EU competition law: text, cases, and materials
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| Main Authors: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Oxford [u.a.]
Oxford Univ. Press
2008
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| Edition: | 3. ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | 2. Aufl. u.d.T.: Jones, Alison: EC competition law |
| Physical Description: | CV, 1418 S. |
| ISBN: | 9780199299041 |
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Record in the Search Index
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OUTLINE CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPETITION LAW 1
1. Central Issues 1
2. Introduction 1
3. The Objectives of Competition Law 3
4. US law 19
5. Schools of Competition Analysis 22
6. Ordoliberalism 34
7. EC Competition Law 35
8. Competition Law and the International Context 56
9. The Techniques and Tools of Competition Law 56
10. Market Power, Market Definition, and Barriers to Entry 58
11. Conclusions 92
12. Further Reading 93
2. THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AND THE
COMPETITION PROVISIONS 95
1. Central Issues 95
2. Introduction 96
3. Introduction to the European Community 96
4. The Competition Provisions 108
5. The Competition Rules and the European Economic Area 118
6. Modernization 119
7. Conclusions 119
8. Further Reading 120
3. ARTICLE 81: THE ELEMENTS 121
1. Central Issues 121
2. Introduction 121
3. The Text of Article 81 123
4. The Scheme of Article 81 124
5. The Interpretation and Application of Article 81(1) 127
6. Article 81(2) 201
7. Exclusions 201
8. Conclusions 203
9. Further Reading 203
viii | OUTLINE CONTENTS
4. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTICLE 81(1) AND
ARTICLE 81(3) OF THE TREATY 205
1. Central Issues 205
2. Introduction and Background 206
3. Article 81 (1), Agreements which have as their Object or Effect the
Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 219
4. Article 81(3) 269
5. Conclusions 290
6. Further Reading 291
5. ARTICLE 82: THE ELEMENTS 293
1. Central Issues 293
2. Introduction 294
3. The Text of Article 82 295
4. The Reform of Article 82 295
5. The Scheme of Article 82 298
6. The Interpretation and Application of Article 82 301
7. The Relationship Between Article 82 and Article 81 343
8. Comparison Between Article 82 and Section 2 of the US Sherman Act 345
9. Conclusions 348
10. Further Reading 349
6. ARTICLE 82: ESTABLISHING DOMINANCE 350
1. Central Issues 350
2. Introduction 350
3. Market Definition 352
4. Assessing Market Power 394
5. Conclusions 431
6. Further Reading 432
7. CONDUCT WHICH CAN BE AN ABUSE 434
1. Central Issues 434
2. Introduction 435
3. Abuse and the Degree of Dominance 435
4. Dominance and Abuse on Different Markets 436
5. Exploitative and Exclusionary Pricing Policies 440
6. Exclusionary Pricing Abuses and Tying 443
7. Refusals to Supply 529
8. Other Exclusionary Practices 580
9. Exploitative Abuses 585
i
OUTLINE CONTENTS | ix
10. Export Bans and other Conduct Hindering Inter-Member State Trade 607
11. Abuse and Collective Dominance 609
12. Conclusions 609
13. Further Reading 610
8. COMPETITION, THE STATE, AND PUBLIC UNDERTAKINGS:
ARTICLE 86 613
1. Central Issues 613
2. Introduction 614
3. Article 10 623
4. Article 86 624
5. Services of General Economic Interest and State Aids 671
6. Services of General (Economic) Interest and Political and
Legal Developments 671
7. Conclusions 677
8. Further Reading 678
O. DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENTS 679
1. Central Issues 679
2. Introduction 679
3. The Community Approach—An Overview 702
4. Distribution Agreements and Article 81 (1) of the Treaty 712
5. Article 81(3) 738
6. Subcontracting Agreements 768
7. Article 82 and Distribution 769
8. Conclusions and the Future 770
9. Further Reading 771
1O. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 772
1. Central Issues 772
2. Introduction 772
3. Exploiting Intellectual Property Rights by Licensing 784
4. Regulation 772/2004, the Technology Transfer
Block Exemption 807
5. The Application of Article 81 to Agreements Falling
Outside the TTBER 829
6. Trade Mark Licences 843
7. Trade Mark Delimitation Agreements 848
8. Copyright Licences other than Software Licences 849
9. Software Licences and Interoperability 852
x I OUTLINE CONTENTS
10. The Application of Article 82 to Intellectual Property Rights 855
11. Conclusion 856
12. Further Reading 857
11. CARTELS AND OLIGOPOLY 858
1. Central Issues 858
2. Introduction 8^8
3. Cartels 875
4. Oligopoly 911
5. Conclusions 938
6. Further Reading 939
12. MERGERS 941
1. Central Issues 941
2. Introduction 942
3. Jurisdiction 958
4. Procedure 994
5. Substantive Appraisal of Concentrations under the
EC Merger Regulation 1005
6. ECMR Statistics 1084
7. Appeals 1084
8. International Issues 1088
9. Conclusions 1089
10. Further Reading 1090
13. JOINT VENTURES AND OTHER BENEFICIAL
HORIZONTAL ARRANGEMENTS 1091
1. Central Issues 1091
2. Introduction 1091
3. Joint Ventures 1093
4. Research and Development Agreements, Specialization
Agreements, and the 1985 Block Exemptions 1102
5. The Assessment of Horizontal Cooperation Agreements in the
Light of the Commission Guidelines and of Block Exemptions
2658/2000 and 2659/2000 1105
6. Conclusions 1135
7. Further Reading 1136
14. PUBLIC ENFORCEMENT BY THE COMMISSION AND
THE NATIONAL COMPETITION AUTHORITIES OF
THE ANTITRUST PROVISIONS 1137 ;
1. Central Issues 1137 I
OUTLINE CONTENTS | xi
2. Introduction 1138
3. The Old Enforcement Regime Set Up by Regulation 17 1139
4. Modernization 1140
5. The European Competition Network 1146
6. Enforcement by the Commission 1147
7. Proceedings before the Court of Justice 1252
8. Enforcement by the National Competition Authorities within
the European Competition Network 1270
9. The Relationship between EC and National Competition Law 1282
10. Sanctions against Individuals 1285
11. Complaints 1287
12. Conclusions 1300
13. Further Reading 1301
15. PROCEEDINGS IN THE NATIONAL COURTS 1303
1. Central Issues 1303
2. Introduction 1303
3. The Enforceability of Agreements Infringing Articles 81 or 82 1319
4. Remedies: Damages Actions and Injunctions 1325
5. Conclusions 1354
6. Further Reading 1354
