Holdings: Fundamental food microbiology

Fundamental food microbiology:

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Bibliographic Details
Main Authors:	Ray, Bibek (Author), Bhunia, Arun K. (Author)
Format:	Book
Language:	English
Published:	Boca Raton [u.a.] CRC Pr. 2008
Edition:	4. ed.
Subjects:	Microbiología de alimentos Food > Microbiology Food Microbiology Food Poisoning > prevention & control Lebensmittelmikrobiologie
Online Access:	Table of contents only Publisher description Inhaltsverzeichnis
Item Description:	"A CRC title." Includes bibliographical references and index
Physical Description:	492 S. graph. Darst.
ISBN:	9780849375293 0849375290

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650		4	\|a Microbiología de alimentos
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650		4	\|a Food Microbiology
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adam_text	Contents Preface to the Fourth Edition ...................................................................... xxxiii Preface to the Third Edition........................................................................ xxxv Preface to the Second Edition...................................................................... xxxvii Preface to the First Edition......................................................................... x.xxix Authors.............................................................................................. xli Part I Introduction to Microbes in Foods............................................... 1 Chapter 1 History and Development of Food Microbiology................................................. 3 Introduction......................................................................................... 3 Discovery of Microorganisms..................................................................... 3 Where Are They Coming From?................................................................... 3 What Are Their Functions? ........................................................................ 4 Development of Early Food Microbiology (Before A.D. 1900).................................. 4 Food Microbiology: Current Status................................................................ 6 Food Fermentation/Probiotics.................................................................. 6 Food Spoilage................................................................................... 7 Foodborne Diseases............................................................................. 7 Miscellaneous................................................................................... 7 Food Microbiology and Food Microbiologists.................................................... 7 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 8 References.......................................................................................... 8 Questions ........................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 Characteristics of Predominant Microorganisms in Food........................................ 11 Introduction......................................................................................... II Classification of Microorganisms.................................................................. H Nomenclature....................................................................................... 12 Morphology and Structure of Microorganisms in Foods......................................... 13 Yeasts and Molds................................................................................ 13 Bacterial Cells................................................................................... 15 Viruses........................................................................................... 15 Important Microorganisms in Food................................................................ 16 Important Mold Genera......................................................................... 16 Important Yeast Genera......................................................................... 17 Foodborne Protozoan Parasites................................................................. 18 Important Viruses ............................................................................... 18 Important Bacterial Genera..................................................................... 18 Gram-Negative Aerobes ..................................................................... 20 Gram-Negative Facultative Anaerobes...................................................... 21 Rickettsias.................................................................................... 22 Gram-Positive Cocci......................................................................... 22 Gram-Positive. Endospore-Forming Rods.................................................. 23 Gram-Negative, Endospore-Forming Rods................................................. 23 Gram-Positive. Nonsporulating Regular Rods.............................................. 23 Gram-Positive. Nonsporeforming Irregular Rods .......................................... 24 Some New Genera ........................................................................... 24 Important Bacterial Groups in Foods.............................................................. 24 Lactic Acid Bacteria ............................................................................ 25 Acetic Acid Bacteria............................................................................ 25 Propionic Acid Bacteria......................................................................... 25 Butyric Acid Bacteria........................................................................... 25 Proteolytic Bacteria............................................................................. 25 Lipolytic Bacteria............................................................................... 25 Saccharolytic Bacteria.......................................................................... 25 Thermophilic Bacteria.......................................................................... 25 Psychrotrophic Bacteria ........................................................................ 25 Thermoduric Bacteria........................................................................... 26 Halotolerant Bacteria ........................................................................... 26 Aciduric Bacteria................................................................................ 26 Osmophilic Bacteria ............................................................................ 26 Gas-Producing Bacteria......................................................................... 26 Slime Producers................................................................................. 26 Spore Formers................................................................................... 26 Aerobes.......................................................................................... 26 Anaerobes .........................................,............................................. 26 Facultative Anaerobes .......................................................................... 27 Coliforms........................................................................................ 27 Fecal Coliforms................................................................................. 27 Enteric Pathogens............................................................................... 27 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 27 References.......................................................................................... 27 Questions........................................................................................... 28 Chapter 3 Sources of Microorganisms in Foods.............................................................. 29 Introduction......................................................................................... 29 Predominant Microorganisms in Different Sources .............................................. 30 Plants (Fruits and Vegetables).................................................................. 30 Animals. Birds, Fish, and Shellfish.............................................................. 30 Air................................................................................................ 31 Soil............................................................................................... 31 Sewage........................................................................................... 31 Water............................................................................................. 32 Humans.......................................................................................... 32 Food Ingredients................................................................................ 32 Equipment....................................................................................... 32 Miscellaneous................................................................................... 33 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 33 References.......................................................................................... 33 Questions ........................................................................................... 33 Chapter 4 Normal Microbiological Quality of Foods and Its Significance ................................. 35 Introduction......................................................................................... 35 Raw and Ready-to-Eat Meat Products............................................................. 35 Raw and Pasteurized Milk......................................................................... 36 Shell Egg and Liquid Egg.......................................................................... 37 Fish and Shellfish................................................................................... 37 Vegetables, Fruits, and Nuts ....................................................................... 38 Cereal, Starches, and Gums........................................................................ 39 Canned Foods....................................................................................... 39 Sugars and Confectioneries........................................................................ 39 Soft Drinks. Fruit and Vegetable Drinks, Juices, and Bottled Water............................. 40 Mayonnaise and Salad Dressings.................................................................. 40 Spices and Condiments ............................................................................ 40 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 41 References.......................................................................................... 41 Questions ........................................................................................... 41 Part II Microbial Growth Response in the Food Environment..................... 43 Chapter 5 Microbial Growth Characteristics................................................................. 45 Introduction......................................................................................... 45 Microbial Reproduction or Growth................................................................ 45 Binary Fission................................................................................... 45 Generation Time (or Doubling Time).......................................................... 46 Specific Growth Rate........................................................................... 47 Optimum Growth ............................................................................... 47 Growth Curve................................................................................... 48 Nature of Microbial Growth in Food.............................................................. 49 Mixed Population............................................................................... 49 Sequence of Growth ............................................................................ 49 Growth in Succession or Diauxic Growth..................................................... 49 Symbiotic Growth............................................................................... 50 Synergistic Growth.............................................................................. 50 Antagonistic Growth............................................................................ 50 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 50 References.......................................................................................... 51 Questions........................................................................................... 51 Chapter 6 Factors Influencing Microbial Growth in Food................................................... 53 Introduction......................................................................................... 53 Intrinsic Factors or Food Environment............................................................ 53 Nutrients and Growth........................................................................... 53 Carbohydrates in Foods................................................................-..... 54 Proteins in Foods............................................................................. 54 Lipids in Foods............................................................................... 55 Minerals and Vitamins in Foods............................................................. 55 Growth Factors and Inhibitors in Food........................................................ 56 Water Activity and Growth..................................................................... 56 Principle ...................................................................................... 56 Aw of Food.................................................................................... 56 Aw and Microbial Growth.................................................................... 56 pH and Growth.................................................................................. 57 Principle...................................................................................... 57 pH of Food.................................................................................... 58 pH and Microbial Growth.................................................................... 58 Redox Potential, Oxygen, and Growth......................................................... 58 Principle...................................................................................... 58 Redox Potential in Food..................................................................... 59 Redox Potential and Microbial Growth..................................................... 59 Extrinsic Factors.................................................................................... 60 Temperature and Growth ....................................................................... 60 Principle...................................................................................... 60 Food and Temperature....................................................................... 60 Microbial Growth and Viability............................................................. 60 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 61 References.......................................................................................... 61 Questions........................................................................................... 61 Chapter 7 Microbial Metabolism of Food Components...................................................... 63 Introduction......................................................................................... 63 Respiration and Fermentation During Growth.................................................... 63 Metabolism of Food Carbohydrates............................................................... 64 Degradation of Polysaccharides................................................................... 65 Degradation of Disaccharides.................................................................. 65 Degradation of Monosaccharides .............................................................. 65 Fermentation.................................................................................... 65 EMP Pathway................................................................................. 65 HMP Pathway................................................................................ 66 ED Pathway .................................................................................. 66 Pentose Phosphoketolase Pathway.......................................................... 66 Hexose Phosphoketolase Pathway........................................................... 67 Some Specific Pathways..................................................................... 67 Anaerobic Respiration.......................................................................... 67 Aerobic Respiration............................................................................. 68 Synthesis of Polymers .......................................................................... 68 Metabolism of Food Proteins...................................................................... 68 Aerobic Respiration (Decay)................................................................... 69 Fermentation (Putrefaction).................................................................... 69 Metabolism of Food Lipids........................................................................ 69 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 70 References.......................................................................................... 70 Questions........................................................................................... 70 Chapter 8 Microbial Sporulation and Germination........................................................... 73 Introduction......................................................................................... 73 Mold Spores........................................................................................ 73 Yeast Spores ........................................................................................ 73 Bacterial Spores.................................................................................... 73 Sporulation...................................................................................... 75 Dormancy ....................................................................................... 76 Activation........................................................................................ 76 Germination..................................................................................... 76 Outgrowth....................................................................................... 77 Importance of Spores in Food ..................................................................... 