |v Textbooks | |
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| _version_ | 1804137479508328448 |
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| adam_text | Contents
Preface..........................................................................................................................................xiii
About the Author.........................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 The Need for Pesticides and Their Pattern of Use............................................1
1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................1
1.2 The Need for Pesticides...............................................................................................1
1.2.1 Food Production....................................................................................................1
1.2.2 World Health Status.............................................................................................2
1.3 Pattern of Use................................................................................................................4
1.4 Pesticide Economics......................................................................................................4
References...............................................................................................................................6
Chapter 2 The Formulation of Pesticides...............................................................................7
2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................7
2.2 Types of Formulation...................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Dusts.......................................................................................................................7
2.2.2 Wettable Powders (WPs)......................................................................................8
2.2.3 Emulsifiable Concentrates (ECs).........................................................................8
2.2.4 Suspendable Concentrates (SCs) or Flowables.................................................8
2.2.5 Water-Soluble Powders (SPs)...............................................................................9
2.2.6 Solutions.................................................................................................................9
2.2.7 Granules.................................................................................................................9
2.2.8 Water-Dispersible Granules (WGs)....................................................................9
2.2.9 Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV) Formulations..........................................................10
2.2.10 Aerosols..............................................................................................................10
2.2.11 Controlled Release (CR) Formulations...........................................................10
2.2.12 Baits.....................................................................................................................12
2.3 The Nonpesticidal Ingredients of Formulations....................................................12
2.3.1 Solvents.................................................................................................................12
2.3.2 Diluents................................................................................................................13
2.4 Surfactants...................................................................................................................13
2.5 Pesticide Application Equipment.............................................................................16
References.............................................................................................................................16
Chapter 3 Pesticide Laws and Regulations..........................................................................17
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................17
vi Contents
3.2 The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act....................................17
3.2.1 Registration of Pesticides...................................................................................17
3.2.2 Classification of Pesticides and Certification of Applicators........................18
3.2.3 Other Provisions of FIFRA................................................................................20
3.2.3.1 Experimental Use Permits.........................................................................20
3.2.3.2 Review and Suspension.............................................................................20
3.2.3.3 Registration of Establishments..................................................................20
3.2.3.4 Unlawful Acts..............................................................................................20
3.2.3.5 Penalties........................................................................................................20
3.2.3.6 Rights to Data..............................................................................................20
3.2.3.7 Special Review.............................................................................................20
3.2.4 Pesticide Categories............................................................................................21
3.3 The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act...........................................................21
3.3.1 Tolerance...............................................................................................................21
3.3.2 The Basis for Tolerance.......................................................................................21
3.4 The Food Quality Protection Act.............................................................................22