16. EXTRATERRITORIALITY, INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS,
AND GLOBALIZATION 1356
1. Central Issues 1356
2. Introduction 1357
3. The Position in US Law 1357
4. International Law 1369
5. The Position in EC Law 1387
6. International Cooperation 1395
7. Conclusions 1395
8. Further Reading 1396
Addendum 1399
Index 1405
xiv | CONTENTS
C. Post-Chicago 30
(i) Game Theory 31
(ii) Contestable Markets 31
(iii) Raising Rivals' Costs 31
(iv) Transaction Cost Economics 32
(v) Conclusion 32
D. Other Schools, Theories, and Concepts 33
(i) Workable Competition 33
(ii) The Austrian School 33
(iii) Effective Competition 33
6. Ordoliberalism 34
7. EC Competition Law 35
A. General 35
B. The Objectives of the European Community and
EC Competition Policy 38
(i) The Objectives of the European Community 38
(ii) The Development of the Objectives of EC
Competition Policy 41
(iii) The 'Modernization' of EC Competition Law and the
Consumer Welfare Standard 44
(iv) Socio-Political or 'Non-Efficiency' Factors and the
Relationship of Competition With Other Community Policies 49
C. The Limits of Competition, Public Services, and Regulation 52
(i) The Limits of Competition 52
(ii) Competition and Regulation 53
D. The New Economy 54
8. Competition Law and the International Context 56
9. The Techniques and Tools of Competition Law 56
10. Market Power, Market Definition, and Barriers to Entry 5 8
A. Market Power 58
B. Market Definition and EC Competition Law 60
(i) The Importance of Market Definition 60
(ii) Relevant Market Definition in the Case Law of the
Court of Justice 61
(iii) The Commission Notice on the Definition of the
Relevant Market for the Purposes of Community
Competition Law 63
(iv) Demand and Supply Substitution 64
(v) Demand Substitution 65
(vi) Primary and Secondary Markets (Aftermarkets) 78
CONTENTS | xv
(vii) One Market or Two? 78
(viii) Two Sided Industries 79
(ix) Supply Substitution 79
(x) The Geographic Market 81
C. Barriers to Entry 84
(i) The Role of Barriers to Entry 84
(ii) The Definition of a Barrier to Entry 8 5
11. Conclusions 92
12. Further Reading 93
2. THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AND THE COMPETITION
PROVISIONS 95
1. Central Issues 95
2. Introduction 96
3. Introduction to the European Community 96
A. The European Union and the European Community 96
B. The Sources of European Community law 98
(i) Introduction 98
(ii) The Treaty Establishing the European Community 98
(iii) The EC Institutions 98
(iv) Community Acts 103
(v) The Case Law of the Community Courts 103
(vi) The General Principles of Community Law 105
C. A New Legal Order of International Law 106
(i) Direct Effect 106
(ii) Supremacy 107
(iii) Article 234 (Ex Article 177) of the EC Treaty 108
4. The Competition Provisions 108
A. General 108
(i) Article 3(l)(g) of the Treaty 108
(ii) The Main Treaty Provisions and The Merger Regulation 109
(iii) Special Sectors 109
B. The Substantive Provisions of the Treaty 112
(i) Article 81 (Ex Article 85) 113
(ii) Article 82 (Ex Article 86) 113
(iii) Articles 86 and 31 (Ex Articles 90 and 3 7) 113
C. The Procedural Provisions 114
(i) Article 83 (Ex Article 87) 114
(ii) Article 84 (Ex Article 88) 116
xvi | CONTENTS
(iii) Article 85 (Ex Article 89) 116
D. The Merger Regulation 117
E. Other Relevant Treaty Provisions 117
5. The Competition Rules and the European Economic Area 118
6. Modernization 119
7. Conclusions 119
8. Further Reading 120
3. ARTICLE 81: THE ELEMENTS 121
1. Central Issues 121
2. Introduction 121
3. The Text of Article 81 123
4. The Scheme of Article 81 124
A. The Three Paragraphs 124
(i) The Prohibition 124
(ii) Nullity 124
(iii) Legal Exception—Declaration of Inapplicability 124
B. The Consequences of Infringement 125
(i) Nullity and Private Proceedings Between the
Parties to a Contract 125
(ii) Investigation, Detection, and Penalties—the Commission 125
(iii) Investigation, Detection, and Penalties—the National
Competition Authorities 125
(iv) Damages and Other Private Proceedings 126
C. Burden and Standard of Proof 126
5. The Interpretation and Application of Article 81 (1) 127
A. General 127
B. 'Undertaking' and 'Asociations of Undertaking' 128
(i) Every Entity Engaged in an Economic Activity: the
Constituent Elements 128
(ii) The Notion of an Undertaking is a Relative Concept 129
(iii) The legal Status or Form or the Entity is Immaterial 130
(iv) Public Bodies and Bodies Performing Public Functions 131
(v) Employees and Trade Unions 139
(vi) Single Economic Entity 141
(vii) Associations of Undertakings 146
C. The meaning of'Agreement', 'Decision', and 'Concerted Practice' 148
(i) Introduction 14g
(ii) Agreement 148
CONTENTS | xvii
(iii) Decisions by Associations of Undertakings 171
(iv) Concerted Practices 173
D. Object or Effect the Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion
ofCompetition 181
E. An Appreciable Effect on Competition 182
(i) Volkv.Vervaecke 182
(ii) Commission Notice on Agreements of Minor Importance
which do not Appreciably Restrict Competition under
Article 81(1) (De Minimis) 183
(iii) Networks of Agreements 186
(iv) Outgrowing the Notice 186
(v) The Importance of Market Shares and Hard-core Restraints 186
(vi) Effect of the Notice 189
F. An Appreciable Effect on Trade between Member States 191
(i) Jurisdictional Limit 191
(ii) The Tests 192
(iii) Pattern of Trade Test 192
(iv) An Increase in Trade 193
(v) Partitioning of the Common Market 194
(vi) Agreements Operating in One Member State 196
(vii) Restrictions on Competition and Restrictions on Trade 197
(viii) Agreements which Appreciably Affect Trade between
Member States 197
(ix) The Relationship between Community and National Law 199
G. Agreements Required by National Legislation 199
H. Commission Notices 200
I. Extraterritoriality 201
6. Article 81(2) 201
7. Exclusions 201
8. Conclusions 203
9. Further Reading 203
4. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTICLE 81(1) AND
ARTICLE 81(3) OF THE TREATY 205
1. Central Issues 205
2. Introduction and Background 206
A. Article 81(1) and Article 81(3) 206
B. Possible Ways of Reconciling Article 81(1) and 81 (3) 207
C. The Interpretation of'Object or Effect is the Prevention,
Restriction, or Distortion of Competition'—the Broad Approach 208
xviii | CONTENTS