77 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 78 References.......................................................................................... 79 Questions ........................................................................................... 79 Part III Beneficial Uses of Microorganisms in Food.................................. 81 Chapter 9 Microbial Stress Response in the Food Environment ............................................ 83 Introduction......................................................................................... 83 Stress Adaptation................................................................................... 84 Definition and Observations.................................................................... 84 Mechanisms of Stress Adaptation.............................................................. 84 Importance of Stress-Adapted Microorganisms in Food...................................... 85 Pathogens and Spoilage Bacteria Surviving in Low-pH Foods............................ 85 Stress-Adapted Pathogens Surviving Stomach pH ......................................... 86 Enhancing Viability of Starter Cultures and Probiotic Bacteria............................ 86 Sublethal Stress and Injury......................................................................... 86 Definition and Observations.................................................................... 86 Manifestation of Bacterial Sublethal Injury ................................................... 88 Sites and Nature of Injury...................................................................... 89 Repair of Reversible Injury..................................................................... 89 Injury in Yeasts and Molds..................................................................... 91 Importance of Sublethally Injured Microorganisms in Food.................................. 91 Detection of Undesirable Microorganisms.................................................. 91 Enhancing Shelf Life of Foods.............................................................. 91 Enhancing Viability of Starter Cultures..................................................... 91 Viable-but-Nonculturable.......................................................................... 92 Definition and Terminologies................................................................... 92 Proponent Views................................................................................ 92 Opponent Views................................................................................. 93 Current Views................................................................................... 94 Importance of VBNC Microorganisms in Food............................................... 94 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 94 References.......................................................................................... 95 Questions........................................................................................... 96 Chapter 10 Microorganisms Used in Food Fermentation..................................................... 99 Introduction......................................................................................... 99 Microbiology of Fermented Foods................................................................ 99 Lactic Starter Cultures ............................................................................. 100 Lactococcus ..................................................................................... 100 Streptococcus.................................................................................... 100 Leuconostoc..................................................................................... 101 Pediococcus ..................................................................................... 102 Lactobacillus.................................................................................... 102 Oenococcm...................................................................................... 103 Other Starter Cultures.............................................................................. 104 Bifidobacterium................................................................................. 104 Propionibacterium.............................................................................. 104 Brevibacterium.................................................................................. 104 Acetobacter...................................................................................... 104 Yeasts and Molds................................................................................... 105 Yeasts............................................................................................ 105 Molds............................................................................................ 105 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 106 References.......................................................................................... 106 Questions ........................................................................................... 106 Chapter 11 Biochemistry of Some Beneficial Traits........................................................... 107 Introduction......................................................................................... 107 Mechanisms of Transport of Nutrients............................................................ 107 Transport and Metabolism of Carbohydrates ..................................................... 108 PEP-PTS System for Lactose Transport in Lactococcus lactis............................... 108 Permease System for Lactose in Lactobacillus acidophilus.................................. 109 Carbohydrates Available Inside the Cells for Metabolism.................................... 109 Homolactic Fermentation of Carbohydrates................................................... 109 Heterolactic Fermentation of Carbohydrates.................................................. Ill Metabolism of Pentoses......................................................................... 112 Hexose Fermentation by Bifidobacterium ..................................................... 112 Diacetyl Production from Citrate............................................................... 113 Propionic Acid Production by Propionibacterium............................................. 113 Transport and Metabolism of Proteinaceous Compounds and Amino Acids.................... 113 Transport and Metabolism of Lipid Compounds ................................................. 114 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 114 References.......................................................................................... 114 Questions........................................................................................... 115 Chapter 12 Genetics of Some Beneficial Traits................................................................ 117 Introduction......................................................................................... 117 Plasmids and Plasmid-Linked Traits in Starter-Culture Bacteria................................ 117 Important Characteristics of Bacterial Plasmids............................................... 118 Some Characteristics of Small (ca. 10 kb) and Large (over 10 to ca. 150 kb) Plasmids..... 118 Presence of Plasmids in Some Starter-Culture Bacteria....................................... 118 Phenorype Assignment to a Plasmid........................................................... 119 Plasmid-Linked Traits in Starter-Culture Bacteria............................................. 119 Cryptic Plasmids................................................................................ 120 Plasmid Replication............................................................................. 121 Plasmid Mapping and Sequencing............................................................. 121 Gene Transfer Methods in Starter-Culture Bacteria.............................................. 121 Transduction..................................................................................... 122 Conjugation ..................................................................................... 122 Transformation.................................................................................. 123 Protoplast Fusion................................................................................ 123 Electrotransformation........................................................................... 123 Conjugative Transposons....................................................................... 123 Gene Cloning....................................................................................... 124 Cloning Vectors................................................................................. 124 Metabolic Engineering.......................................................................... 125 Mixed Acid Fermentation by Lactococcus lactis........................................... 126 L(+)-Lactic Acid Production................................................................. 126 Diacetyl Production by Lactococcus lactis ................................................. 126 Alanine Production from Carbohydrates.................................................... 126 Production of Mannitol and Other Polyols.................................................. 126 Production of Folic Acid and Riboflavin.................................................... 127 Enhancing Proteolysis by Cell Lysis........................................................ 127 Protein Targeting................................................................................ 127 Expression of Interleukin.................................................................... 127 Drug-Delivery System....................................................................... 128 Production of Pediocin in Heterologous Hosts ............................................. 128 Protein Engineering............................................................................. 128 Production of Hybrid Prepediocin........................................................... 128 Amino Acid Variants of Pediocin............................................................ 129 Genome Mapping and Sequencing................................................................ 129 Lactic Acid Bacteria............................................................................ 129 Bacteriophages.................................................................................. 131 The Lac and Las Genes......................................................................... 131 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 132 References.......................................................................................... 132 Questions........................................................................................... 133 Chapter 13 Starter Cultures and Bacteriophages............................................................... 135 Introduction......................................................................................... 135 History.............................................................................................. 135 Concentrated Cultures.............................................................................. 136 Starter-Culture Problems........................................................................... 137 Strain Antagonism............................................................................... 137 Loss of a Desired Trait.......................................................................... 138 Cell Death and Injury........................................................................... 138 Inhibitors in Raw Materials..................................................................... 138 Bacteriophages of Lactic Acid Bacteria........................................................ 138 Morphology and Characteristics............................................................. 138 Life Cycle..................................................................................... 139 Host Specificity............................................................................... 140 Control Methods.............................................................................. 140 Yeast and Mold Cultures........................................................................... 140 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 140 References.......................................................................................... 141 Questions....................................................................................•...... 141 Chapter 14 Microbiology of Fermented Food Production .................................................... 143 Introduction......................................................................................... 143 General Method of Production..................................................................... 143 Raw (or Starting) Materials..................................................................... 144 Microorganisms Used........................................................................... 144 Fermentation Process........................................................................... 144 Natural Fermentation......................................................................... 144 Back Slopping................................................................................ 144 Controlled Fermentation..................................................................... 145 Fermented Dairy Products......................................................................... 145 Milk Composition and Quality................................................................. 145 Fermented Milk Products....................................................................... 146 Microbiology of Cultured Buttermilk Fermentation .......................................... 146 Product Characteristics....................................................................... 146 Processing.................................................................................... 147 Starter (Controlled Fermentation)........................................................... 147 Growth........................................................................................ 147 Biochemistry ................................................................................. 147 Genetics....................................................................................... 147 Microbial Problems.......................................................................... 148 Microbiology of Yogurt Fermentation......................................................... 148 Characteristics................................................................................ 148 Processing.................................................................................... 148 Starters (Controlled Fermentation).......................................................... 148 Growth........................................................................................ 149 Biochemistry ................................................................................. 149 Genetics....................................................................................... 150 Microbial Problems.......................................................................... 151 Cheeses.......................................................................................... 151 Unripened Cheese............................................................................ 151 Ripened Cheese .............................................................................. 151 Microbiology of Cottage Cheese............................................................... 152 Characteristics................................................................................ 152 Processing (from Skim Milk)................................................................ 152 Starters (Controlled Fermentation).......................................................... 152 Growth, Biochemistry, and Genetics........................................................ 152 Microbial Problems.......................................................................... 152 Microbiology of Cheddar Cheese.............................................................. 153 Characteristics................................................................................ 153 Processing.................................................................................... 153 Starters (Controlled Fermentation).......................................................... 153 Growth........................................................................................ 153 Biochemistry ................................................................................. 153 Genetics....................................................................................... 154 Microbial Problems.......................................................................... 154 Microbiology of Swiss Cheese................................................................. 154 Characteristics................................................................................ 154 Processing.................................................................................... 154 Starters (Controlled Fermentation).......................................................... 155 Growth............................................................................ 155 Biochemistry ................................................................................. 155 Genetics....................................................................................... 155 Microbial Problems.......................................................................... 155 Microbiology of Blue Cheese .................................................................. 155 Characteristics................................................................................ 155 Processing .................................................................................... 156 Starters and Growth (Controlled Fermentation)............................................ 156 Biochemistry, Genetics, and Problems...................................................... 156 Accelerated Cheese Ripening................................................................... 156 Curing at High Temperature................................................................. 156 Addition of Enzymes......................................................................... 156 Slurry Method................................................................................ 157 Novel Methods............................................................................... 