3.5 State Laws....................................................................................................................23
3.6 Enforcement................................................................................................................23
References.............................................................................................................................23
Chapter 4 The Classification of Insecticides.......................................................................25
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................25
4.2 Classification of Insecticides.....................................................................................25
4.2.1 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides...........................................................25
4.2.1.1 DDT Group...................................................................................................25
4.2.1.2 Chlorinated Cyclic Compounds................................................................27
4.2.2 Organophosphates..............................................................................................29
4.2.2.1 Phosphates...................................................................................................29
4.2.2.2 Phosphorothioates......................................................................................31
4.2.2.3 Phosphorodithioates...................................................................................34
4.2.2.4 Phosphorothiolates.....................................................................................36
4.2.2.5 Phosphorates...............................................................................................36
4.2.2.6 Phosphoramidates......................................................................................37
4.2.3 Carbamates..........................................................................................................38
4.2.4 Pyrethroids..........................................................................................................44
4.2.5 Botanical Insecticides.........................................................................................51
4.2.5.1 Nicotine.........................................................................................................51
4.2.5.2 Rotenone.......................................................................................................52
4.2.5.3 Azadirachtin................................................................................................52
4.2.5.4 Sabadilla.......................................................................................................52
4.2.5.5 Ryania...........................................................................................................53
4.2.6 Insect Growth Regulators..................................................................................53
4.2.6.1 Juvenoids (Juvenile Hormone Mimics)....................................................53
4.2.6.2 Benzoylphenylureas (acylureas)................................................................55
4.2.6.3 Diacylhydrazines........................................................................................58
4.2.6.4 Triazines.......................................................................................................59
4.2.6.5 Thiadiazines................................................................................................59
4.2.7 Neonicotinoids....................................................................................................60
Contents
vn
4.2.8 Formamidines.....................................................................................................62
4.2.9 Microbial Insecticides........................................................................................63
4.2.9.1 Bacillus thuringiensis.....................................................................................63
4.2.9.2 Abamectin....................................................................................................65
4.2.9.3 Spinosad.......................................................................................................67
4.2.10 Fumigants...........................................................................................................68
4.2.11 Inorganic Insecticides.......................................................................................69
4.2.12 Miscellaneous Insecticide Classes..................................................................69
4.2.12.1 Amidinohydrazones.................................................................................69
4.2.12.2 Phenylpyrazoles........................................................................................69
4.2.12.3 Pyrazoles....................................................................................................70
4.2.12.4 Pyrroles.......................................................................................................71
4.2.12.5 Oxadiazines...............................................................................................71
4.2.12.6 Sulfonamides.............................................................................................72
4.2.12.7 Pyridazinones............................................................................................72
4.2.12.8 Nereistoxin Analogs.................................................................................73
4.2.12.9 Pyridine Azomethines..............................................................................73
4.2.12.10 Pyrimidinamines.....................................................................................74