D. The Drawbacks of a Broad Interpretation of Article 81(1):
the Need for More Economic Approach? 209
E. Section 1 of the Sherman Act 212
F. Modernization 213
(i) Modernization and Regulation 1/2003 213
(ii) The CFI's Judgment in Mitropole 215
G. The Importance of the debate 218
3. Article 81 (1), Agreements which have as their Object or Effect the
Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 219
A. General 219
B. Object or Effect 220
(i) Alternative, Not Cumulative, Requirements 220
(ii) The Object of the Agreement 220
(iii) The Effect of the Agreement 222
C. Agreements that restrict Competition by Object 223
(i) Horizontal Agreements 223
(ii) Vertical Agreements 225
(iii) Intellectual Property Licensing Agreements 233
(iv) Restrictions by Object and 'Hard-Core' Restraints 234
(v) Object Cases and Appreciability 234
(vi) A Criticism? 235
D. Agreements that Restrict Competition by Effect 236
(i) General 236
(ii) A Rejection of the Rule of Reason 236
(iii) The Analytical Framework Set Out by the Commission
in the Article 81(3) Guidelines 237
(iv) Restraints on Inter-Brand Competition: Appraisal of an
Agreement in its Legal and Economic Context 237
(v) Restraints on Intra-Brand Competition 246
(vi) Ancillary Restraints 248
(vii) Weighing Anti- and Pro-Competitive Effects—Balancing
Under Article 81(1)? 258
E. Conclusions on the Approach Required Under Article 81(1) 267
4. Article 81(3) 269
A. General 269
B. The Interpretation and Application of Article 81(3) 271
(i) Criterion 1: The Agreement Must lead to an Improvement
in the Production or Distribution of Goods or the Promotion
of Technical or Economic Progress 271
(ii) Criterion 2: Allowing Consumers a Fair Share of the
Resulting Benefit 277
CONTENTS | xix
(iii) Criterion 3: Indispensable Restrictions 279
(iv) Criterion 4: The Agreement must not Afford the Parties the
Possibility of Eliminating Competition 281
C. Application in Individual Cases 284
D. Block Exemptions 284
(i) General 284
(ii) Current Block Exemptions 284
(iii) Block Exemptions are Directly Applicable 287
(iv) Market Share Thresholds 288
(v) Opposition Procedure 288
(vi) Withdrawal of Block Exemptions 288
(vii) Safe Harbours 289
E. Unilateral Action and Article 81 (3) 289
F. The Relationship Between Article 81(3) and Article 82 290
5. Conclusions 290
6. Further Reading 291
5. ARTICLE 82: THE ELEMENTS 293
1. Central Issues 293
2. Introduction 294
3. The Text of Article 82 295
4. The Reform of Article 82 295
5. The Scheme of Article 82 298
A. The Prohibition 298
B. Consequences of Infringement 299
(i) Investigation, Fines, and Other Remedies 299
(ii) Private Action 300
6. The Interpretation and Application of Article 82 301
A. The Meaning of One or More Undertakings 301
(i) General 301
(ii) Public Bodies and Bodies Performing Public Functions 301
(iii) One or More Undertakings—Collective Dominance 301
B. Dominant Position 303
(i) What is Meant by a'Dominant Position? 303
(ii) The Definition of Dominant Position in the Case-law of the ECJ 304
(iii) Problems with the Definition of Dominant Position 306
(iv) Effects-based Analysis and the Concept of Dominance 310
(v) Assessing Dominance 312
(vi) Super-Dominance 313
xx I CONTENTS
C. A Dominant Position within a Substantial Part of the
Common Market 313
(i) Purpose of the requirement 313
(ii) Meaning of a Substantial Part of the Common Market 313
(iii) Relevance of Volume of Production 314
(iv) A Member State is Likely to be a Substantial Part of the
Common Market 314
(v) Transport Cases 315
D. The Meaning of Abuse 316
(i) Introduction 316
(ii) Exploitative and Exclusionary (Anti-competitive) Abuses 316
(iii) Categories of Abuse are not Mutually Exclusive 321
(iv) The Broad Nature of the Concept of Abuse 322
(v) Exclusionary Abuses: Distinguishing Competition on the
Merits from Exclusionary Behaviour 322
E. An Effect on Trade Between Member States 339
(i) General 339
(ii) Abuse of a Dominant Position Covering Several
Member States 340
(iii) Abuse of a Dominant Position Covering a Single
Member State 340
(iv) Abuse of a Dominant Position Covering only Part of a
Member State 342
(v) Abuses Involving Trade with Third Countries 342
7. The Relationship Between Article 82 and Article 81 343
8. Comparison Between Article 82 and Section 2 of the US Sherman Act 345
9. Conclusions 348
10. Further Reading 349
6. ARTICLE 82: ESTABLISHING DOMINANCE 350
1. Central Issues 350
2. Introduction 350
3. Market Definition 352
A. General 352
B. The Product Market 353
(i) Demand Substitution 353
(ii) Supply Substitution 380
C. The Geographic Market 383
D. The Temporal Market 3gg
E. The Tetra Pdk //Case 3gg
CONTENTS | xxi
4. Assessing Market Power 394
A. General 394
B. Market Shares in the Case of Single Undertaking Dominance 396
(i) General 396
(ii) High Market Shares and the Presumption of Dominance 397
(iii) Low Market Shares and Dominance 399
(iv) Market Shares and the Commission Discussion Paper 404
(v) Problems with the Role of Market Shares in the Assessment
of Market Power 405
C. Market Shares in the Case of Collective Dominance 406
D. Other Factors Indicating Dominance 407
(i) General 407
(ii) Some Leading Cases 407
(iii) Summary of 'Other Factors Indicating Dominance' 415
E. Power over Locked-In Customers and on Aftermarkets 425
F. Buyer Power 428
G. Dominant Positions in the New Economy 429
H. Super-Dominance 431
5. Conclusions 431
6. Further Reading 432
7- CONDUCT WHICH CAN BE ABUSE 434
1. Central Issues 434
2. Introduction 435
3. Abuse and the Degree of Dominance 435
4. Dominance and Abuse on Different Markets 436
5. Exploitative and Exclusionary Pricing Policies 440
A. General 440
B. Price Discrimination 440
(i) What is Price Discrimination? 440
(ii) Primary Line and Secondary Line Injury 442
6. Exclusionary Pricing Abuses and Tying 443
A. Predatory Pricing 443
(i) General 443
(ii) Cost Levels 445
(iii) The Areeda-Turner Test 446
(iv) Problems with the Areeda-Turner Test 446
(v) The AKZO Case 447
(vi) Some Problems with the Criteria Laid Down in AKZO 450
xxii | CONTENTS
(vii) The AKZO Test and the reform of Article 82 45 3
(viii) Predatory Pricing where Dominance and Abuse are on
Different Markets 453
(ix) Cross-Subsidies, Incremental Costs, and Multi-Product Firms 456