157 Fermented Meat Products.......................................................................... 157 Types............................................................................................. 157 Microbiology of Semidry Sausages............................................................ 157 Characteristics................................................................................ 157 Processing .................................................................................... 157 Starters (Controlled or Natural Fermentation).............................................. 158 Growth........................................................................................ 158 Biochemistry ................................................................................. 158 Genetics....................................................................................... 158 Microbial Problems.......................................................................... 159 Fermented Vegetable Products..................................................................... 159 Microbiology of Sauerkraut.................................................................... 159 Characteristics................................................................................ 159 Processing.................................................................................... 159 Starters (Natural) and Growth............................................................... 159 Biochemistry ................................................................................. 160 Genetics....................................................................................... 160 Microbial Problems.......................................................................... 160 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 160 References.......................................................................................... 160 Questions........................................................................................... 161 Chapter 15 Intestinal Beneficial Bacteria...................................................................... 163 Introduction......................................................................................... 163 Microbiology of the Human GI Tract............................................................. 163 Important Characteristics of Beneficial Bacteria.................................................. 164 Beneficial Effects of Probiotics.................................................................... 165 Lactose Hydrolysis.............................................................................. 165 Reducing Serum Cholesterol Level............................................................ 166 Reducing Colon Cancer......................................................................... 166 Reducing Intestinal Disorders.................................................................. 166 Modulating Immune Response................................................................. 167 Reducing Allergic Diseases..................................................................... 167 Probiotics as Vaccine Carriers for Infectious Agent........................................... 167 Miscellaneous Benefits......................................................................... 168 Some Aspects to Consider......................................................................... 168 Strain Variation...............................................¦.................................. 168 Sensitivity to Stomach Acids................................................................... 169 Viability and Injury of Cells.................................................................... 169 Dose Level and Duration....................................................................... 169 Induced Lactase Trait........................................................................... 169 Antibacterial Substances........................................................................ 169 True Species and Strains........................................................................ 170 Expertise in Research Areas.................................................................... 170 Current Developments............................................................................. 170 Standard of Identity............................................................................. 170 Scientific Status Summary...................................................................... 170 Pathogenic Nature............................................................................... 171 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics.......................................................... 171 Probiotics..................................................................................... 171 Prebiotics..................................................................................... 172 Synbiotics..................................................................................... 172 Biogenics........................................................................................ 172 Genome Sequence of Probiotic Bacteria....................................................... 173 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 173 References.......................................................................................... 173 Questions ........................................................................................... 174 Chapter 16 Food Biopreservatives of Microbial Origin....................................................... 175 Introduction......................................................................................... 175 Viable Cells of Lactic Acid Bacteria as Preservatives............................................ 175 Organic Acids, Diacetyl, Hydrogen Peroxide, and Reuterine as Food Preservatives........... 176 Organic Acids................................................................................... 176 Diacetyl.......................................................................................... 177 Hydrogen Peroxide.............................................................................. 177 Reuterine ........................................................................................ 177 Bacteriocins of Lactic Acid Bacteria as Food Preservatives..................................... 178 Bacteriocin-Producing Strains.................................................................. 178 Characteristics of Bacteriocins................................................................. 179 Genetics and Gene Organization............................................................... 182 Mode of Action.................................................................................. 183 Production and Purification..................................................................... 184 Applications..................................................................................... 184 Yeast Metabolites as Preservatives................................................................ 185 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 185 References.......................................................................................... 186 Questions........................................................................................... 186 Chapter 17 Food Ingredients and Enzymes of Microbial Origin.............................................. 189 Introduction..................,...................................................................... 189 Microbial Proteins and Food Additives........................................................... 189 Single-Cell Proteins (SCPs).................................................................... 189 Amino Acids..................................................................................... 190 Nutraceuticals and Vitamins.................................................................... 190 Flavor Compounds and Flavor Enhancers..................................................... 190 Colors............................................................................................ 191 Exopolysaccharides (EPS)...................................................................... 191 Organic Acids................................................................................... 191 Preservatives.................................................................................... 192 Microbial Enzymes in Food Processing........................................................... 192 Enzymes Used................................................................................... 193 a-Amylase, Glucoamylase, and Glucose Isomerase........................................ 193 Catalase....................................................................................... 193 Cellulase, Hemicellulase, and Pectinase.................................................... 193 Invertase...................................................................................... 193 Lactase........................................................................................ 193 Lipases........................................................................................ 193 Proteases...................................................................................... 193 Enzyme Production by Recombinant DNA Technology...................................... 193 Immobilized Enzymes.......................................................................... 194 Adsorption on a Solid Support............................................................... 194 Covalent Bonding............................................................................ 194 Entrapping.................................................................................... 194 Crosslinking.................................................................................. 195 Thermostable Enzymes......................................................................... 195 Enzymes in Food Waste Treatment............................................................. 196 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 196 References.......................................................................................... 196 Questions........................................................................................... 197 Part IV Microbial Food Spoilage.......................................................... 199 Chapter 18 Important Factors in Microbial Food Spoilage ................................................... 201 Introduction......................................................................................... 201 Sequence of Events................................................................................. 201 Significance of Microorganisms................................................................... 201 Microbial Types................................................................................. 201 Microbial Numbers............................................................................. 202 Predominant Microorganisms.................................................................. 203 Some Important Food Spoilage Bacteria.......................................................... 203 Psychrotrophic Bacteria........................................................................ 203 Some Important Psychrotrophic Aerobic Spoilage Bacteria............................... 204 Some Important Psychrotrophic Facultative Anaerobic Spoilage Bacteria................ 204 Some Important Thermoduric Psychrotrophs............................................... 204 Thermophilic Bacteria.......................................................................... 204 Aciduric Bacteria................................................................................ 204 Significance of Foods.............................................................................. 205 Food Types...................................................................................... 205 Food Nutrients .................................................................................. 205 Utilization of Food Nutrients................................................................... 206 Microbial Growth in Succession............................................................... 207 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 207 References.......................................................................................... 207 Questions........................................................................................... 208 Chapter 19 Spoilage of Specific Food Groups................................................................. 209 Introduction......................................................................................... 209 Fresh and Ready-to-Eat Meat Products........................................................... 209 Raw Meat........................................................................................ 209 Ready-to-Eat Meat Products.................................................................... 210 Eggs and Egg Products............................................................................. 212 Shell Eggs....................................................................................... 212 Egg Products.................................................................................... 212 Fish, Crustaceans, and Mollusks................................................................... 212 Fish.............................................................................................. 212 Crustaceans...................................................................................... 213 Mollusks......................................................................................... 213 Milk and Milk Products............................................................................ 214 Raw Milk........................................................................................ 214 Pasteurized Milk................................................................................ 214 Concentrated Liquid Products.................................................................. 215 Butter............................................................................................ 215 Vegetables and Fruits............................................................................... 215 Vegetables....................................................................................... 215 Fruits............................................................................................. 216 Soft Drinks, Fruit Juices and Preserves, and Vegetable Juices................................... 216 Cereals and Their Products ........................................................................ 217 Grains and Seeds................................................................................ 217 Refrigerated Dough............................................................................. 217 Breads ........................................................................................... 217 Pastas............................................................................................ 217 Pastries........................................................................................... 218 Liquid Sweeteners and Confectioneries........................................................... 218 Mayonnaise, Salad Dressings, and Condiments.................................................. 218 Fermented Foods................................................................................... 218 Fermented Meat Products....................................................................... 219 Fermented Dairy Products...................................................................... 219 Fermented Vegetable and Fruit Products....................................................... 220 Fermented Beverages........................................................................... 220 Canned Foods....................................................................................... 220 Thermophilic Sporeformers .................................................................... 221 Flat Sour Spoilage............................................................................ 221 Thermophilic Anaerobe (TA) Spoilage...................................................... 221 Sulfide Stinker Spoilage...................................................................... 221 Spoilage Due to Insufficient Heating........................................................... 221 Spoilage Due to Container Leakage............................................................ 222 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 222 References.......................................................................................... 222 Questions........................................................................................... 222 Chapter 20 New Food Spoilage Bacteria in Refrigerated Foods.............................................. 225 Microorganisms that Grow in Refrigerated Foods (Psychrotrophs)............................. 225 Popularity of Refrigerated Foods.................................................................. 226 Microbiological Problems.......................................................................... 226 Incidence of Spoilage of Vacuum-Packaged Refrigerated Food................................. 228 Spoilage of Unprocessed (Fresh) Beef by Clostridium Species.............................. 228 Spoilage of Roasted Beef by Clostridium Species ............................................ 229 Spoilage of Pork Chops by Clostridium algidicarnis......................................... 230 Spoilage of Tofu by Clostridium Species...................................................... 230 Spoilage of Unripened Soft Cheese by Leuconostoc Species................................. 230 Spoilage of Low-Heat-Processed Meat Products by Leuconostoc Species .................. 230 Ammonia Odor in Turkey Roll................................................................. 231 Yellow Discoloration of Luncheon Meat ...................................................... 231 Gray Discoloration of Turkey Luncheon Meat................................................ 231 Pink Discoloration of Sliced, Chopped, and Formed Roast Beef............................. 231 Gas Distension and Pink Discoloration of Sliced Turkey Rolls .............................. 232 Gas Distension (Blowing) of Ground Beef Chubs ............................................ 233 Egg Odor in Refrigerated Fresh Chicken Meat Products..................................... 233 Off-Odor in Frozen Chicken Meat Product.................................................... 