4.2.12.11 Trifluoromethylnicotinamides...............................................................75
4.2.12.12 Benzenedicarboxamides (Phthalic Acid Diamides)...........................75
4.2.12.13 Dichloropropenyl Ethers........................................................................76
4.2.12.14 Tetronic Acids...........................................................................................76
4.2.12.15 Tetramic Acids.........................................................................................76
4.2.12.16 Anthranilic Diamides.............................................................................77
4.2.12.17 Pesticidal Oils and Soaps........................................................................78
4.2.13 Acaricides...........................................................................................................78
4.2.13.1 Organosulfurs............................................................................................78
4.2.13.2 Inorganics...................................................................................................79
4.2.13.3 Organotins..................................................................................................79
4.2.13.4 Pyrazoles.....................................................................................................80
4.2.13.5 Quinazolines..............................................................................................80
4.2.13.6 Methoxyacrylates.......................................................................................81
4.2.13.7 Naphthoquinones......................................................................................81
4.2.13.8 Tetronic Acids............................................................................................82
4.2.13.9 Tetrazines....................................................................................................82
4.2.13.10 Oxazoles....................................................................................................83
4.2.13.11 Carbazates (Hydrazine Carboxylic Acid Derivatives)........................83
4.2.13.12 Benzoylacetonitriles................................................................................83
4.2.13.13 Trifluoromethanesulfonanilides............................................................84
4.2.13.14 Bridged Diphenyls...................................................................................84
References.............................................................................................................................84
Chapter 5 Evaluation of Toxicity...........................................................................................87
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................87
5.2 Testing Procedures.....................................................................................................87
5.3 Tests with Insects........................................................................................................88
5.3.1 Topical Application.............................................................................................88
5.3.2 Injection Method.................................................................................................89
viii Contents
5.3.3 Dipping Method..................................................................................................89
5.3.4 Contact Method (Residual Exposure Method)...............................................89
5.3.5 Fumigation Method............................................................................................89
5.3.6 Feeding Method..................................................................................................89
5.4 Tests with Higher Animals.......................................................................................91
5.4.1 Acute Toxicity Tests............................................................................................91
5.4.2 Subacute Toxicity and Chronic Toxicity Tests................................................91
5.5 Probit Analysis............................................................................................................91
5.6 Source of Variability in Dose-Response Tests.......................................................95
5.6.1 Age........................................................................................................................95
5.6.2 Sex.........................................................................................................................95
5.6.3 Rearing Temperature..........................................................................................96
5.6.4 Food Supply.........................................................................................................97
5.6.5 Population Density.............................................................................................97
5.6.6 Illumination.........................................................................................................97
5.7 The Use of Log Dosage-Probit (LDP) Lines............................................................97
References.............................................................................................................................99
Appendix 5.1: An example of probit analysis using the SAS system.........................100
Chapter 6 The Uptake of Insecticides................................................................................105
6.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................105
6.2 Penetration of Insecticides through the Insect Cuticle.......................................105
6.2.1 The Structure of Insect Cuticle.......................................................................105