(x) Recoupment 459
(xi) Predatory Pricing in New Economy Markets 464
(xii) The Digital Undertaking 465
(xiii) Limit Pricing 465
(xiv) Transformation Costs and 'Price' or 'Margin' Squeezing 465
B. Selective Low Pricing 466
C. The Meeting Competition Defence 474
D. Exclusive Dealing (Single Branding) Contracts 475
(i) General 475
E. Discount and Rebate Schemes 481
(i) General 481
(ii) Quantity (Volume) Discounts and Loyalty Rebates 484
(iii) The Cases 485
F. Reform of the Law on Single Branding Discounts and Rebates 510
(i) General 510
(ii) Single Branding and the Discussion Paper 510
(iii) Rebates and the Discussion Paper: Unconditional
and Conditional Rebates 511
G. Comparison with US Law on Discounts and Rebates under
Section 2 of the Sherman Act 513
H. Tying 514
(i) General 514
(ii) Commercial Reasons for Tying 516
(iii) Single or Distinct Products 516
(iv) Lack of Customer Choice 517
(v) The Case Law 518
(vi) Mixed Bundling 521
(vii) Technological Tying and the Microsoft Case 522
(viii) The Discussion Paper Proposals 528
7. Refusals to Supply 529
A. General 529
B. The Commercial Solvents Case: refusal to Supply in Order to
Exclude Competitors from Ancillary Markets 5 30
C. Refusal to Supply in Response to an Attack on the Dominant
Undertaking's Commercial Interests 532
D. The Refusal to Supply Spare Parts 535
CONTENTS | xxiii
E. Refusal to Supply and the'Essential Facilities'Concept 536
(i) General 536
(ii) Access to Facilities and Resources 537
(iii) The Development of the 'Essential Facilities'
Doctrine in EC Law 537
(iv) The European Night Services Case 545
(v) The Oscar Bronner case 547
(vi) Refusal to Supply in the Financial Industry 552
F. Refusal to Supply and Intellectual Property Rights 553
(i) General 553
(ii) The Car Parts Cases 553
(iii) The Magill Case 557
(iv) The Ladbroke Case 561
(v) The IMS Case 563
G. Interoperability 571
H. The Essential Facilities Doctrine in US Law 575
I. Refusal to Supply in the Discussion Paper 579
8. Other Exclusionary Practices 580
A. General 580
B. The Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights 581
C. The Misuse of Intellectual Property Rights or other
Regulatory Procedures 581
D. Pursuit of legal Proceedings, Vexatious Litigation, and
Enforcing Legal Rights 582
E. Vertical and Horizontal Integration 584
F. Strategic Entry Deterrence and Raising Rivals' Costs 584
9. Exploitative Abuses 585
A. Unfairly High or Low Pricing 585
(i) Unfairly High Prices 585
(ii) Low Prices on the Buying Side 594
B. Discrimination Contrary to Article 82(c) 594
(i) General 594
(ii) The Application of Article 82(c) to Discounts and Rebates 595
(iii) Article 82(c) and the Transport Sector 595
(iv) Article 82(c) and Statutory Monopolists 597
(v) Geographical Price Discrimination 597
(vi) Delivered Pricing 601
(vii) Competitive Disadvantage and Article 82(c) 602
C. Imposing Unfair Trading Conditions and Entering into
Restrictive Agreements 604
xxiv | CONTENTS
D. Inefficiency 607
10. Export Bans and other Conduct Hindering Inter-Member
State Trade 607
11. Abuse and Collective Dominance 609
12. Conclusions 609
13. Further Reading 610
8. COMPETITION, THE STATE, AND PUBLIC
UNDERTAKINGS: ARTICLE 86 613
1. Central Issues 613
2. Introduction 614
A. General 614
B. The Limits of Competition Law 616
C. Some Concepts 621
(i) Services of General Economic Interest 621
(ii) Services of General Interest 622
(iii) Public Services 622
(iv) Universal Service 622
3. Article 10 623
4. Article 86 624
A. The Objectives of Article 86 624
B. The Format of Article 86 625
(i) Article 86(1): Prohibition Addressed to Member States 625
(ii) Article 86(2): Provision Addressed to Undertakings
Providing for Limited Immunity from the Treaty Rules 625
(iii) Article 86(3): Policing and Legislative Powers of the
Commission 625
C. Article 86(1) 626
(i) Definitions 626
(ii) Measures which are Forbidden by Article 86(1) 629
(iii) Summary of the Measures which Make Abuse
Unavoidable or Create a Situation in which the Undertaking
is Led to Abuse its Dominant Position 650
D. Article 86(2) 652
(i) The Purpose of Article 86(2) 652
(ii) Undertakings having the Character of a Revenue
Producing Monopoly 652
(iii) Undertakings Entrusted with the Operation of
Services of General Economic Interest 653
(iv) No Effect on Trade Contrary to the Interests
of the Community 667
CONTENTS | xxv
E. The Direct Effect of Article 86(1) and (2) 667
(i) Article 86(1) 667
(ii) Article 86(2) 667
F. Article 86(3) 668
(i) The Ambit of the Provision 668
(ii) Decisions 668
(iii) Directives 669
5. Services of General Economic Interest and State Aids 671
6. Services of General (Economic) Interest and Political and
Legal Developments 671
A. Article 16 EC 671
(i) The Background to Article 16 671
(ii) Article 16 and its Place in the Treaty 672
(iii) The Interpretation and Meaning of Article 16 673
B. Article 36 of the Charter 675
C. The Commission's 2000 Communication on Services
of General Interest 675
D. The Commission's Green Paper of 2003 676
E. The Commission's White Paper of 2004 and Subsequent Developments 677
7. Conclusion 677
8. Further Reading 678
9. DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENTS 679
1. Central Issues 679
2. Introduction 679
A. General 679
B. Methods of Distribution 680
(i) Factors Affecting Choice 680
(ii) Vertical Integration 680
(iii) Agency 681
(iv) Distribution through Independent Distributors 682
C. Competition Rules and Distribution 684
(i) The Impact of the Competition Rules on Methods
of Distribution 684
(ii) Vertical Integration 685
(iii) Agency 685
(iv) Distribution Agreements 688
3. The Community Approach—An Overview 702
A. The Background: Single Market Project and Restrictions on
Economic Freedom 702
xxvi | CONTENTS
B. Criticisms of this Approach 702
C. The New More Economic Approach: The Block
Exemption and Reform 708
D. Methodology 709
4. Distribution Agreements and Article 81(1) of the Treaty 712
A. General 712
B. Object or Effect the Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion
of Competition 712
(i) The Object or Effect 712
(ii) Vertical Agreements which have as their Object the
Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 713
(iii) Agreements which have as their Effect the Prevention,
Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 718
5. Article 81(3) 738
A. General 738
B. The Old Block Exemptions 738
C. The Verticals Regulation—Regulation 2790/1999 739
(i) The Background 739
(ii) The Recitals 741
(iii) Article 1—Definitions 741
(iv) Article 2—The Main Exemption 742
(v) Article 3—The Market Share Cap 747
(vi) Article 4—Hard-Core Restrictions 749
(vii) Article 5—Severable, Non-Exempted Obligations 755
(viii) Article 6—Withdrawal of the Block Exemption
by the Commission 757
(ix) Article 7—Withdrawal of the Block Exemption by a
National Competition Authority (NCA) 757
(x) Article 8—Regulations to Deal with Networks of
Agreements 758
(xi) Articles 9.10, and 11—Market Share, Turnover,
Transitional Provisions, and Connected Undertakings 758
(xii) Article 12—The Old Block Exemptions 759
(xiii) Article 13—Commencement and Expiry 759
D. The Motor Vehicle Distribution Block Exemption 759
E. Article 81 (3)—Individual Assessment 760
(i) Introduction 760
(ii) Hard-Core Restraints 761
(iii) Non-Compete Provisions and Other Restraints 764
6. Subcontracting Agreements 768
CONTENTS | xxvii
7. Article 82 and Distribution 769
8. Conclusions and the Future 770
9. Further Reading 771
1O. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 772
1. Central Issues 772
2. Introduction 772
A. General 772
B. Types of Intellectual Property Rights 7 74
(i) The Nature of Intellectual Property Rights 774
(ii) Patents 774
(iii) Trade Marks 774
(iv) Copyright 775
(v) Designs 775
(vi) Know-How 776
(vii) Miscellaneous 776
C. The Relationship between Intellectual Property Rights
and Competition Law 777
D. Relevant Provisions of the EC Treaty other than the
Competition Articles 779
E. The Case Law of the Court: Existence, Exercise, and the
Exhaustion of Rights 781
3. Exploiting Intellectual Property Rights by Licensing 784
A. General 784
B. Commercial Considerations in Licenses 785
(i) General 785
(ii) Royalties 786
(iii) Territorial Restrictions on Production: Exclusive
and Sole Licences 786
(iv) Sales Restrictions 787
(v) Field of Use Restrictions 787
(vi) Tying and Bundling 788
(vii) Non-Compete Obligations 788
(viii) No-Challenge Clauses 788
(ix) Improvements 789
C. Development of Competition Policy towards Licensing
of Intellectual Property Rights 789
(i) General 789
(ii) The Evolution of the Commission's Policy towards
Licensing Agreements 790
xxviii | CONTENTS
(iii) Exclusivity and Territorial Restrictions in the
Case Law of the Court 791
(iv) Non-Territorial Restraints 796
(v) The Block Exemptions on Patent Licensing and
Know-How Licensing Prior to 1 May 2004 797
D. The Adoption of the TTBER and the Technology
Transfer Guidelines 798
(i) The Commission's Review Process and the
Adoption of the New Measures 798
(ii) Methodology 800
(iii) General Principles: Application of Article 81 to
Intellectual Property Rights 803
(iv) Points of General Importance in the Application of
Article 81 to Technology Transfer Agreements 804
4. Regulation 772/2004, the Technology Transfer Block Exemption 807
A. General 807
B. The Scheme of the TTBER 807
C. Principal Features of the TTBER 808
D. Scope of the TTBER 809
(i) Agreements to which the TTBER May Apply 809
(ii) Relationship with other Block Exemptions 812
E. Safe Harbour: The Market Share Thresholds 813
(i) The Market Share Thresholds 813
(ii) Market Definition 814
(iii) Market Shares 815
(iv) The Distinction between Competitors and
Non-Competitors (Competing and Non-Competing
Undertakings) 816
(v) Non-Competitors which Subsequently become
Competitors 817
F. Hard-Core Restrictions 818
(i) General 818
(ii) Agreements between Competing Undertakings 818
(iii) Agreements between Non-Competing Undertakings 822
G. Excluded Restrictions 825
(i) Introduction 825
(ii) Improvements 826
(iii) No Challenge Clauses 827
(iv) Limitations on Technology Exploitation or R D 827
H. Withdrawal and Disapplication of the Block Exemption 827
(i) Withdrawal 827
CONTENTS | xxix
(ii) Disapplication 828
I. Duration of the Exemption 828
5. The Application of Article 81 to Agreements Falling
Outside the TTBER 829
A. General Principles 829
(i) Technology Transfer Agreements Outside the TTBER 829
(ii) No Presumption of Illegality 829
(iii) The Second Safe Harbour 830
(iv) The Approach to the Analysis of Individual Agreements 830
(v) Relevant Factors 832
B. The Application of the TTBER and the Guidelines to Specific
Provisions 833
(i) Provisions not Generally Restrictive of Article 81(1) 833
(ii) Royalty Obligations 833
(iii) Exclusive and Sole Licences 834
(iv) Sales Restrictions 835
(v) Output Restrictions 836
(vi) Field of Use Restrictions 837
(vii) Captive Use Restrictions 838
(viii) Tying and Bundling 838
(ix) Non-Compete Obligations 839
(x) No-Challenge Clauses 840
(xi) Improvements 840
(xii) Settlement and Non-Assertion Agreements 841
C. Technology Pools 841
6. Trade Mark Licences 843
A. General 843
B. The Campari Decision 844
C. The Moosehead/Whitbread Decision 846
D. The Current Position 848
7. Trade Mark Delimitation Agreements 848
8. Copyright Licences other than Software Licences 849
A. General 849
B. Performance Copyright 849
9. Software Licences and Interoperability 852
10. The Application of Article 82 to Intellectual Property Rights 855
11. Conclusions 856
12. Further Reading 857
xxx I CONTENTS
11. CARTELS AND OLIGOPOLY 858
1. Central Issues 858
2. Introduction 858
A. Cartels and Oligopoly 858
B. Explicit and Tacit Collusion 859
(i) Cartels and Tacit Collusion 859
(ii) Tacit Collusion, Coordinated Effects and an
Oligopolistic Market 871
(iii) Unilateral (or Non-Coordinated) Effects 873
C. Competition Law and Collusion (Explicit and Tacit) 873
3. Cartels 875
A. Introduction 875
B. Scope of Article 81 875
(i) Article 81(1) 875
(ii) Establishing a Breach of Article 81(1) 877
(iii) Article 81(3) 880
C. Price Fixing, Restrictions on Output, Market Sharing, and
Collusive Tendering 880
(i) General 880
(ii) Article 81(1) 880
(iii) Article 81(3) 895
D. Restrictions on Non-Price Trading Conditions, Advertising,
and Promotion and Promotion and Information
Sharing Agreements 899
(i) General 899
(ii) Restrictions on Non-Price Trading Conditions 900
(iii) Restrictions on Advertising and Promotion 901
(iv) Information Sharing Agreements 902