234 Gas and Slime Development in Vacuum-Packaged Smoked Salmon Products.............. 234 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 235 References.......................................................................................... 236 Questions........................................................................................... 236 Chapter 21 Food Spoilage by Microbial Enzymes............................................................ 239 Introduction......................................................................................... 239 Characteristics of Heat-Stable Enzymes of Psychrotrophic Bacteria............................ 240 Spoilage of Foods with Heat-Stable Microbial Enzymes......................................... 241 Pasteurized Milk................................................................................ 241 Ultrahigh Temperature (UHT)-Treated Milk Products........................................ 241 Cheeses.......................................................................................... 242 Cultured Dairy Products........................................................................ 242 Cream and Butter............................................................................... 242 Milk Powder..................................................................................... 242 Spoilage of Foods by Microbial Enzymes at Low Temperature................................. 242 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 243 References.......................................................................................... 243 Questions........................................................................................... 244 Chapter 22 Indicators of Microbial Food Spoilage............................................................ 245 Introduction......................................................................................... 245 Microbiological Criteria............................................................................ 246 Enumeration of Colony-Forming Units (CFUs)............................................... 246 Phase-Contrast Microscopy.................................................................... 247 Chemical Criteria................................................................................... 247 Assay of Heat-Stable Enzymes.................................................................... 248 Heat-Stable Proteinases in Milk................................................................ 248 Heat-Stable Upases in Milk.................................................................... 248 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 249 References.......................................................................................... 249 Questions........................................................................................... 249 Part V Microbial Foodborne Diseases.................................................... 251 Chapter 23 Important Facts in Foodborne Diseases........................................................... 253 Introduction......................................................................................... 253 Human Gastrointestinal Disorder.................................................................. 253 Epidemiological Aspects........................................................................... 254 Investigation of a Foodborne Disease.......................................................... 254 Foodborne Disease Outbreak................................................................... 254 Incidence of Foodborne Disease Outbreak.................................................... 254 Cost of Foodborne Diseases.................................................................... 254 Predominant Etiological Agents................................................................ 255 Types of Microbial Foodborne Diseases....................................................... 255 Intoxication................................................................................... 256 Infection...................................................................................... 256 Toxicoinfection............................................................................... 256 Predominant Bacterial and Viral Pathogens Associated with Foodborne Diseases.......... 256 Predominant Food Types Associated with Foodborne Diseases of Bacterial and Viral Origin................................................................................... 258 Predominant Places of Food Consumption Associated with Confirmed Foodborne Disease Outbreaks of Bacterial and Viral Origin..................................... 259 Predominant Contributing Factors Associated with Confirmed Foodborne Disease Outbreaks from Pathogenic Bacteria and Viruses.................................... 260 Influence of Month (of the Year) to Number of Foodborne Disease Outbreaks Caused by Pathogenic Bacteria and Viruses...................................................... 260 Influence of Location on Foodborne Diseases of Pathogenic Bacterial and Viral Origin ... 261 Human Factors in Foodborne Disease Symptoms............................................. 261 Acceptance Quality of Food Due to Growth of Pathogens.................................... 262 Sequence of Events in a Foodborne Disease................................................... 262 Current Trends...................................................................................... 262 Foodborne Disease Outbreaks During 1988 to 1992.......................................... 263 FoodNet......................................................................................... 263 Estimated Foodborne Illnesses................................................................. 265 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 266 References.......................................................................................... 267 Questions ........................................................................................... 267 Chapter 24 Foodborne Intoxications........................................................................... 269 Introduction......................................................................................... 269 Staphylococcal Intoxication........................................................................ 269 Importance....................................................................................... 269 Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus...................................................... 269 Organisms .................................................................................... 269 Growth........................................................................................ 270 Habitat........................................................................................ 270 Toxins and Toxin Production................................................................... 270 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 271 Food Association................................................................................ 271 Prevention (Reduction) of the Disease......................................................... 272 Identification Methods.......................................................................... 273 Analysis of an Outbreak........................................................................ 273 Botulism............................................................................................ 274 Importance....................................................................................... 274 Characteristics................................................................................... 274 Organisms .................................................................................... 274 Growth........................................................................................ 274 Habitat........................................................................................ 274 Toxins and Toxin Production................................................................... 275 Disease and Symptoms ......................................................................... 275 Foodborne Botulism.......................................................................... 276 Infant Botulism............................................................................... 276 Hidden Botulism............................................................................. 276 Wound Botulism.............................................................................. 276 Inadvertent Botulism......................................................................... 276 Food Association................................................................................ 276 Prevention of Botulism......................................................................... 277 Identification Methods.......................................................................... 278 Analysis of a Foodborne Botulism Case....................................................... 278 Mycotoxicosis...................................................................................... 278 Importance....................................................................................... 278 Characteristics................................................................................... 278 Organisms .................................................................................... 278 Growth........................................................................................ 279 Habitat........................................................................................ 279 Toxins and Toxin Production................................................................... 279 Food Association................................................................................ 280 Prevention of Mycotoxicosis................................................................... 280 Detection Methods.............................................................................. 281 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 281 References.......................................................................................... 281 Questions........................................................................................... 282 Chapter 25 Foodborne Infections............................................................................... 283 Introduction......................................................................................... 283 Salmonellosis by Salmonella enterica............................................................. 283 Importance....................................................................................... 283 Current Nomenclature System ................................................................. 284 Predominant Serotypes in Salmonellosis.................................................... 284 Characteristics................................................................................... 285 Habitat........................................................................................... 285 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 286 Food Association................................................................................ 287 Prevention and Control......................................................................... 288 Detection Method............................................................................... 288 A Case Study.................................................................................... 288 Listeriosis by Listeria monocytogenes ............................................................ 288 Importance....................................................................................... 288 Classification.................................................................................... 289 Characteristics................................................................................... 290 Habitat........................................................................................... 290 Virulence Factors................................................................................ 290 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 291 Febrile Gastroenteritis........................................................................ 291 Invasive Systemic Disease................................................................... 291 Food Association................................................................................ 293 Prevention and Control ......................................................................... 293 Detection Method............................................................................... 294 A Case Study.................................................................................... 294 Pathogenic Escherichia coli ....................................................................... 294 Importance....................................................................................... 294 Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC)................................................... 295 Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)................................................. 296 Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) .................................................... 296 Disease and Symptoms....................................................................... 296 Food Association............................................................................. 296 Prevention .................................................................................... 297 Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC)............................................... 297 Gastroenteritis Due to EHEC................................................................... 297 Characteristics................................................................................ 297 Ibxins......................................................................................... 297 Disease and Symptoms....................................................................... 297 Food Association............................................................................. 298 Prevention.................................................................................... 298 Shigellosis (Bacillary Dysentery) by Shigella Species........................................... 298 Importance....................................................................................... 298 Characteristics................................................................................... 299 Habitat........................................................................................... 299 Ibxins............................................................................................ 299 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 299 Food Association................................................................................ 300 Prevention....................................................................................... 300 Campylobacteriosis by Campylobacter Species.................................................. 301 Importance....................................................................................... 301 Characteristics................................................................................... 301 Habitat........................................................................................... 301 Pathogenic Factors and Toxins................................................................. 301 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 302 Food Association................................................................................ 302 Prevention....................................................................................... 303 Yersiniosis by Yersinia enterocolitica............................................................. 303 Importance....................................................................................... 303 Characteristics................................................................................... 303 Habitat........................................................................................... 303 Virulence Factors................................................................................ 304 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 304 Food Association................................................................................ 304 Prevention....................................................................................... 304 Gastroenteritis by Vibrio Species.................................................................. 304 Vibrio parahaemolyticus Gastroenteritis....................................................... 305 Importance.................................................................................... 305 Characteristics................................................................................ 305 Habitat.................................................................................... 305 Toxins and Toxin Production ................................................................ 305 Disease and Symptoms....................................................................... 305 Food Association............................................................................. 306 Prevention.................................................................................... 306 Vibrio vulnificus Septicemia and Wound Infection............................................ 306 Enteric Viruses...................................................................................... 306 Importance....................................................................................... 306 Characteristics................................................................................... 307 Habitat........................................................................................... 307 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 307 Food Association................................................................................ 307 Prevention....................................................................................... 308 Detection Method............................................................................... 308 Other Foodborne Infections........................................................................ 308 Brucellosis....................................................................................... 308 Streptococcal Infection ......................................................................... 309 Q Fever.......................................................................................... 309 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)................................................... 