6.2.2 Movement of Insecticides through the Cuticle............................................106
6.2.3 Site of Entry.......................................................................................................106
6.2.4 Factors Affecting Cuticular Penetration Rates.............................................108
6.2.4.1 Effect of Solvent.........................................................................................108
6.2.4.2 Polarity of Insecticides.............................................................................109
6.2.4.3 Cuticular Composition.............................................................................110
6.2.5 Metabolism of Insecticides in the Cuticle.....................................................110
6.3 Entry via the Mouth.................................................................................................110
6.4 Uptake via the Spiracles..........................................................................................Ill
References...........................................................................................................................112
Chapter 7 The Mode of Action of Insecticides.................................................................115
7.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................115
7.2 Insecticides Affecting Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels....................................115
7.2.1 Background........................................................................................................115
7.2.2 The Mode of Action of the DDT Group, Pyrethroids, Indoxacarb,
andSabadilla.....................................................................................................118
7.3 Insecticides Affecting Calcium Channels.............................................................121
Z4 Insecticides Inhibiting Acetylcholinesterase........................................................122
7.4.1 Background........................................................................................................122
74.2 The Mode of Action of Organophosphate and Carbamate Insecticides... 124
75 Insecticides Interfering with GABA-Gated Chloride Channels........................127
7.6 Insecticides that Bind to Nicotinic Acetykholine Receptor...............................129
7.7 Insecticides Affecting Octopamine Receptors.....................................................132
Contents ix
7.8 Insecticides Interfering with Respiration..............................................................132
7.8.1 Inhibitors of the Electron Transport System..................................................133
7.8.2 Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation.......................................................133
7.9 Insecticides Acting as Alimentary Toxins.............................................................134
7.10 Insecticides Affecting Chitin Biosynthesis or Cuticle Sclerotization..............135
711 Insecticides Acting as Juvenile Hormone Mimics..............................................136
7.12 Insecticides Acting as Ecdysone Agonists or Blocking Molting Hormone
Activity......................................................................................................................137
7.13 Insecticides Abrading or Disrupting Insect Cuticle...........................................137
7.14 The Mode of Action of Acaricides.........................................................................137
7.14.1 Acaricides Interfering with Respiration.......................................................138
7.14.2 Acaricides Interfering with Growth and Development.............................138
7.14.3 Acaricides Acting as Neurotoxins................................................................138
References...........................................................................................................................139
Chapter 8 Principles of Pesticide Metabolism..................................................................143
8.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................143
8.2 Phase I Reactions......................................................................................................144
8.2.1 Oxidation............................................................................................................144
8.2.2 Hydrolysis..........................................................................................................149
8.2.3 Reduction...........................................................................................................151
8.3 Phase II Reactions.....................................................................................................153
8.3.1 Glucose Conjugation.........................................................................................153
8.3.2 Glucuronic Acid Conjugation.........................................................................154
8.3.3 Sulfate Conjugation..........................................................................................154
8.3.4 Phosphate Conjugation....................................................................................154
8.3.5 Amino Acid Conjugation.................................................................................155
8.3.6 Glutathione Conjugation..................................................................................155
8.4 Metabolic Pathways of Selected Insecticides........................................................159
8.4.1 Carbamates........................................................................................................159
8.4.2 Organophosphates............................................................................................159