4. Oligopoly 911
A. Oligopoly and Article 81 911
(i) The Oligopoly Problem 911
(ii) Tacit Collusion and Concerted Practices 911
(iii) Concerted Practices and Unilateral Price
Announcements in Advance 916
B. Oligopoly and Article 82 918
(i) 'One or More Undertakings' 918
(ii) Abuse of a Collective Dominant Position 930
(iii) Remedies and Fines 934
(iv) Conclusions 935
CONTENTS | xxxi
C. Alternative Methods for Dealing with Oligopolistic
Markets under EC Law 935
(i) Merger Regulation 935
(ii) Sector Inquiries 935
(iii) Cartels and Other Agreements 938
5. Conclusions 938
6. Further Reading 939
12. MERGERS 941
1. Central Issues 941
2. Introduction 942
A. What is a Merger? 942
B. The Purposes of Merger Control 942
(i) The Motives for, and Advantages of, a Merger 943
(ii) The Adverse Consequence of Mergers 944
C. The History of the European Merger Control 949
(i) The Initial Lacuna 949
(ii) The Drive for Merger Control at the Community Level 949
(iii) The Catalyst for the ECMR 950
(iv) The Original EC Merger Control Regulation—Council
Regulation (EEC) 4064/89 953
(v) The 1996 Green Paper and Council Regulation
(EC) 1310/97 953
(vi) The 2001 Green Paper 954
(vii) The Current Merger Control Regulation, Council
Regulation (EC) 139/2004 955
(viii) The Future 956
D. Scheme of the ECMR 956
3. Jurisdiction 958
A. Concentrations 958
(i) Definition 958
(ii) Joint Ventures 962
(iii) Article 3(5) 966
(iv) Abandonment of a Concentration 966
B. Community Dimension 967
(i) A Bright Line Jurisdictional Test 967
(ii) Article 1(2) 968
(iii) The 1996 Green Paper 969
(iv) Article 1(3) of the ECMR 969
(v) Review of the Thresholds 970
xxxii | CONTENTS
(vi) Concentrations, Undertakings Concerned, and
Calculation of Turnover 971
C. Concentrations with a Community Dimension:
A One-Stop Shop? 975
(i) Exclusive Competence of the Commission under
the ECMR 975
(ii) Case Allocation 975
(iii) Article 9—Distinct Markets 978
(iv) Article 4(4) Request for Referral to a National
Competition Authority 984
(v) Article 21 (4)—Legitimate Interests 985
(vi) Article 296 of the EC Treaty—Essential Interests of Security 986
(vii) Breach of Article 21 988
D. Concentrations without a Community Dimension 988
(i) National Law Applies 988
(ii) Joint Ventures 989
(iii) Article 22, Referrals to the Commission 989
(iv) Article 4(5), Request for a Referral to the Commission 992
E. A Residual Role for Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty 992
(i) The Relevance of Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty 992
(ii) Application in the National Courts 993
(iii) The Commission and National Competition Authorities 993
4. Procedure 994
A. Notification 994
B. Pre-Notification Reasoned Submissions 996
(i) Background 996
(ii) Article 4(4), Request for Referral to a National
Competition Authority 997
(iii) Article 4(5), Request for a Referral to the Commission 997
(iv) Notice on Case Allocation 998
(v) Review 998
C. Suspension 99g
D. Phase I Investigation 999
(i) Article 6(l)(a) 1000
(ii) Article 6(l)(b) 1000
(iii) Article 6(l)(c) 1000
(iv) Article 10(6) 1001
E. Phase II 1001
F. Conduct of Merger Investigations 1003
5. Substantive Appraisal of Concentrations under the
EC Merger Regulation 1005
CONTENTS | xxxiii
A. Background 1005
B. Reform and the New Substantive Test 1007
C. Burden and Standard of Proof and Counterfactual 1009
D. A Significant Impediment to Effective Competition, in
Particular by the Creation or Strengthening of a Dominant Position 1010
(i) General 1010
(ii) Market Definition 1011
(iii) Competitive Assessment of Horizontal Mergers 1018
(iv) Countervailing Buyer Power 1037
(v) Entry Analysis and Barriers to Entry 1038
(vi) Efficiencies 1040
(vii) The Failing Firm Defence or Rescue Mergers 1047
(viii) Competitive Assessment of Non-Horizontal Mergers 1052
(ix) Industrial, Social, and other Policy 1070
E. Article 2(4), (5), Joint Ventures 1072
F. Restrictions Directly Related and Necessary to the
Concentration 1075
G. Commitments or Remedies 1077
(i) Legal Basis and Time Periods 1077
(ii) The Commission's Notice on Remedies Acceptable
under the ECMR 1078
(iii) Types of Commitments 1079
(iv) Structural Remedies: Divestiture 1080
(v) Other Remedies: Access Remedies, Behavioural
Commitments and 'Remedy Packages' 1081
(vi) Other Cases 1083
(vii) Breach of a Condition or Obligations 1084
6. ECMR Statistics 1084
7. Appeals 1084
8. International Issues 1088
A. The Long Arm of the ECMR 1088
B. Reciprocity 1089
9. Conclusions 1089
10. Further Reading 1090
13. JOINT VENTURES AND OTHER BENEFICIAL HORIZONTAL
ARRANGEMENTS 1091
1. Central Issues 1091
2. Introduction 1091
3. Joint Ventures 1093
xxxiv | CONTENTS
A. What is a Joint Venture? 1093
B. Competition Concerns in Respect of Joint Ventures 1094
C. Joint Ventures and the Merger Regulation 1094
D. The Commission's Approach to the Assessment of Joint
Ventures under Article 81 before 2000 1095
(i) General 1095
(ii) The Development of the Commission's Policy towards
the Application of Article 81 to Joint Ventures 109 5
(iii) The 199 3 Notice on the Assessment of Cooperative
Joint Ventures 1099
(iv) The Application of Article 81 (1) and (3) to Joint
Ventures after 199 3: Some Examples 1099
4. Research and Development Agreements, Specialization
Agreements, and the 1985 Block Exemptions 1102
A. General 1102
B. Specialization Agreements 1103
C. Research and Development Agreements 1104
5. The Assessment of Horizontal Cooperation Agreements in the
Light of the Commission Guidelines and of Block Exemptions
2658/2000 and 2659/2000 1105
A. General 1105
B. The Policy of the Horizontal Guidelines 1106
C. Research and Development Agreements 1108
(i) General 1108
(ii) Market Definition and Market Shares 1109
(iii) Substantive Assessment According to the Guidelines 1110
(iv) The Block Exemption Regulation on R D Agreements,
Regulation 2659/2000 1112
D. Production Agreements 1116
(i) The Guidelines 1116
(ii) The Block Exemption Regulation on Specialization
Agreements, Regulation 2658/2000 1118
E. Purchasing Agreements 1121
F. Commercialization Agreements 1125
(i) General 1125
(ii) The Joint Selling of Football Rights 1128
G. Standardization Agreements 1132
H. Environmental Agreements 1133
I. Agreements in Particular Sectors H35