309 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 310 References.......................................................................................... 310 Questions ........................................................................................... 312 Chapter 26 Foodborne Toxicoinfections....................................................................... 315 Introduction......................................................................................... 315 Clostridium perfringens Gastroenteritis........................................................... 315 Importance....................................................................................... 315 Characteristics................................................................................... 315 Habitat........................................................................................... 316 Toxins and Toxin Production................................................................... 316 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 316 Food Association................................................................................ 316 Prevention....................................................................................... 317 Detection Method............................................................................... 317 Analysis of an Outbreak........................................................................ 317 Bacillus cereus Gastroenteritis..................................................................... 318 Importance....................................................................................... 318 Characteristics................................................................................... 318 Habitat........................................................................................... 318 Toxins and Toxin Production................................................................... 318 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 318 Food Association................................................................................ 319 Prevention....................................................................................... 319 Detection Method............................................................................... 320 Cholera.............................................................................................. 320 Importance....................................................................................... 320 Characteristics................................................................................... 320 Habitat........................................................................................... 321 Toxins and Toxin Production................................................................... 321 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 321 Food Association................................................................................ 321 Prevention....................................................................................... 322 Detection Method............................................................................... 322 Analysis of an Outbreak........................................................................ 322 Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis ................................................................... 323 Importance....................................................................................... 323 Characteristics................................................................................... 323 Habitat........................................................................................... 323 Toxins and Toxin Production................................................................... 323 Disease and Symptoms......................................................................... 324 Food Association................................................................................ 324 Prevention....................................................................................... 324 Detection Methods.............................................................................. 324 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 324 References.......................................................................................... 325 Questions ........................................................................................... 325 Chapter 27 Opportunistic Pathogens, Parasites, and Algal Toxins............................................ 327 Introduction......................................................................................... 327 Opportunistic Pathogens........................................................................... 327 Aeromonas hydrophila.......................................................................... 327 Characteristics................................................................................ 327 Food Association............................................................................. 327 Disease-Causing Potential................................................................... 327 Plesiomonas shigelloides....................................................................... 328 Characteristics................................................................................ 328 Food Association............................................................................. 328 Disease-Causing Potential................................................................... 328 Non-Escherichia coli Coliforms................................................................ 328 Toxigenic Psychrotrophic Bacillus Species.................................................... 329 Biogenic Amines................................................................................... 329 Histamine (Scombroid) Poisoning............................................................. 329 Algal Toxins........................................................................................ 330 Ciguatera Poisoning............................................................................. 330 Shellfish Poisoning.............................................................................. 331 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning................................................................ 331 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning.............................................................. 331 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning............................................................... 331 Parasites............................................................................................. 331 Trichinosis by Trichinella spiralis.............................................................. 331 Anisakiasis by Anisakis simplex................................................................ 332 Taeniasis by Taenia Species.................................................................... 332 Toxoplasmosis by Toxoplasma gondii......................................................... 332 Giardiasis by Giardia lamblia.................................................................. 332 Cryptosporidiosis by Cryptosporidium parvum............................................... 333 Cyclosporiasis by Cyclospora cayetanensis................................................... 333 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 333 References.......................................................................................... 333 Questions...........................................................................,............... 334 Chapter 28 New and Emerging Foodborne Pathogens........................................................ 337 Introduction......................................................................................... 337 Associated Factors.................................................................................. 338 Better Knowledge of Pathogens................................................................ 338 Improvement in Regulatory Actions........................................................... 339 Changes in Lifestyle and Food Habits......................................................... 340 New Food-Processing Technology............................................................. 342 Miscellaneous Factors.............................................................................. 343 Other Emerging Foodborne Pathogens of Concern............................................... 345 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 345 References.......................................................................................... 346 Questions ........................................................................................... 346 Chapter 29 Indicators of Bacterial Pathogens.................................................................. 349 Introduction......................................................................................... 349 Criteria for Ideal Indicators........................................................................ 349 Coliform Group..................................................................................... 350 Coliforms........................................................................................ 350 Organisms and Sources...................................................................... 351 Occurrence and Significance in Food....................................................... 351 Fecal Coliforms................................................................................. 351 Organisms and Sources...................................................................... 351 Occurrence and Significance in Food....................................................... 351 Escherichia coli................................................................................. 352 Organisms and Sources...................................................................... 352 Occurrence and Significance in Food....................................................... 352 Enterobacteriaceae Group.......................................................................... 353 Enterococcus Group................................................................................ 354 Characteristics and Habitat..................................................................... 354 Occurrence and Significance in Food.......................................................... 354 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 354 References.......................................................................................... 354 Questions ........................................................................................... 355 Part VI Control of Microorganisms in Foods.......................................... 357 Chapter 30 Control of Access (Cleaning and Sanitation)..................................................... 359 Introduction......................................................................................... 359 Objectives of Sanitation............................................................................ 359 Factors to Consider................................................................................. 360 Plant Design..................................................................................... 360 Quality of Water, Ice, Brine, and Curing Solution............................................. 360 Quality of Air.................................................................................... 360 Training of Personnel........................................................................... 360 Equipment....................................................................................... 361 Cleaning of Processing Facilities............................................................... 361 Sanitation of Food-Processing Equipment..................................................... 361 Chlorine-Based Sanitizers................................................................... 362 Iodophores.................................................................................... 362 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds........................................................ 363 H2O2.......................................................................................... 363 Decontamination and Sanitization of Fruits and Vegetables.................................. 363 Microbiological Standards, Specifications, and Guidelines................................... 364 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 365 References.......................................................................................... 365 Questions ........................................................................................... 365 Chapter 31 Control by Physical Removal...................................................................... 367 Introduction......................................................................................... 367 Physical Methods................................................................................... 367 Centrifugation................................................................................... 367 Filtration......................................................................................... 367 Trimming........................................................................................ 367 Washing.......................................................................................... 368 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 368 References.......................................................................................... 368 Questions ........................................................................................... 369 Chapter 32 Control by Heat..................................................................................... 371 Introduction......................................................................................... 371 Objectives........................................................................................... 371 Mechanism of Thermal Inactivation............................................................... 372 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 372 Nature of Food.................................................................................. 372 Nature of Microorganisms...................................................................... 373 Nature of Process ............................................................................... 373 Mathematical Expressions......................................................................... 373 Decimal Reduction Time (D Value)............................................................ 374 Thermal Death Time (TDT), Z Value, and F Value............................................ 375 Methods............................................................................................. 375 Low-Heat Processing or Pasteurization........................................................ 376 High-Heat-Processed Foods.................................................................... 377 Microwave Heating.......................................,..................................... 377 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 378 References.......................................................................................... 378 Questions ........................................................................................... 378 Chapter 33 Control by Low Temperature......................,............................................... 379 Introduction......................................................................................... 379 Objectives........................................................................................... 380 Mechanisms of Cold Induced Inactivation........................................................ 380 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 381 Nature of Process............................................................................... 381 Nature of Food.....................................................,............................ 382 Nature of Microorganisms...................................................................... 382 Methods............................................................................................. 382 lee Chilling...................................................................................... 382 Refrigeration .................................................................................... 383 Freezing ......................................................................................... 383 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 383 References.......................................................................................... 384 Questions ........................................................................................... 384 Chapter 34 Control by Reduced Water Activity ............................................................... 385 Introduction......................................................................................... 385 Objectives........................................................................................... 385 Mechanism of Action............................................................................... 385 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 386 Nature of Process ............................................................................... 386 Nature of Foods................................................................................. 386 Nature of Microorganisms...................................................................... 387 Methods............................................................................................. 388 Natural Dehydration ............................................................................ 388 Mechanical Drying.............................................................................. 388 Freeze-Drying................................................................................... 389 Foam Drying.................................................................................... 389 Smoking......................................................................................... 389 Intermediate Moisture Foods................................................................... 389 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 390 References.......................................................................................... 390 Questions ........................................................................................... 