8.4.3 Pyrethroids........................................................................................................163
8.4.4 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons..............................................................................163
8.4.5 Benzoylphenylureas.........................................................................................163
8.4.6 Juvenoids............................................................................................................163
8.4.7 Neonicotinoids..................................................................................................166
References...........................................................................................................................168
Chapter 9 Species Differences and Other Phenomena Associated with the
Metabolism of Xenobiotics..............................~..............................................171
9.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................171
9.2 Species Differences in Detoxification Enzyme Activity.....................................171
9.2.1 Examples of Differences...................................................................................171
9.2.2 Evolution of Species Differences in Detoxification......................................177
9.3 Effect of Age and Sex on Enzyme Activity...........................................................178
9.4 The Specificity of Detoxification Enzymes...........................................................181
9.5 Selective Toxicity.......................................................................................................183
x Contents
9.6 Synergism and Antagonism....................................................................................188
9.7 Enzyme Induction....................................................................................................191
9.7.1 Induction of Detoxification Enzymes.............................................................191
9.7.1.1 Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases........................................................192
9.7.1.2 Glutathione S-Transferases.......................................................................193
9.7.1.3 Hydrolases and Reductases......................................................................193
9.7.2 Enzyme Induction as Detoxification Mechanism.........................................194
9.8 Insecticide Resistance...............................................................................................196
References...........................................................................................................................196
Chapter 10 Insecticide Resistance.......................................................................................201
10.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................201
10.2 The Genetics of Resistance....................................................................................202
10.2.1 Preadaptation...................................................................................................202
10.2.2 Gene Frequency...............................................................................................204
10.2.3 Dominance and Number of Genes...............................................................205
10.2.4 Loss of Resistance...........................................................................................206
10.3 Mechanisms of Resistance.....................................................................................207
10.3.1 Behavioral Resistance.....................................................................................207
10.3.2 Physiological Resistance................................................................................208
10.3.2.1 Reduced Penetration...............................................................................208
10.3.2.2 Target Site Insensitivity..........................................................................208
10.3.2.3 Increased Detoxification.........................................................................210
10.4 Interaction Phenomena..........................................................................................215
10.4.1 Cross-Resistance and Multiple Resistance..................................................215
10.4.2 The Interaction of Resistance Factors...........................................................217
10.5 Rate of Development of Resistance......................................................................217
10.5.1 Dominance of R Alleles..................................................................................218
10.5.2 Generation Turnover.......................................................................................218
10.5.3 Population Mobility........................................................................................219
10.5.4 Persistence of Pesticide Residues..................................................................219
10.5.5 Selection Pressure...........................................................................................220
10.6 Management of Resistance....................................................................................220
10.6.1 Reducing Resistance Gene Frequency.........................................................220
10.6.2 The Use of Insecticide Mixtures and Rotations..........................................221
10.6.3 The Use of Insecticide Synergists.................................................................222
10.6.4 The Use of New Pesticides.............................................................................223
10.6.5 The Use of Resistant Predators and Parasites.............................................223