6. Conclusions H35
7. Further Reading 1136
CONTENTS | xxxv
14. PUBLIC ENFORCEMENT BY THE COMMISSION AND THE NATIONAL
COMPETITION AUTHORITIES OF THE ANTITRUST PROVISIONS 1137
1. Central Issues 1137
2. Introduction 1138
3. The Old Enforcement Regime Set Up by Regulation 17 1139
4. Modernization 1140
A. The Reasons for Modernization 1140
B. The Proposals in the White Paper 1141
C. The Modernization'Package' 1142
(i) Regulation 1 /2003, the New Implementing Regulation
and the Modernization Notices 1142
(ii) Regulation 1/2003 1143
(iii) Regulation 773/2004 1146
(iv) The Modernization Notices 1146
5. The European Competition Network 1146
6. Enforcement by the Commission 1147
A. General 1147
(i) The Broad Powers of the Commission 1147
(ii) Findings of Inapplicability and Guidance Letters 1148
(iii) The Initiation of Proceedings 1151
B. Fact-Finding by the Commission 1152
(i) General 1152
(ii) Article 18 Requests for Information 1152
(iii) Article 20 Inspections 1154
(iv) Inspections on Private Premises under Article 21 1171
(v) The Power to Take Statements 1172
(vi) The Right not to Incriminate Oneself 1173
(vii) Legal Privilege 1181
C. The Second Stage of the Procedure 1188
(i) General: The Right to be Heard 1188
(ii) The Statement of Objections 1189
(iii) The Hearing Officer 1190
(iv) Access to the File 1190
(v) The Oral Hearing 1200
D. Commission Decisions 1201
(i) General 1201
(ii) Final Decisions 1202
(iii) Procedural Decisions 1208
(iv) Interim Measures 1208
xxxvi | CONTENTS
E. Fines and Periodic Penalty Payments 1210
(i) General 1210
(ii) Fines for Procedural Infringements 1212
(iii) Periodic Penalty Payments 1212
(iv) Fines for Substantive Infringements 1213
F. Informal Settlements 1251
(i) General 1251
G. Sector Inquiries 1251
7. Proceedings before the Court of Justice 1252
A. Judicial Review 1252
(i) General 1252
(ii) Article 230 EC 1253
(iii) Locus Standi—Who can bring an Action? 1254
(iv) Which Acts can be Challenged? 1255
(v) The Grounds of Review 1256
(vi) The Effects of Annulment 1263
(vii) Appeals against Penalties: Article 229 EC 1264
(viii) Appeals from the Court of First Instance to the
Court of Justice 1264
(ix) Interim Measures by the Court under Article 242 EC 1267
B. Actions for Damages under Article 288 EC 1269
8. Enforcement by the National Competition Authorities within the
European Competition Network 1270
A. General 1270
B. Division of Work 1271
(i) Case Allocation—which Authority is Well Placed to deal
with a Case? 1271
(ii) Transfer of Information 1274
(iii) Leniency Applications 1276
C. Consistent Application of Articles 81 and 82 1279
(i) General 1279
(ii) Mechanism of Cooperation 1280
D. EC and National Competition Law 1282
9. The Relationship between EC and National Competition Law 1282
10. Sanctions against Individuals 1285
11. Complaints 1287
A. General 1287
B. Where to Complain 1288
C. Standing 1289
D. The Procedure 1292
CONTENTS | xxxvii
E. The Obligations of the Commission 1292
F. Rejection of the Complaint 1294
(i) Introduction 1294
(ii) The Community Interest 1294
(iii) Allegations not Substantiated 1298
(iv) Investigation by Another Competition Authority 1298
(v) The Commission is Obliged to make a Formal Rejection
of the Complaint 1298
G. Acting on a Complaint 1298
H. Judicial Review Proceedings 1299
(i) An Omission to Act 1299
(ii) Review of Acts 1299
I. Complaints and the Merger Regulation 1300
12. Conclusions 1300
13. Further Reading 1301
15. PROCEEDINGS IN THE NATIONAL COURTS 1303
1. Central Issues 1303
2. Introduction 1303
A. General 1303
B. Direct Effect and the Principle of National Procedural Autonomy 1304
C. A Paucity of Antitrust Litigation in Europe 1306
D. Regulation 1 /2O03, the 2005 Green Paper and Encouragement
of Private Actions 1309
E. Uniform and Concurrent Application of Articles 81 and 82 1314
(i) Cooperation between the Commission and National Courts 1314
(ii) Judgments Contrary to Decisions of the Commission 1315
F. Conclusion 1319
3. The Enforceability of Agreements Infringing Articles 81 or 82 1319
A. Article 81 1319
(i) The Sanction of Nullity 1319
(ii) Severance 1321
(iii) Nullity and Illegality 1322
(iv) Transient Nullity 1322
B. Article 82 1324
(i) Void and Unenforceable? 1324
(ii) Severance 1324
(iii) Illegality 1325
C. Conclusions 1325
xxxviii I CONTENTS
4. Remedies: Damages Actions and Injunctions 1325
A. Damages 1325
(i) A Community Right to Damages 1325
(ii) Damages Claims in the English Courts 1338
(iii) Damages Claims in Other Member States 1349
(iv) Damages Claims in the US 1349
(v) Conclusions and Issues Raised in the Green Paper 1350
B. Interim Injunctions 1350
(i) General 1350
(ii) A Community Right to an Injunction 1351
(iii) The Position in English Law 1351
5. Conclusions 1354
6. Further Reading 1354
l6. EXTRATERRITORIALITY, INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS,
AND GLOBALIZATION 1356
1. Central Issues 1356
2. Introduction 1356
3. The Position in US Law 1357
A. General 1357
B. The Effects Doctrine 1358
C. Enforcement and the Reactions of Other States 1362
D. Foreign Plaintiffs in US Courts 1364
E. Discovery in US Courts 1368
F. The Effects Doctrine and Foreign Conduct Affecting Exports 1368
4. International Law 1369
5. The Position in EC Law 1371
A. General 1371
B. The Dyestuffs Case 1371
C. The Woodpulp Case 13 74
D. The Merger Regulation 1377
(i) The Terms of the Merger Regulation 1377
(ii) The Gencor Case 1378
(iii) The Boeing/McDonnell Douglas Case 1385
(iv) The GE/Honeywell Case 1387
6. International Cooperation 1387
A. General 1387
B. Bilateral Agreements 1388
(i) The EC-US Cooperation Agreement 1388
CONTENTS | xxxix
(ii) Other Cooperation Agreements 1391
C. Multilateral Cooperation 1392
(i) General 1392
(ii) UNCTAD and the OECD 1392
(iii) The WTO 1392
(iv) The International Competition Network 1393
(v) A Global Competition Law Regime? 1393
7. Conclusions 1395
8. Further Reading 1396
Addendum on the Council meeting of June 2007 1399
Index 1405 |
| adam_txt |
OUTLINE CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPETITION LAW 1
1. Central Issues 1
2. Introduction 1
3. The Objectives of Competition Law 3
4. US law 19
5. Schools of Competition Analysis 22
6. Ordoliberalism 34
7. EC Competition Law 35
8. Competition Law and the International Context 56