390 Chapter 35 Control by Low pH and Organic Acids ........................................................... 391 Introduction......................................................................................... 391 Objectives........................................................................................... 391 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action ............................................................. 391 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 392 Nature of Acids.................................................................................. 392 Nature of Foods................................................................................. 393 Nature of Microorganisms...................................................................... 393 Acids Used.......................................................................................... 393 Acetic Acid...................................................................................... 393 Propionic Acid .................................................................................. 394 Lactic Acid...................................................................................... 394 Citric Acid....................................................................................... 395 SorbicAcid...................................................................................... 395 Benzoic Acid.................................................................................... 395 Parabens (Esters of p-Hydroxybenzoic Acid) ................................................. 395 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 3% References.......................................................................................... 396 Questions ........................................................................................... 396 Chapter 36 Control by Modified Atmosphere (or Reducing O-R Potential)................................. 397 Introduction......................................................................................... 397 Objectives........................................................................................... 398 Mechanism of Action............................................................................... 398 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 398 Nature of Process ............................................................................... 398 Nature of Foods................................................................................. 399 Nature of Microorganisms...................................................................... 399 Methods............................................................................................. 399 Vacuum Packaging.............................................................................. 399 Gas Flushing .................................................................................... 400 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 400 References.......................................................................................... 400 Questions ........................................................................................... 400 Chapter 37 Control by Antimicrobial Preservatives........................................................... 403 Introduction......................................................................................... 403 Objectives........................................................................................... 404 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 404 Examples of Antimicrobial Preservatives......................................................... 404 Nitrates and Nitrites............................................................................. 405 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and Sulfites (SO3) ...................................................... 405 H2O2............................................................................................. 406 Epoxides (Ethylene Oxide, Propylene Oxide)................................................. 406 Acids............................................................................................. 406 Parabens......................................................................................... 406 Bacteriocins of Lactic Acid Bacteria........................................................... 406 Diacety 1.......................................................................................... 406 CO2.............................................................................................. 406 Butylated Hydroxyanisol (BHA), Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT), and f-Butyl Hydroquinone (TBHQ)................................................................ 407 Chitosan......................................................................................... 407 Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA).......................................................... 407 Lysozyme........................................................................................ 407 Monolaurin (Glycerol Monolaurate)........................................................... 407 Antibiotics (Tetracyclines, Natamycin, and Tylosin).......................................... 408 Wood Smoke.................................................................................... 408 Spices............................................................................................ 408 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 409 References.......................................................................................... 409 Questions ........................................................................................... 409 Chapter 38 Control by Irradiation.............................................................................. 411 Introduction......................................................................................... 411 Irradiation (Radiation) and Radioactivity...................................................... 411 Use of Irradiation in Food...................................................................... 411 Objectives........................................................................................... 412 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action............................................................. 412 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 413 Nature of Process ............................................................................... 413 Nature of Foods................................................................................. 413 Nature of Microorganisms...................................................................... 413 Methods...................................................................[[[ ][ . . . . . . . . ...... 414 Doses......................................................... . 414 Specific Terms................................................................................... 414 Radurization.................................................................................. 414 Radicidation.................................................................................. 414 Radappertization ............................................................................. 414 Current Recommendations ..................................................................... 415 U V Radiation.................................................................................... 415 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 415 References.......................................................................................... 416 Questions ........................................................................................... 416 Chapter 39 Control by Novel Processing Technologies....................................................... 417 Introduction......................................................................................... 417 Summary of Processing Methods.................................................................. 417 Microwave and Radio-Frequency Processing................................................. 417 Ohmic and Inductive Heating.................................................................. 418 Pulsed Electric Fields........................................................................... 418 High-Pressure Processing....................................................................... 418 Pulsed Light Technology....................................................................... 418 Oscillating Magnetic Fields.................................................................... 419 Ultrasound....................................................................................... 419 High-Voltage Arc Discharge.................................................................... 419 Pulsed x-Rays................................................................................... 419 Pulsed Electric Field............................................................................... 419 Hydrostatic Pressure Processing................................................................... 420 History........................................................................................... 420 Methods, Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation, and Advantages........................... 421 Destruction of Microbial Cells................................................................. 422 Bacterial Cells................................................................................ 422 Bacterial Endospores......................................................................... 423 Molds, Yeasts, Viruses, and Parasites....................................................... 423 Application in Food Processing................................................................ 424 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 426 References.......................................................................................... 426 Questions ........................................................................................... 427 Chapter 40 Control by a Combination of Methods (Hurdle Concept)........................................ 429 Introduction......................................................................................... 429 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action............................................................. 429 Current Status....................................................................................... 430 Low-Heat Processing........................................................................... 430 Low Storage Temperature ...................................................................... 431 LowpH.......................................................................................... 431 Low Aw.......................................................................................... 431 Modified Atmosphere........................................................................... 431 Preservatives.................................................................................... 431 Hydrostatic Pressure Processing (HPP)........................................................ 431 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 432 References.......................................................................................... 432 Questions........................................................................................... 432 Part VII Microbial Detection and Food Safety......................................... 433 Chapter 41 Conventional and Biosensor Based Detection Methods for Microorganisms in Food and Food Environment.................................................................. 435 Introduction......................................................................................... 435 Methods Used ...................................................................................... 436 Standard and Recommended Methods............................................................ 436 Sampling for Microbial Analysis.................................................................. 437 Sample and Sampling Plan..................................................................... 437 Sampling Procedure............................................................................. 437 Quantitative Methods for Microbial Enumeration in Foods...................................... 438 Direct Enumeration............................................................................. 438 Microscopic Counts.......................................................................... 438 Colony-Forming Units (CFU) in Nonselective Agar Media............................... 438 CFU in Nonselective Differential Media.................................................... 438 CFU in Selective Agar Media ............................................................... 439 CFU in Selective-Differential Agar Media.................................................. 439 Indirect Estimation.............................................................................. 439 Dilution to Extinction in Nonselective Broths.............................................. 439 Most Probable Number (MPN) in Selective Broth......................................... 439 Dye Reduction Test........................................................................... 440 Enumeration of Injured Microbial Groups by Selective Media............................... 440 Dilution Scheme, Plating, Incubation, Selection of Plates for Counting CFU, and Reporting Results...................................................................... 440 Qualitative Methods to Isolate Microorganisms in Foods........................................ 440 Isolation of Pathogens .......................................................................... 440 Test for Bacterial Toxins in Foods................................................................. 441 Rapid Methods and Automation................................................................... 441 Metabolic Fingerprinting....................................................................... 442 Immunoassays for Rapid Detection of Pathogens............................................. 442 Immunomagnetic Separation (IMS)......................................................... 443 Reverse Passive Latex Agglutination (RPLA) Method..................................... 444 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELIS A)........................................... 444 Immunofluorescence Assay.................................................................. 445 Immunochromatographic Lateral Flow Assay.............................................. 445 Flow Cytometry.............................................................................. 445 Bioluminescence Methods...................................................................... 446 Nucleic Acid-Based Methods................................................................... 446 Hybridization Method........................................................................ 446 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).......................................................... 447 DNA Fingerprinting.......................................................................... 449 Pathogenicity Assay............................................................................. 449 Biosensors for Pathogen Detection................................................................ 449 Fiber Optic Biosensor........................................................................... 450 Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor............................................................ 451 Electrochemical Immunosensor................................................................ 452 Piezoelectric (PZ) Biosensor................................................................... 452 Impedance-Based Biochip Sensor.............................................................. 452 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTTR)............................................. 453 Light Scattering................................................................................. 453 Cell-Based Sensor............................................................................... 453 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 454 References.......................................................................................... 455 Questions ........................................................................................... 457 Appendix A: Microbial Attachment to Food and Equipment Surfaces .......................... 459 Importance.......................................................................................... 459 Mechanisms of Attachment........................................................................ 460 Influencing Factors................................................................................. 460 Control Measures................................................................................... 461 References.......................................................................................... 461 Appendix B: Predictive Modeling of Microbial Growth in Food................................ 463 Importance.......................................................................................... 463 Traditional Methods................................................................................ 463 Challenge Studies............................................................................... 463 Storage Studies.................................................................................. 464 Accelerated Shelf Life Studies ................................................................. 464 Predictive Microbiology ........................................................................... 464 Square Root Model ............................................................................. 464 Sigmoidal Model (Gompertz: USDA Model) ................................................. 465 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 465 References.......................................................................................... 465 Appendix C: Regulatory Agencies Monitoring Microbiological Safety of Foods in the United States........................................................................ 467 Food Safety Regulations........................................................................... 467 The Agencies....................................................................................... 468 Federal Agencies................................................................................ 468 State and Local Government Agencies......................................................... 469 International Agencies.......................................................................... 469 References.......................................................................................... 469 Appendix D: Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points............................................ 471 Introduction......................................................................................... 471 HACCP Principle of the NACMCF............................................................... 471 Seven Principles of HACCP.................................................................... 472 Brief Description of the Principles............................................................. 472 Principle 1 .................................................................................... 472 Principle 2.................................................................................... 473 Principle 3.................................................................................... 473 Principle 4.................................................................................... 473 Principle 5.................................................................................... 473 Principle 6.................................................................................... 473 Principle?.................................................................................... 473 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 474 References.......................................................................................... 474 Index................................................................................................ 475