10.6.6 Field Monitoring..............................................................................................224
10.6.7 The Use of Transgenic Crops.........................................................................225
References...........................................................................................................................225
Chapter 11 Pesticides in the Environment.........................................................................231
11.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................231
11.2 Persistence of Pesticides in Soil.............................................................................232
11.2.1 Adsorptive Forces...........................................................................................232
11.2.1.1 Chemical Bonding...................................................................................232
11.2.1.2 Physical Binding......................................................................................232
11.2.1.3 Hydrogen Bonding..................................................................................232
Contents xi
11.2.2 Factors Influencing Persistence of Pesticides in Soil..................................232
11.2.2.1 Soil Type....................................................................................................233
11.2.2.2 Nature of the Pesticide............................................................................234
11.2.2.3 Soil Moisture............................................................................................234
11.2.2.4 SoilpH.......................................................................................................234
11.2.2.5 Soil Temperature.....................................................................................235
11.2.2.6 Microbial Degradation...........................................................................235
11.3 Photodegradation of Pesticides.............................................................................240
11.3.1 Hydrolysis........................................................................................................241
11.3.2 Dechlorination.................................................................................................241
11.3.3 Oxidation..........................................................................................................241
11.3.4 Isomerization (Intramolecular Rearrangement Process)...........................242
11.4 Pesticides and the Food Chain..............................................................................242
11.4.1 Lipid Solubility of Pesticides..........................................................................244
11.4.2 Metabolic Activity...........................................................................................244
11.4.3 Feeding Habits.................................................................................................244
11.4.4 Behavior and Ecological Niche......................................................................244
11.5 Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife..........................................................245
11.5.1 Eggshell Thinning in Birds............................................................................245
11.5.2 Endocrine Disruption in Alligators..............................................................246
11.5.3 Biomarkers as Indicators of Pesticide Pollution..........................................247
References...........................................................................................................................248
Index.............................................................................................................................................251
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
Preface.xiii
About the Author.xv
Chapter 1 The Need for Pesticides and Their Pattern of Use.1
1.1 Introduction.1
1.2 The Need for Pesticides.1
1.2.1 Food Production.1
1.2.2 World Health Status.2
1.3 Pattern of Use.4
1.4 Pesticide Economics.4
References.6
Chapter 2 The Formulation of Pesticides.7
2.1 Introduction.7
2.2 Types of Formulation.7
2.2.1 Dusts.7
2.2.2 Wettable Powders (WPs).8
2.2.3 Emulsifiable Concentrates (ECs).8
2.2.4 Suspendable Concentrates (SCs) or Flowables.8
2.2.5 Water-Soluble Powders (SPs).9
2.2.6 Solutions.9
2.2.7 Granules.9
2.2.8 Water-Dispersible Granules (WGs).9
2.2.9 Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV) Formulations.10
2.2.10 Aerosols.10
2.2.11 Controlled Release (CR) Formulations.10
2.2.12 Baits.12
2.3 The Nonpesticidal Ingredients of Formulations.12
2.3.1 Solvents.12
2.3.2 Diluents.13
2.4 Surfactants.13
2.5 Pesticide Application Equipment.16
References.16
Chapter 3 Pesticide Laws and Regulations.17
3.1 Introduction.17
vi Contents
3.2 The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act.17
3.2.1 Registration of Pesticides.17
3.2.2 Classification of Pesticides and Certification of Applicators.18
3.2.3 Other Provisions of FIFRA.20
3.2.3.1 Experimental Use Permits.20
3.2.3.2 Review and Suspension.20
3.2.3.3 Registration of Establishments.20
3.2.3.4 Unlawful Acts.20
3.2.3.5 Penalties.20
3.2.3.6 Rights to Data.20
3.2.3.7 Special Review.20
3.2.4 Pesticide Categories.21
3.3 The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.21
3.3.1 Tolerance.21
3.3.2 The Basis for Tolerance.21
3.4 The Food Quality Protection Act.22
3.5 State Laws.23
3.6 Enforcement.23
References.23
Chapter 4 The Classification of Insecticides.25
4.1 Introduction.25
4.2 Classification of Insecticides.25
4.2.1 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides.25
4.2.1.1 DDT Group.25
4.2.1.2 Chlorinated Cyclic Compounds.27
4.2.2 Organophosphates.29
4.2.2.1 Phosphates.29
4.2.2.2 Phosphorothioates.31
4.2.2.3 Phosphorodithioates.34
4.2.2.4 Phosphorothiolates.36
4.2.2.5 Phosphorates.36
4.2.2.6 Phosphoramidates.37
4.2.3 Carbamates.38
4.2.4 Pyrethroids.44
4.2.5 Botanical Insecticides.51
4.2.5.1 Nicotine.51
4.2.5.2 Rotenone.52
4.2.5.3 Azadirachtin.52
4.2.5.4 Sabadilla.52
4.2.5.5 Ryania.53
4.2.6 Insect Growth Regulators.53
4.2.6.1 Juvenoids (Juvenile Hormone Mimics).53
4.2.6.2 Benzoylphenylureas (acylureas).55
4.2.6.3 Diacylhydrazines.58
4.2.6.4 Triazines.59
4.2.6.5 Thiadiazines.59
4.2.7 Neonicotinoids.60
Contents
vn
4.2.8 Formamidines.62
4.2.9 Microbial Insecticides.63
4.2.9.1 Bacillus thuringiensis.63
4.2.9.2 Abamectin.65
4.2.9.3 Spinosad.67
4.2.10 Fumigants.68
4.2.11 Inorganic Insecticides.69
4.2.12 Miscellaneous Insecticide Classes.69
4.2.12.1 Amidinohydrazones.69
4.2.12.2 Phenylpyrazoles.69
4.2.12.3 Pyrazoles.70
4.2.12.4 Pyrroles.71
4.2.12.5 Oxadiazines.71
4.2.12.6 Sulfonamides.72
4.2.12.7 Pyridazinones.72
4.2.12.8 Nereistoxin Analogs.73
4.2.12.9 Pyridine Azomethines.73
4.2.12.10 Pyrimidinamines.74
4.2.12.11 Trifluoromethylnicotinamides.75
4.2.12.12 Benzenedicarboxamides (Phthalic Acid Diamides).75
4.2.12.13 Dichloropropenyl Ethers.76
4.2.12.14 Tetronic Acids.76
4.2.12.15 Tetramic Acids.76
4.2.12.16 Anthranilic Diamides.77
4.2.12.17 Pesticidal Oils and Soaps.78
4.2.13 Acaricides.78
4.2.13.1 Organosulfurs.78
4.2.13.2 Inorganics.79
4.2.13.3 Organotins.79
4.2.13.4 Pyrazoles.80
4.2.13.5 Quinazolines.80
4.2.13.6 Methoxyacrylates.81
4.2.13.7 Naphthoquinones.81
4.2.13.8 Tetronic Acids.82
4.2.13.9 Tetrazines.82
4.2.13.10 Oxazoles.83
4.2.13.11 Carbazates (Hydrazine Carboxylic Acid Derivatives).83
4.2.13.12 Benzoylacetonitriles.83
4.2.13.13 Trifluoromethanesulfonanilides.84
4.2.13.14 Bridged Diphenyls.84
References.84
Chapter 5 Evaluation of Toxicity.87
5.1 Introduction.87
5.2 Testing Procedures.87
5.3 Tests with Insects.88
5.3.1 Topical Application.88
5.3.2 Injection Method.89
viii Contents
5.3.3 Dipping Method.89
5.3.4 Contact Method (Residual Exposure Method).89
5.3.5 Fumigation Method.89
5.3.6 Feeding Method.89
5.4 Tests with Higher Animals.91
5.4.1 Acute Toxicity Tests.91
5.4.2 Subacute Toxicity and Chronic Toxicity Tests.91
5.5 Probit Analysis.91
5.6 Source of Variability in Dose-Response Tests.95
5.6.1 Age.95
5.6.2 Sex.95
5.6.3 Rearing Temperature.96
5.6.4 Food Supply.97
5.6.5 Population Density.97
5.6.6 Illumination.97
5.7 The Use of Log Dosage-Probit (LDP) Lines.97
References.99
Appendix 5.1: An example of probit analysis using the SAS system.100
Chapter 6 The Uptake of Insecticides.105
6.1 Introduction.105
6.2 Penetration of Insecticides through the Insect Cuticle.105
6.2.1 The Structure of Insect Cuticle.105
6.2.2 Movement of Insecticides through the Cuticle.106
6.2.3 Site of Entry.106
6.2.4 Factors Affecting Cuticular Penetration Rates.108
6.2.4.1 Effect of Solvent.108
6.2.4.2 Polarity of Insecticides.109
6.2.4.3 Cuticular Composition.110
6.2.5 Metabolism of Insecticides in the Cuticle.110
6.3 Entry via the Mouth.110
6.4 Uptake via the Spiracles.Ill
References.112
Chapter 7 The Mode of Action of Insecticides.115
7.1 Introduction.115
7.2 Insecticides Affecting Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels.115
7.2.1 Background.115
7.2.2 The Mode of Action of the DDT Group, Pyrethroids, Indoxacarb,
andSabadilla.118
7.3 Insecticides Affecting Calcium Channels.121
Z4 Insecticides Inhibiting Acetylcholinesterase.122
7.4.1 Background.122
74.2 The Mode of Action of Organophosphate and Carbamate Insecticides. 124
75 Insecticides Interfering with GABA-Gated Chloride Channels.127
7.6 Insecticides that Bind to Nicotinic Acetykholine Receptor.129
7.7 Insecticides Affecting Octopamine Receptors.132
Contents ix
7.8 Insecticides Interfering with Respiration.132
7.8.1 Inhibitors of the Electron Transport System.133
7.8.2 Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation.133
7.9 Insecticides Acting as Alimentary Toxins.134
7.10 Insecticides Affecting Chitin Biosynthesis or Cuticle Sclerotization.135
711 Insecticides Acting as Juvenile Hormone Mimics.136
7.12 Insecticides Acting as Ecdysone Agonists or Blocking Molting Hormone
Activity.137
7.13 Insecticides Abrading or Disrupting Insect Cuticle.137
7.14 The Mode of Action of Acaricides.137
7.14.1 Acaricides Interfering with Respiration.138
7.14.2 Acaricides Interfering with Growth and Development.138
7.14.3 Acaricides Acting as Neurotoxins.138
References.139
Chapter 8 Principles of Pesticide Metabolism.143
8.1 Introduction.143
8.2 Phase I Reactions.144
8.2.1 Oxidation.144
8.2.2 Hydrolysis.149
8.2.3 Reduction.151
8.3 Phase II Reactions.153
8.3.1 Glucose Conjugation.153
8.3.2 Glucuronic Acid Conjugation.154
8.3.3 Sulfate Conjugation.154
8.3.4 Phosphate Conjugation.154
8.3.5 Amino Acid Conjugation.155
8.3.6 Glutathione Conjugation.155
8.4 Metabolic Pathways of Selected Insecticides.159
8.4.1 Carbamates.159
8.4.2 Organophosphates.159
8.4.3 Pyrethroids.163
8.4.4 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons.163
8.4.5 Benzoylphenylureas.163
8.4.6 Juvenoids.163
8.4.7 Neonicotinoids.166
References.168
Chapter 9 Species Differences and Other Phenomena Associated with the
Metabolism of Xenobiotics.~.171
9.1 Introduction.171
9.2 Species Differences in Detoxification Enzyme Activity.171
9.2.1 Examples of Differences.171
9.2.2 Evolution of Species Differences in Detoxification.177
9.3 Effect of Age and Sex on Enzyme Activity.178
9.4 The Specificity of Detoxification Enzymes.181
9.5 Selective Toxicity.183
x Contents
9.6 Synergism and Antagonism.188
9.7 Enzyme Induction.191
9.7.1 Induction of Detoxification Enzymes.191
9.7.1.1 Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases.192
9.7.1.2 Glutathione S-Transferases.193
9.7.1.3 Hydrolases and Reductases.193
9.7.2 Enzyme Induction as Detoxification Mechanism.194