adam_txt	Contents Preface to the Fourth Edition . xxxiii Preface to the Third Edition. xxxv Preface to the Second Edition. xxxvii Preface to the First Edition. x.xxix Authors. xli Part I Introduction to Microbes in Foods. 1 Chapter 1 History and Development of Food Microbiology. 3 Introduction. 3 Discovery of Microorganisms. 3 Where Are They Coming From?. 3 What Are Their Functions? . 4 Development of Early Food Microbiology (Before A.D. 1900). 4 Food Microbiology: Current Status. 6 Food Fermentation/Probiotics. 6 Food Spoilage. 7 Foodborne Diseases. 7 Miscellaneous. 7 Food Microbiology and Food Microbiologists. 7 Conclusion. 8 References. 8 Questions . 9 Chapter 2 Characteristics of Predominant Microorganisms in Food. 11 Introduction. II Classification of Microorganisms. H Nomenclature. 12 Morphology and Structure of Microorganisms in Foods. 13 Yeasts and Molds. 13 Bacterial Cells. 15 Viruses. 15 Important Microorganisms in Food. 16 Important Mold Genera. 16 Important Yeast Genera. 17 Foodborne Protozoan Parasites. 18 Important Viruses . 18 Important Bacterial Genera. 18 Gram-Negative Aerobes . 20 Gram-Negative Facultative Anaerobes. 21 Rickettsias. 22 Gram-Positive Cocci. 22 Gram-Positive. Endospore-Forming Rods. 23 Gram-Negative, Endospore-Forming Rods. 23 Gram-Positive. Nonsporulating Regular Rods. 23 Gram-Positive. Nonsporeforming Irregular Rods . 24 Some New Genera . 24 Important Bacterial Groups in Foods. 24 Lactic Acid Bacteria . 25 Acetic Acid Bacteria. 25 Propionic Acid Bacteria. 25 Butyric Acid Bacteria. 25 Proteolytic Bacteria. 25 Lipolytic Bacteria. 25 Saccharolytic Bacteria. 25 Thermophilic Bacteria. 25 Psychrotrophic Bacteria . 25 Thermoduric Bacteria. 26 Halotolerant Bacteria . 26 Aciduric Bacteria. 26 Osmophilic Bacteria . 26 Gas-Producing Bacteria. 26 Slime Producers. 26 Spore Formers. 26 Aerobes. 26 Anaerobes .,. 26 Facultative Anaerobes . 27 Coliforms. 27 Fecal Coliforms. 27 Enteric Pathogens. 27 Conclusion. 27 References. 27 Questions. 28 Chapter 3 Sources of Microorganisms in Foods. 29 Introduction. 29 Predominant Microorganisms in Different Sources . 30 Plants (Fruits and Vegetables). 30 Animals. Birds, Fish, and Shellfish. 30 Air. 31 Soil. 31 Sewage. 31 Water. 32 Humans. 32 Food Ingredients. 32 Equipment. 32 Miscellaneous. 33 Conclusion. 33 References. 33 Questions . 33 Chapter 4 Normal Microbiological Quality of Foods and Its Significance . 35 Introduction. 35 Raw and Ready-to-Eat Meat Products. 35 Raw and Pasteurized Milk. 36 Shell Egg and Liquid Egg. 37 Fish and Shellfish. 37 Vegetables, Fruits, and Nuts . 38 Cereal, Starches, and Gums. 39 Canned Foods. 39 Sugars and Confectioneries. 39 Soft Drinks. Fruit and Vegetable Drinks, Juices, and Bottled Water. 40 Mayonnaise and Salad Dressings. 40 Spices and Condiments . 40 Conclusion. 41 References. 41 Questions . 41 Part II Microbial Growth Response in the Food Environment. 43 Chapter 5 Microbial Growth Characteristics. 45 Introduction. 45 Microbial Reproduction or Growth. 45 Binary Fission. 45 Generation Time (or Doubling Time). 46 Specific Growth Rate. 47 Optimum Growth . 47 Growth Curve. 48 Nature of Microbial Growth in Food. 49 Mixed Population. 49 Sequence of Growth . 49 Growth in Succession or Diauxic Growth. 49 Symbiotic Growth. 50 Synergistic Growth. 50 Antagonistic Growth. 50 Conclusion. 50 References. 51 Questions. 51 Chapter 6 Factors Influencing Microbial Growth in Food. 53 Introduction. 53 Intrinsic Factors or Food Environment. 53 Nutrients and Growth. 53 Carbohydrates in Foods.-. 54 Proteins in Foods. 54 Lipids in Foods. 55 Minerals and Vitamins in Foods. 55 Growth Factors and Inhibitors in Food. 56 Water Activity and Growth. 56 Principle . 56 Aw of Food. 56 Aw and Microbial Growth. 56 pH and Growth. 57 Principle. 57 pH of Food. 58 pH and Microbial Growth. 58 Redox Potential, Oxygen, and Growth. 58 Principle. 58 Redox Potential in Food. 59 Redox Potential and Microbial Growth. 59 Extrinsic Factors. 60 Temperature and Growth . 60 Principle. 60 Food and Temperature. 60 Microbial Growth and Viability. 60 Conclusion. 61 References. 61 Questions. 61 Chapter 7 Microbial Metabolism of Food Components. 63 Introduction. 63 Respiration and Fermentation During Growth. 63 Metabolism of Food Carbohydrates. 64 Degradation of Polysaccharides. 65 Degradation of Disaccharides. 65 Degradation of Monosaccharides . 65 Fermentation. 65 EMP Pathway. 65 HMP Pathway. 66 ED Pathway . 66 Pentose Phosphoketolase Pathway. 66 Hexose Phosphoketolase Pathway. 67 Some Specific Pathways. 67 Anaerobic Respiration. 67 Aerobic Respiration. 68 Synthesis of Polymers . 68 Metabolism of Food Proteins. 68 Aerobic Respiration (Decay). 69 Fermentation (Putrefaction). 69 Metabolism of Food Lipids. 69 Conclusion. 70 References. 70 Questions. 70 Chapter 8 Microbial Sporulation and Germination. 73 Introduction. 73 Mold Spores. 73 Yeast Spores . 73 Bacterial Spores. 73 Sporulation. 75 Dormancy . 76 Activation. 76 Germination. 76 Outgrowth. 77 Importance of Spores in Food . 77 Conclusion. 78 References. 79 Questions . 79 Part III Beneficial Uses of Microorganisms in Food. 81 Chapter 9 Microbial Stress Response in the Food Environment . 83 Introduction. 83 Stress Adaptation. 84 Definition and Observations. 84 Mechanisms of Stress Adaptation. 84 Importance of Stress-Adapted Microorganisms in Food. 85 Pathogens and Spoilage Bacteria Surviving in Low-pH Foods. 85 Stress-Adapted Pathogens Surviving Stomach pH . 86 Enhancing Viability of Starter Cultures and Probiotic Bacteria. 86 Sublethal Stress and Injury. 86 Definition and Observations. 86 Manifestation of Bacterial Sublethal Injury . 88 Sites and Nature of Injury. 89 Repair of Reversible Injury. 89 Injury in Yeasts and Molds. 91 Importance of Sublethally Injured Microorganisms in Food. 91 Detection of Undesirable Microorganisms. 91 Enhancing Shelf Life of Foods. 91 Enhancing Viability of Starter Cultures. 91 Viable-but-Nonculturable. 92 Definition and Terminologies. 92 Proponent Views. 92 Opponent Views. 93 Current Views. 94 Importance of VBNC Microorganisms in Food. 94 Conclusion. 94 References. 95 Questions. 96 Chapter 10 Microorganisms Used in Food Fermentation. 99 Introduction. 99 Microbiology of Fermented Foods. 99 Lactic Starter Cultures . 100 Lactococcus . 100 Streptococcus. 100 Leuconostoc. 101 Pediococcus . 102 Lactobacillus. 102 Oenococcm. 103 Other Starter Cultures. 104 Bifidobacterium. 104 Propionibacterium. 104 Brevibacterium. 104 Acetobacter. 104 Yeasts and Molds. 105 Yeasts. 105 Molds. 105 Conclusion. 106 References. 106 Questions . 106 Chapter 11 Biochemistry of Some Beneficial Traits. 107 Introduction. 107 Mechanisms of Transport of Nutrients. 107 Transport and Metabolism of Carbohydrates . 108 PEP-PTS System for Lactose Transport in Lactococcus lactis. 108 Permease System for Lactose in Lactobacillus acidophilus. 109 Carbohydrates Available Inside the Cells for Metabolism. 109 Homolactic Fermentation of Carbohydrates. 109 Heterolactic Fermentation of Carbohydrates. Ill Metabolism of Pentoses. 112 Hexose Fermentation by Bifidobacterium . 112 Diacetyl Production from Citrate. 113 Propionic Acid Production by Propionibacterium. 113 Transport and Metabolism of Proteinaceous Compounds and Amino Acids. 113 Transport and Metabolism of Lipid Compounds . 114 Conclusion. 114 References. 114 Questions. 115 Chapter 12 Genetics of Some Beneficial Traits. 117 Introduction. 117 Plasmids and Plasmid-Linked Traits in Starter-Culture Bacteria. 117 Important Characteristics of Bacterial Plasmids. 118 Some Characteristics of Small (ca. 10 kb) and Large (over 10 to ca. 150 kb) Plasmids. 118 Presence of Plasmids in Some Starter-Culture Bacteria. 118 Phenorype Assignment to a Plasmid. 119 Plasmid-Linked Traits in Starter-Culture Bacteria. 119 Cryptic Plasmids. 120 Plasmid Replication. 121 Plasmid Mapping and Sequencing. 121 Gene Transfer Methods in Starter-Culture Bacteria. 121 Transduction. 122 Conjugation . 122 Transformation. 123 Protoplast Fusion. 123 Electrotransformation. 123 Conjugative Transposons. 123 Gene Cloning. 124 Cloning Vectors. 124 Metabolic Engineering. 125 Mixed Acid Fermentation by Lactococcus lactis. 126 L(+)-Lactic Acid Production. 126 Diacetyl Production by Lactococcus lactis . 126 Alanine Production from Carbohydrates. 126 Production of Mannitol and Other Polyols. 126 Production of Folic Acid and Riboflavin. 127 Enhancing Proteolysis by Cell Lysis. 127 Protein Targeting. 127 Expression of Interleukin. 127 Drug-Delivery System. 128 Production of Pediocin in Heterologous Hosts . 128 Protein Engineering. 128 Production of Hybrid Prepediocin. 128 Amino Acid Variants of Pediocin. 129 Genome Mapping and Sequencing. 129 Lactic Acid Bacteria. 129 Bacteriophages. 131 The Lac and Las Genes. 131 Conclusion. 132 References. 132 Questions. 133 Chapter 13 Starter Cultures and Bacteriophages. 135 Introduction. 135 History. 135 Concentrated Cultures. 136 Starter-Culture Problems. 137 Strain Antagonism. 137 Loss of a Desired Trait. 138 Cell Death and Injury. 138 Inhibitors in Raw Materials. 138 Bacteriophages of Lactic Acid Bacteria. 138 Morphology and Characteristics. 138 Life Cycle. 139 Host Specificity. 140 Control Methods. 140 Yeast and Mold Cultures. 140 Conclusion. 140 References. 141 Questions.•. 141 Chapter 14 Microbiology of Fermented Food Production . 143 Introduction. 143 General Method of Production. 143 Raw (or Starting) Materials. 144 Microorganisms Used. 144 Fermentation Process. 144 Natural Fermentation. 144 Back Slopping. 144 Controlled Fermentation. 145 Fermented Dairy Products. 145 Milk Composition and Quality. 145 Fermented Milk Products. 146 Microbiology of Cultured Buttermilk Fermentation . 146 Product Characteristics. 146 Processing. 147 Starter (Controlled Fermentation). 147 Growth. 147 Biochemistry . 147 Genetics. 147 Microbial Problems. 148 Microbiology of Yogurt Fermentation. 148 Characteristics. 148 Processing. 148 Starters (Controlled Fermentation). 148 Growth. 149 Biochemistry . 149 Genetics. 150 Microbial Problems. 151 Cheeses. 151 Unripened Cheese. 151 Ripened Cheese . 151 Microbiology of Cottage Cheese. 152 Characteristics. 152 Processing (from Skim Milk). 152 Starters (Controlled Fermentation). 152 Growth, Biochemistry, and Genetics. 152 Microbial Problems. 152 Microbiology of Cheddar Cheese. 153 Characteristics. 153 Processing. 153 Starters (Controlled Fermentation). 153 Growth. 153 Biochemistry . 153 Genetics. 154 Microbial Problems. 154 Microbiology of Swiss Cheese. 154 Characteristics. 154 Processing. 154 Starters (Controlled Fermentation). 155 Growth. 155 Biochemistry . 155 Genetics. 155 Microbial Problems. 155 Microbiology of Blue Cheese . 155 Characteristics. 155 Processing . 156 Starters and Growth (Controlled Fermentation). 156 Biochemistry, Genetics, and Problems. 156 Accelerated Cheese Ripening. 156 Curing at High Temperature. 156 Addition of Enzymes. 156 Slurry Method. 157 Novel Methods. 157 Fermented Meat Products. 157 Types. 157 Microbiology of Semidry Sausages. 157 Characteristics. 157 Processing . 157 Starters (Controlled or Natural Fermentation). 158 Growth. 158 Biochemistry . 158 Genetics. 158 Microbial Problems. 159 Fermented Vegetable Products. 159 Microbiology of Sauerkraut. 159 Characteristics. 159 Processing. 159 Starters (Natural) and Growth. 159 Biochemistry . 160 Genetics. 160 Microbial Problems. 160 Conclusion. 160 References. 160 Questions. 161 Chapter 15 Intestinal Beneficial Bacteria. 163 Introduction. 163 Microbiology of the Human GI Tract. 163 Important Characteristics of Beneficial Bacteria. 164 Beneficial Effects of Probiotics. 165 Lactose Hydrolysis. 165 Reducing Serum Cholesterol Level. 166 Reducing Colon Cancer. 166 Reducing Intestinal Disorders. 166 Modulating Immune Response. 167 Reducing Allergic Diseases. 167 Probiotics as Vaccine Carriers for Infectious Agent. 167 Miscellaneous Benefits. 168 Some Aspects to Consider. 168 Strain Variation.¦. 168 Sensitivity to Stomach Acids. 169 Viability and Injury of Cells. 169 Dose Level and Duration. 169 Induced Lactase Trait. 169 Antibacterial Substances. 169 True Species and Strains. 170 Expertise in Research Areas. 170 Current Developments. 170 Standard of Identity. 170 Scientific Status Summary. 170 Pathogenic Nature. 171 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics. 171 Probiotics. 171 Prebiotics. 172 Synbiotics. 172 Biogenics. 172 Genome Sequence of Probiotic Bacteria. 173 Conclusion. 173 References. 173 Questions . 174 Chapter 16 Food Biopreservatives of Microbial Origin. 175 Introduction. 175 Viable Cells of Lactic Acid Bacteria as Preservatives. 175 Organic Acids, Diacetyl, Hydrogen Peroxide, and Reuterine as Food Preservatives. 176 Organic Acids. 176 Diacetyl. 177 Hydrogen Peroxide. 177 Reuterine . 177 Bacteriocins of Lactic Acid Bacteria as Food Preservatives. 178 Bacteriocin-Producing Strains. 178 Characteristics of Bacteriocins. 179 Genetics and Gene Organization. 182 Mode of Action. 183 Production and Purification. 184 Applications. 184 Yeast Metabolites as Preservatives. 185 Conclusion. 185 References. 186 Questions. 186 Chapter 17 Food Ingredients and Enzymes of Microbial Origin. 189 Introduction.,. 189 Microbial Proteins and Food Additives. 189 Single-Cell Proteins (SCPs). 189 Amino Acids. 190 Nutraceuticals and Vitamins. 190 Flavor Compounds and Flavor Enhancers. 190 Colors. 191 Exopolysaccharides (EPS). 191 Organic Acids. 191 Preservatives. 192 Microbial Enzymes in Food Processing. 192 Enzymes Used. 193 a-Amylase, Glucoamylase, and Glucose Isomerase. 193 Catalase. 193 Cellulase, Hemicellulase, and Pectinase. 193 Invertase. 193 Lactase. 193 Lipases. 193 Proteases. 193 Enzyme Production by Recombinant DNA Technology. 193 Immobilized Enzymes. 194 Adsorption on a Solid Support. 194 Covalent Bonding. 194 Entrapping. 194 Crosslinking. 195 Thermostable Enzymes. 195 Enzymes in Food Waste Treatment. 196 Conclusion. 196 References. 196 Questions. 197 Part IV Microbial Food Spoilage. 199 Chapter 18 Important Factors in Microbial Food Spoilage . 201 Introduction. 201 Sequence of Events. 201 Significance of Microorganisms. 201 Microbial Types. 201 Microbial Numbers. 202 Predominant Microorganisms. 203 Some Important Food Spoilage Bacteria. 203 Psychrotrophic Bacteria. 203 Some Important Psychrotrophic Aerobic Spoilage Bacteria. 204 Some Important Psychrotrophic Facultative Anaerobic Spoilage Bacteria. 204 Some Important Thermoduric Psychrotrophs. 204 Thermophilic Bacteria. 204 Aciduric Bacteria. 204 Significance of Foods. 205 Food Types. 205 Food Nutrients . 205 Utilization of Food Nutrients. 206 Microbial Growth in Succession. 207 Conclusion. 207 References. 207 Questions. 208 Chapter 19 Spoilage of Specific Food Groups. 209 Introduction. 209 Fresh and Ready-to-Eat Meat Products. 209 Raw Meat. 209 Ready-to-Eat Meat Products. 210 Eggs and Egg Products. 212 Shell Eggs. 212 Egg Products. 212 Fish, Crustaceans, and Mollusks. 212 Fish. 212 Crustaceans. 213 Mollusks. 213 Milk and Milk Products. 214 Raw Milk. 214 Pasteurized Milk. 214 Concentrated Liquid Products. 215 Butter. 215 Vegetables and Fruits. 215 Vegetables. 215 Fruits. 216 Soft Drinks, Fruit Juices and Preserves, and Vegetable Juices. 216 Cereals and Their Products . 217 Grains and Seeds. 217 Refrigerated Dough. 217 Breads . 217 Pastas. 217 Pastries. 218 Liquid Sweeteners and Confectioneries. 218 Mayonnaise, Salad Dressings, and Condiments. 218 Fermented Foods. 218 Fermented Meat Products. 219 Fermented Dairy Products. 219 Fermented Vegetable and Fruit Products. 220 Fermented Beverages. 220 Canned Foods. 220 Thermophilic Sporeformers . 221 Flat Sour Spoilage. 221 Thermophilic Anaerobe (TA) Spoilage. 221 Sulfide Stinker Spoilage. 221 Spoilage Due to Insufficient Heating. 221 Spoilage Due to Container Leakage. 222 Conclusion. 222 References. 222 Questions. 222 Chapter 20 New Food Spoilage Bacteria in Refrigerated Foods. 225 Microorganisms that Grow in Refrigerated Foods (Psychrotrophs). 225 Popularity of Refrigerated Foods. 226 Microbiological Problems. 226 Incidence of Spoilage of Vacuum-Packaged Refrigerated Food. 228 Spoilage of Unprocessed (Fresh) Beef by Clostridium Species. 228 Spoilage of Roasted Beef by Clostridium Species . 229 Spoilage of Pork Chops by Clostridium algidicarnis. 230 Spoilage of Tofu by Clostridium Species. 230 Spoilage of Unripened Soft Cheese by Leuconostoc Species. 230 Spoilage of Low-Heat-Processed Meat Products by Leuconostoc Species . 230 Ammonia Odor in Turkey Roll. 231 Yellow Discoloration of Luncheon Meat . 231 Gray Discoloration of Turkey Luncheon Meat. 231 Pink Discoloration of Sliced, Chopped, and Formed Roast Beef. 231 Gas Distension and Pink Discoloration of Sliced Turkey Rolls . 232 Gas Distension (Blowing) of Ground Beef Chubs . 233 Egg Odor in Refrigerated Fresh Chicken Meat Products. 233 Off-Odor in Frozen Chicken Meat Product. 234 Gas and Slime Development in Vacuum-Packaged Smoked Salmon Products. 234 Conclusion. 235 References. 236 Questions. 236 Chapter 21 Food Spoilage by Microbial Enzymes. 239 Introduction. 239 Characteristics of Heat-Stable Enzymes of Psychrotrophic Bacteria. 240 Spoilage of Foods with Heat-Stable Microbial Enzymes. 241 Pasteurized Milk. 241 Ultrahigh Temperature (UHT)-Treated Milk Products. 241 Cheeses. 242 Cultured Dairy Products. 242 Cream and Butter. 242 Milk Powder. 