9.8 Insecticide Resistance.196
References.196
Chapter 10 Insecticide Resistance.201
10.1 Introduction.201
10.2 The Genetics of Resistance.202
10.2.1 Preadaptation.202
10.2.2 Gene Frequency.204
10.2.3 Dominance and Number of Genes.205
10.2.4 Loss of Resistance.206
10.3 Mechanisms of Resistance.207
10.3.1 Behavioral Resistance.207
10.3.2 Physiological Resistance.208
10.3.2.1 Reduced Penetration.208
10.3.2.2 Target Site Insensitivity.208
10.3.2.3 Increased Detoxification.210
10.4 Interaction Phenomena.215
10.4.1 Cross-Resistance and Multiple Resistance.215
10.4.2 The Interaction of Resistance Factors.217
10.5 Rate of Development of Resistance.217
10.5.1 Dominance of R Alleles.218
10.5.2 Generation Turnover.218
10.5.3 Population Mobility.219
10.5.4 Persistence of Pesticide Residues.219
10.5.5 Selection Pressure.220
10.6 Management of Resistance.220
10.6.1 Reducing Resistance Gene Frequency.220
10.6.2 The Use of Insecticide Mixtures and Rotations.221
10.6.3 The Use of Insecticide Synergists.222
10.6.4 The Use of New Pesticides.223
10.6.5 The Use of Resistant Predators and Parasites.223
10.6.6 Field Monitoring.224
10.6.7 The Use of Transgenic Crops.225
References.225
Chapter 11 Pesticides in the Environment.231
11.1 Introduction.231
11.2 Persistence of Pesticides in Soil.232
11.2.1 Adsorptive Forces.232
11.2.1.1 Chemical Bonding.232
11.2.1.2 Physical Binding.232
11.2.1.3 Hydrogen Bonding.232
Contents xi
11.2.2 Factors Influencing Persistence of Pesticides in Soil.232
11.2.2.1 Soil Type.233
11.2.2.2 Nature of the Pesticide.234
11.2.2.3 Soil Moisture.234
11.2.2.4 SoilpH.234
11.2.2.5 Soil Temperature.235
11.2.2.6 Microbial Degradation.235
11.3 Photodegradation of Pesticides.240
11.3.1 Hydrolysis.241
11.3.2 Dechlorination.241
11.3.3 Oxidation.241
11.3.4 Isomerization (Intramolecular Rearrangement Process).242
11.4 Pesticides and the Food Chain.242
11.4.1 Lipid Solubility of Pesticides.244
11.4.2 Metabolic Activity.244
11.4.3 Feeding Habits.244
11.4.4 Behavior and Ecological Niche.244
11.5 Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife.245
11.5.1 Eggshell Thinning in Birds.245
11.5.2 Endocrine Disruption in Alligators.246
11.5.3 Biomarkers as Indicators of Pesticide Pollution.247
References.248
Index.251 |
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| author | Yu, Simon J. |
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| discipline | Agrarwissenschaft Agrar-/Forst-/Ernährungs-/Haushaltswissenschaft / Gartenbau Pflanzenbau Umwelt |
| discipline_str_mv | Agrarwissenschaft Agrar-/Forst-/Ernährungs-/Haushaltswissenschaft / Gartenbau Pflanzenbau Umwelt |
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| spelling | Yu, Simon J. Verfasser aut The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides Simon J. Yu Boca Raton [u.a.] Taylor & Francis 2008 XI, 276 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Includes bibliographical references Insecticides / Textbooks Insecticides / Toxicology / Textbooks Insecticides / Physiological effect / Textbooks Insecticides Insecticides - Effets physiologiques Insecticides - Toxicologie Insecticides Textbooks Insecticides Physiological effect Textbooks Insecticides Toxicology Textbooks Toxikologie (DE-588)4060538-3 gnd rswk-swf Insektizid (DE-588)4027122-5 gnd rswk-swf Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4173536-5 Patentschrift gnd-content Insektizid (DE-588)4027122-5 s Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 s DE-604 Toxikologie (DE-588)4060538-3 s b DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016388472&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Yu, Simon J. The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides Insecticides / Textbooks Insecticides / Toxicology / Textbooks Insecticides / Physiological effect / Textbooks Insecticides Insecticides - Effets physiologiques Insecticides - Toxicologie Insecticides Textbooks Insecticides Physiological effect Textbooks Insecticides Toxicology Textbooks Toxikologie (DE-588)4060538-3 gnd Insektizid (DE-588)4027122-5 gnd Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4060538-3 (DE-588)4027122-5 (DE-588)4006777-4 (DE-588)4173536-5 |
| title | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides |
| title_auth | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides |
| title_exact_search | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides |
| title_exact_search_txtP | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides |
| title_full | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides Simon J. Yu |
| title_fullStr | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides Simon J. Yu |
| title_full_unstemmed | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides Simon J. Yu |
| title_short | The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides |
| title_sort | the toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides |
| topic | Insecticides / Textbooks Insecticides / Toxicology / Textbooks Insecticides / Physiological effect / Textbooks Insecticides Insecticides - Effets physiologiques Insecticides - Toxicologie Insecticides Textbooks Insecticides Physiological effect Textbooks Insecticides Toxicology Textbooks Toxikologie (DE-588)4060538-3 gnd Insektizid (DE-588)4027122-5 gnd Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Insecticides / Textbooks Insecticides / Toxicology / Textbooks Insecticides / Physiological effect / Textbooks Insecticides Insecticides - Effets physiologiques Insecticides - Toxicologie Insecticides Textbooks Insecticides Physiological effect Textbooks Insecticides Toxicology Textbooks Toxikologie Insektizid Biochemie Patentschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016388472&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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