242 Spoilage of Foods by Microbial Enzymes at Low Temperature. 242 Conclusion. 243 References. 243 Questions. 244 Chapter 22 Indicators of Microbial Food Spoilage. 245 Introduction. 245 Microbiological Criteria. 246 Enumeration of Colony-Forming Units (CFUs). 246 Phase-Contrast Microscopy. 247 Chemical Criteria. 247 Assay of Heat-Stable Enzymes. 248 Heat-Stable Proteinases in Milk. 248 Heat-Stable Upases in Milk. 248 Conclusion. 249 References. 249 Questions. 249 Part V Microbial Foodborne Diseases. 251 Chapter 23 Important Facts in Foodborne Diseases. 253 Introduction. 253 Human Gastrointestinal Disorder. 253 Epidemiological Aspects. 254 Investigation of a Foodborne Disease. 254 Foodborne Disease Outbreak. 254 Incidence of Foodborne Disease Outbreak. 254 Cost of Foodborne Diseases. 254 Predominant Etiological Agents. 255 Types of Microbial Foodborne Diseases. 255 Intoxication. 256 Infection. 256 Toxicoinfection. 256 Predominant Bacterial and Viral Pathogens Associated with Foodborne Diseases. 256 Predominant Food Types Associated with Foodborne Diseases of Bacterial and Viral Origin. 258 Predominant Places of Food Consumption Associated with Confirmed Foodborne Disease Outbreaks of Bacterial and Viral Origin. 259 Predominant Contributing Factors Associated with Confirmed Foodborne Disease Outbreaks from Pathogenic Bacteria and Viruses. 260 Influence of Month (of the Year) to Number of Foodborne Disease Outbreaks Caused by Pathogenic Bacteria and Viruses. 260 Influence of Location on Foodborne Diseases of Pathogenic Bacterial and Viral Origin . 261 Human Factors in Foodborne Disease Symptoms. 261 Acceptance Quality of Food Due to Growth of Pathogens. 262 Sequence of Events in a Foodborne Disease. 262 Current Trends. 262 Foodborne Disease Outbreaks During 1988 to 1992. 263 FoodNet. 263 Estimated Foodborne Illnesses. 265 Conclusion. 266 References. 267 Questions . 267 Chapter 24 Foodborne Intoxications. 269 Introduction. 269 Staphylococcal Intoxication. 269 Importance. 269 Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus. 269 Organisms . 269 Growth. 270 Habitat. 270 Toxins and Toxin Production. 270 Disease and Symptoms. 271 Food Association. 271 Prevention (Reduction) of the Disease. 272 Identification Methods. 273 Analysis of an Outbreak. 273 Botulism. 274 Importance. 274 Characteristics. 274 Organisms . 274 Growth. 274 Habitat. 274 Toxins and Toxin Production. 275 Disease and Symptoms . 275 Foodborne Botulism. 276 Infant Botulism. 276 Hidden Botulism. 276 Wound Botulism. 276 Inadvertent Botulism. 276 Food Association. 276 Prevention of Botulism. 277 Identification Methods. 278 Analysis of a Foodborne Botulism Case. 278 Mycotoxicosis. 278 Importance. 278 Characteristics. 278 Organisms . 278 Growth. 279 Habitat. 279 Toxins and Toxin Production. 279 Food Association. 280 Prevention of Mycotoxicosis. 280 Detection Methods. 281 Conclusion. 281 References. 281 Questions. 282 Chapter 25 Foodborne Infections. 283 Introduction. 283 Salmonellosis by Salmonella enterica. 283 Importance. 283 Current Nomenclature System . 284 Predominant Serotypes in Salmonellosis. 284 Characteristics. 285 Habitat. 285 Disease and Symptoms. 286 Food Association. 287 Prevention and Control. 288 Detection Method. 288 A Case Study. 288 Listeriosis by Listeria monocytogenes . 288 Importance. 288 Classification. 289 Characteristics. 290 Habitat. 290 Virulence Factors. 290 Disease and Symptoms. 291 Febrile Gastroenteritis. 291 Invasive Systemic Disease. 291 Food Association. 293 Prevention and Control . 293 Detection Method. 294 A Case Study. 294 Pathogenic Escherichia coli . 294 Importance. 294 Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). 295 Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC). 296 Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) . 296 Disease and Symptoms. 296 Food Association. 296 Prevention . 297 Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). 297 Gastroenteritis Due to EHEC. 297 Characteristics. 297 Ibxins. 297 Disease and Symptoms. 297 Food Association. 298 Prevention. 298 Shigellosis (Bacillary Dysentery) by Shigella Species. 298 Importance. 298 Characteristics. 299 Habitat. 299 Ibxins. 299 Disease and Symptoms. 299 Food Association. 300 Prevention. 300 Campylobacteriosis by Campylobacter Species. 301 Importance. 301 Characteristics. 301 Habitat. 301 Pathogenic Factors and Toxins. 301 Disease and Symptoms. 302 Food Association. 302 Prevention. 303 Yersiniosis by Yersinia enterocolitica. 303 Importance. 303 Characteristics. 303 Habitat. 303 Virulence Factors. 304 Disease and Symptoms. 304 Food Association. 304 Prevention. 304 Gastroenteritis by Vibrio Species. 304 Vibrio parahaemolyticus Gastroenteritis. 305 Importance. 305 Characteristics. 305 Habitat. 305 Toxins and Toxin Production . 305 Disease and Symptoms. 305 Food Association. 306 Prevention. 306 Vibrio vulnificus Septicemia and Wound Infection. 306 Enteric Viruses. 306 Importance. 306 Characteristics. 307 Habitat. 307 Disease and Symptoms. 307 Food Association. 307 Prevention. 308 Detection Method. 308 Other Foodborne Infections. 308 Brucellosis. 308 Streptococcal Infection . 309 Q Fever. 309 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE). 309 Conclusion. 310 References. 310 Questions . 312 Chapter 26 Foodborne Toxicoinfections. 315 Introduction. 315 Clostridium perfringens Gastroenteritis. 315 Importance. 315 Characteristics. 315 Habitat. 316 Toxins and Toxin Production. 316 Disease and Symptoms. 316 Food Association. 316 Prevention. 317 Detection Method. 317 Analysis of an Outbreak. 317 Bacillus cereus Gastroenteritis. 318 Importance. 318 Characteristics. 318 Habitat. 318 Toxins and Toxin Production. 318 Disease and Symptoms. 318 Food Association. 319 Prevention. 319 Detection Method. 320 Cholera. 320 Importance. 320 Characteristics. 320 Habitat. 321 Toxins and Toxin Production. 321 Disease and Symptoms. 321 Food Association. 321 Prevention. 322 Detection Method. 322 Analysis of an Outbreak. 322 Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis . 323 Importance. 323 Characteristics. 323 Habitat. 323 Toxins and Toxin Production. 323 Disease and Symptoms. 324 Food Association. 324 Prevention. 324 Detection Methods. 324 Conclusion. 324 References. 325 Questions . 325 Chapter 27 Opportunistic Pathogens, Parasites, and Algal Toxins. 327 Introduction. 327 Opportunistic Pathogens. 327 Aeromonas hydrophila. 327 Characteristics. 327 Food Association. 327 Disease-Causing Potential. 327 Plesiomonas shigelloides. 328 Characteristics. 328 Food Association. 328 Disease-Causing Potential. 328 Non-Escherichia coli Coliforms. 328 Toxigenic Psychrotrophic Bacillus Species. 329 Biogenic Amines. 329 Histamine (Scombroid) Poisoning. 329 Algal Toxins. 330 Ciguatera Poisoning. 330 Shellfish Poisoning. 331 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning. 331 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning. 331 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning. 331 Parasites. 331 Trichinosis by Trichinella spiralis. 331 Anisakiasis by Anisakis simplex. 332 Taeniasis by Taenia Species. 332 Toxoplasmosis by Toxoplasma gondii. 332 Giardiasis by Giardia lamblia. 332 Cryptosporidiosis by Cryptosporidium parvum. 333 Cyclosporiasis by Cyclospora cayetanensis. 333 Conclusion. 333 References. 333 Questions.,. 334 Chapter 28 New and Emerging Foodborne Pathogens. 337 Introduction. 337 Associated Factors. 338 Better Knowledge of Pathogens. 338 Improvement in Regulatory Actions. 339 Changes in Lifestyle and Food Habits. 340 New Food-Processing Technology. 342 Miscellaneous Factors. 343 Other Emerging Foodborne Pathogens of Concern. 345 Conclusion. 345 References. 346 Questions . 346 Chapter 29 Indicators of Bacterial Pathogens. 349 Introduction. 349 Criteria for Ideal Indicators. 349 Coliform Group. 350 Coliforms. 350 Organisms and Sources. 351 Occurrence and Significance in Food. 351 Fecal Coliforms. 351 Organisms and Sources. 351 Occurrence and Significance in Food. 351 Escherichia coli. 352 Organisms and Sources. 352 Occurrence and Significance in Food. 352 Enterobacteriaceae Group. 353 Enterococcus Group. 354 Characteristics and Habitat. 354 Occurrence and Significance in Food. 354 Conclusion. 354 References. 354 Questions . 355 Part VI Control of Microorganisms in Foods. 357 Chapter 30 Control of Access (Cleaning and Sanitation). 359 Introduction. 359 Objectives of Sanitation. 359 Factors to Consider. 360 Plant Design. 360 Quality of Water, Ice, Brine, and Curing Solution. 360 Quality of Air. 360 Training of Personnel. 360 Equipment. 361 Cleaning of Processing Facilities. 361 Sanitation of Food-Processing Equipment. 361 Chlorine-Based Sanitizers. 362 Iodophores. 362 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds. 363 H2O2. 363 Decontamination and Sanitization of Fruits and Vegetables. 363 Microbiological Standards, Specifications, and Guidelines. 364 Conclusion. 365 References. 365 Questions . 365 Chapter 31 Control by Physical Removal. 367 Introduction. 367 Physical Methods. 367 Centrifugation. 367 Filtration. 367 Trimming. 367 Washing. 368 Conclusion. 368 References. 368 Questions . 369 Chapter 32 Control by Heat. 371 Introduction. 371 Objectives. 371 Mechanism of Thermal Inactivation. 372 Influencing Factors. 372 Nature of Food. 372 Nature of Microorganisms. 373 Nature of Process . 373 Mathematical Expressions. 373 Decimal Reduction Time (D Value). 374 Thermal Death Time (TDT), Z Value, and F Value. 375 Methods. 375 Low-Heat Processing or Pasteurization. 376 High-Heat-Processed Foods. 377 Microwave Heating.,. 377 Conclusion. 378 References. 378 Questions . 378 Chapter 33 Control by Low Temperature.,. 379 Introduction. 379 Objectives. 380 Mechanisms of Cold Induced Inactivation. 380 Influencing Factors. 381 Nature of Process. 381 Nature of Food.,. 382 Nature of Microorganisms. 382 Methods. 382 lee Chilling. 382 Refrigeration . 383 Freezing . 383 Conclusion. 383 References. 384 Questions . 384 Chapter 34 Control by Reduced Water Activity . 385 Introduction. 385 Objectives. 385 Mechanism of Action. 385 Influencing Factors. 386 Nature of Process . 386 Nature of Foods. 386 Nature of Microorganisms. 387 Methods. 388 Natural Dehydration . 388 Mechanical Drying. 388 Freeze-Drying. 389 Foam Drying. 389 Smoking. 389 Intermediate Moisture Foods. 389 Conclusion. 390 References. 390 Questions . 390 Chapter 35 Control by Low pH and Organic Acids . 391 Introduction. 391 Objectives. 391 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action . 391 Influencing Factors. 392 Nature of Acids. 392 Nature of Foods. 393 Nature of Microorganisms. 393 Acids Used. 393 Acetic Acid. 393 Propionic Acid . 394 Lactic Acid. 394 Citric Acid. 395 SorbicAcid. 395 Benzoic Acid. 395 Parabens (Esters of p-Hydroxybenzoic Acid) . 395 Conclusion. 3% References. 396 Questions . 396 Chapter 36 Control by Modified Atmosphere (or Reducing O-R Potential). 397 Introduction. 397 Objectives. 398 Mechanism of Action. 398 Influencing Factors. 398 Nature of Process . 398 Nature of Foods. 399 Nature of Microorganisms. 399 Methods. 399 Vacuum Packaging. 399 Gas Flushing . 400 Conclusion. 400 References. 400 Questions . 400 Chapter 37 Control by Antimicrobial Preservatives. 403 Introduction. 403 Objectives. 404 Influencing Factors. 404 Examples of Antimicrobial Preservatives. 404 Nitrates and Nitrites. 405 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and Sulfites (SO3) . 405 H2O2. 406 Epoxides (Ethylene Oxide, Propylene Oxide). 406 Acids. 406 Parabens. 406 Bacteriocins of Lactic Acid Bacteria. 406 Diacety 1. 406 CO2. 406 Butylated Hydroxyanisol (BHA), Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT), and f-Butyl Hydroquinone (TBHQ). 407 Chitosan. 407 Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA). 407 Lysozyme. 407 Monolaurin (Glycerol Monolaurate). 407 Antibiotics (Tetracyclines, Natamycin, and Tylosin). 408 Wood Smoke. 408 Spices. 408 Conclusion. 409 References. 409 Questions . 409 Chapter 38 Control by Irradiation. 411 Introduction. 411 Irradiation (Radiation) and Radioactivity. 411 Use of Irradiation in Food. 411 Objectives. 412 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action. 412 Influencing Factors. 413 Nature of Process . 413 Nature of Foods. 413 Nature of Microorganisms. 413 Methods.[[[\\\\][\\\'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 414 Doses. . 414 Specific Terms. 414 Radurization. 414 Radicidation. 414 Radappertization . 414 Current Recommendations . 415 U V Radiation. 415 Conclusion. 415 References. 416 Questions . 416 Chapter 39 Control by Novel Processing Technologies. 417 Introduction. 417 Summary of Processing Methods. 417 Microwave and Radio-Frequency Processing. 417 Ohmic and Inductive Heating. 418 Pulsed Electric Fields. 418 High-Pressure Processing. 418 Pulsed Light Technology. 418 Oscillating Magnetic Fields. 419 Ultrasound. 419 High-Voltage Arc Discharge. 419 Pulsed x-Rays. 419 Pulsed Electric Field. 419 Hydrostatic Pressure Processing. 420 History. 420 Methods, Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation, and Advantages. 421 Destruction of Microbial Cells. 422 Bacterial Cells. 422 Bacterial Endospores. 423 Molds, Yeasts, Viruses, and Parasites. 423 Application in Food Processing. 424 Conclusion. 426 References. 426 Questions . 427 Chapter 40 Control by a Combination of Methods (Hurdle Concept). 429 Introduction. 429 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action. 429 Current Status. 430 Low-Heat Processing. 430 Low Storage Temperature . 431 LowpH. 431 Low Aw. 431 Modified Atmosphere. 431 Preservatives. 431 Hydrostatic Pressure Processing (HPP). 431 Conclusion. 432 References. 432 Questions. 432 Part VII Microbial Detection and Food Safety. 433 Chapter 41 Conventional and Biosensor Based Detection Methods for Microorganisms in Food and Food Environment. 435 Introduction. 435 Methods Used . 436 Standard and Recommended Methods. 436 Sampling for Microbial Analysis. 437 Sample and Sampling Plan. 437 Sampling Procedure. 437 Quantitative Methods for Microbial Enumeration in Foods. 438 Direct Enumeration. 438 Microscopic Counts. 438 Colony-Forming Units (CFU) in Nonselective Agar Media. 438 CFU in Nonselective Differential Media. 438 CFU in Selective Agar Media . 439 CFU in Selective-Differential Agar Media. 439 Indirect Estimation. 439 Dilution to Extinction in Nonselective Broths. 439 Most Probable Number (MPN) in Selective Broth. 439 Dye Reduction Test. 440 Enumeration of Injured Microbial Groups by Selective Media. 440 Dilution Scheme, Plating, Incubation, Selection of Plates for Counting CFU, and Reporting Results. 440 Qualitative Methods to Isolate Microorganisms in Foods. 440 Isolation of Pathogens . 440 Test for Bacterial Toxins in Foods. 441 Rapid Methods and Automation. 441 Metabolic Fingerprinting. 442 Immunoassays for Rapid Detection of Pathogens. 442 Immunomagnetic Separation (IMS). 443 Reverse Passive Latex Agglutination (RPLA) Method. 444 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELIS A). 444 Immunofluorescence Assay. 445 Immunochromatographic Lateral Flow Assay. 445 Flow Cytometry. 445 Bioluminescence Methods. 446 Nucleic Acid-Based Methods. 446 Hybridization Method. 446 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). 447 DNA Fingerprinting. 449 Pathogenicity Assay. 449 Biosensors for Pathogen Detection. 449 Fiber Optic Biosensor. 450 Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor. 451 Electrochemical Immunosensor. 452 Piezoelectric (PZ) Biosensor. 452 Impedance-Based Biochip Sensor. 452 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTTR). 453 Light Scattering. 453 Cell-Based Sensor. 453 Conclusion. 454 References. 455 Questions . 457 Appendix A: Microbial Attachment to Food and Equipment Surfaces . 459 Importance. 459 Mechanisms of Attachment. 460 Influencing Factors. 460 Control Measures. 461 References. 461 Appendix B: Predictive Modeling of Microbial Growth in Food. 463 Importance. 463 Traditional Methods. 463 Challenge Studies. 463 Storage Studies. 464 Accelerated Shelf Life Studies . 464 Predictive Microbiology . 464 Square Root Model . 464 Sigmoidal Model (Gompertz: USDA Model) . 465 Conclusion. 465 References. 465 Appendix C: Regulatory Agencies Monitoring Microbiological Safety of Foods in the United States. 467 Food Safety Regulations. 467 The Agencies. 468 Federal Agencies. 468 State and Local Government Agencies. 469 International Agencies. 469 References. 469 Appendix D: Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points. 471 Introduction. 471 HACCP Principle of the NACMCF. 471 Seven Principles of HACCP. 472 Brief Description of the Principles. 472 Principle 1 . 472 Principle 2. 473 Principle 3. 473 Principle 4. 473 Principle 5. 473 Principle 6. 473 Principle?. 473 Conclusion. 474 References. 474 Index. 475
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spelling	Ray, Bibek Verfasser aut Fundamental food microbiology Bibek Ray and Arun Bhunia 4. ed. Boca Raton [u.a.] CRC Pr. 2008 492 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier "A CRC title." Includes bibliographical references and index Microbiología de alimentos Food Microbiology Food Poisoning prevention & control Lebensmittelmikrobiologie (DE-588)4034896-9 gnd rswk-swf Lebensmittelmikrobiologie (DE-588)4034896-9 s DE-604 Bhunia, Arun K. Verfasser aut http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip0712/2007010035.html Table of contents only http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0710/2007010035-d.html Publisher description HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016278020&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis
spellingShingle	Ray, Bibek Bhunia, Arun K. Fundamental food microbiology Microbiología de alimentos Food Microbiology Food Poisoning prevention & control Lebensmittelmikrobiologie (DE-588)4034896-9 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4034896-9
title	Fundamental food microbiology
title_auth	Fundamental food microbiology
title_exact_search	Fundamental food microbiology
title_exact_search_txtP	Fundamental food microbiology
title_full	Fundamental food microbiology Bibek Ray and Arun Bhunia
title_fullStr	Fundamental food microbiology Bibek Ray and Arun Bhunia
title_full_unstemmed	Fundamental food microbiology Bibek Ray and Arun Bhunia
title_short	Fundamental food microbiology
title_sort	fundamental food microbiology
topic	Microbiología de alimentos Food Microbiology Food Poisoning prevention & control Lebensmittelmikrobiologie (DE-588)4034896-9 gnd
topic_facet	Microbiología de alimentos Food Microbiology Food Poisoning prevention & control Lebensmittelmikrobiologie
url	http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip0712/2007010035.html http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0710/2007010035-d.html http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016278020&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT raybibek fundamentalfoodmicrobiology AT bhuniaarunk fundamentalfoodmicrobiology

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