9. The Techniques and Tools of Competition Law 56
10. Market Power, Market Definition, and Barriers to Entry 58
11. Conclusions 92
12. Further Reading 93
2. THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AND THE
COMPETITION PROVISIONS 95
1. Central Issues 95
2. Introduction 96
3. Introduction to the European Community 96
4. The Competition Provisions 108
5. The Competition Rules and the European Economic Area 118
6. Modernization 119
7. Conclusions 119
8. Further Reading 120
3. ARTICLE 81: THE ELEMENTS 121
1. Central Issues 121
2. Introduction 121
3. The Text of Article 81 123
4. The Scheme of Article 81 124
5. The Interpretation and Application of Article 81(1) 127
6. Article 81(2) 201
7. Exclusions 201
8. Conclusions 203
9. Further Reading 203
viii | OUTLINE CONTENTS
4. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTICLE 81(1) AND
ARTICLE 81(3) OF THE TREATY 205
1. Central Issues 205
2. Introduction and Background 206
3. Article 81 (1), Agreements which have as their Object or Effect the
Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 219
4. Article 81(3) 269
5. Conclusions 290
6. Further Reading 291
5. ARTICLE 82: THE ELEMENTS 293
1. Central Issues 293
2. Introduction 294
3. The Text of Article 82 295
4. The Reform of Article 82 295
5. The Scheme of Article 82 298
6. The Interpretation and Application of Article 82 301
7. The Relationship Between Article 82 and Article 81 343
8. Comparison Between Article 82 and Section 2 of the US Sherman Act 345
9. Conclusions 348
10. Further Reading 349
6. ARTICLE 82: ESTABLISHING DOMINANCE 350
1. Central Issues 350
2. Introduction 350
3. Market Definition 352
4. Assessing Market Power 394
5. Conclusions 431
6. Further Reading 432
7. CONDUCT WHICH CAN BE AN ABUSE 434
1. Central Issues 434
2. Introduction 435
3. Abuse and the Degree of Dominance 435
4. Dominance and Abuse on Different Markets 436
5. Exploitative and Exclusionary Pricing Policies 440
6. Exclusionary Pricing Abuses and Tying 443
7. Refusals to Supply 529
8. Other Exclusionary Practices 580
9. Exploitative Abuses 585
i
OUTLINE CONTENTS | ix
10. Export Bans and other Conduct Hindering Inter-Member State Trade 607
11. Abuse and Collective Dominance 609
12. Conclusions 609
13. Further Reading 610
8. COMPETITION, THE STATE, AND PUBLIC UNDERTAKINGS:
ARTICLE 86 613
1. Central Issues 613
2. Introduction 614
3. Article 10 623
4. Article 86 624
5. Services of General Economic Interest and State Aids 671
6. Services of General (Economic) Interest and Political and
Legal Developments 671
7. Conclusions 677
8. Further Reading 678
O. DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENTS 679
1. Central Issues 679
2. Introduction 679
3. The Community Approach—An Overview 702
4. Distribution Agreements and Article 81 (1) of the Treaty 712
5. Article 81(3) 738
6. Subcontracting Agreements 768
7. Article 82 and Distribution 769
8. Conclusions and the Future 770
9. Further Reading 771
1O. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 772
1. Central Issues 772
2. Introduction 772
3. Exploiting Intellectual Property Rights by Licensing 784
4. Regulation 772/2004, the Technology Transfer
Block Exemption 807
5. The Application of Article 81 to Agreements Falling
Outside the TTBER 829
6. Trade Mark Licences 843
7. Trade Mark Delimitation Agreements 848
8. Copyright Licences other than Software Licences 849
9. Software Licences and Interoperability 852
x I OUTLINE CONTENTS
10. The Application of Article 82 to Intellectual Property Rights 855
11. Conclusion 856
12. Further Reading 857
11. CARTELS AND OLIGOPOLY 858
1. Central Issues 858
2. Introduction 8^8
3. Cartels 875
4. Oligopoly 911
5. Conclusions 938
6. Further Reading 939
12. MERGERS 941
1. Central Issues 941
2. Introduction 942
3. Jurisdiction 958
4. Procedure 994
5. Substantive Appraisal of Concentrations under the
EC Merger Regulation 1005
6. ECMR Statistics 1084
7. Appeals 1084
8. International Issues 1088
9. Conclusions 1089
10. Further Reading 1090
13. JOINT VENTURES AND OTHER BENEFICIAL
HORIZONTAL ARRANGEMENTS 1091
1. Central Issues 1091
2. Introduction 1091
3. Joint Ventures 1093
4. Research and Development Agreements, Specialization
Agreements, and the 1985 Block Exemptions 1102
5. The Assessment of Horizontal Cooperation Agreements in the
Light of the Commission Guidelines and of Block Exemptions
2658/2000 and 2659/2000 1105
6. Conclusions 1135
7. Further Reading 1136
14. PUBLIC ENFORCEMENT BY THE COMMISSION AND
THE NATIONAL COMPETITION AUTHORITIES OF
THE ANTITRUST PROVISIONS 1137 ;
1. Central Issues 1137 I
OUTLINE CONTENTS | xi
2. Introduction 1138
3. The Old Enforcement Regime Set Up by Regulation 17 1139
4. Modernization 1140
5. The European Competition Network 1146
6. Enforcement by the Commission 1147
7. Proceedings before the Court of Justice 1252
8. Enforcement by the National Competition Authorities within
the European Competition Network 1270
9. The Relationship between EC and National Competition Law 1282
10. Sanctions against Individuals 1285
11. Complaints 1287
12. Conclusions 1300
13. Further Reading 1301
15. PROCEEDINGS IN THE NATIONAL COURTS 1303
1. Central Issues 1303
2. Introduction 1303
3. The Enforceability of Agreements Infringing Articles 81 or 82 1319
4. Remedies: Damages Actions and Injunctions 1325
5. Conclusions 1354
6. Further Reading 1354
16. EXTRATERRITORIALITY, INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS,
AND GLOBALIZATION 1356
1. Central Issues 1356
2. Introduction 1357
3. The Position in US Law 1357
4. International Law 1369
5. The Position in EC Law 1387
6. International Cooperation 1395
7. Conclusions 1395
8. Further Reading 1396
Addendum 1399
Index 1405
xiv | CONTENTS
C. Post-Chicago 30
(i) Game Theory 31
(ii) Contestable Markets 31
(iii) Raising Rivals' Costs 31
(iv) Transaction Cost Economics 32
(v) Conclusion 32
D. Other Schools, Theories, and Concepts 33
(i) Workable Competition 33
(ii) The Austrian School 33
(iii) Effective Competition 33
6. Ordoliberalism 34
7. EC Competition Law 35
A. General 35
B. The Objectives of the European Community and
EC Competition Policy 38
(i) The Objectives of the European Community 38
(ii) The Development of the Objectives of EC
Competition Policy 41
(iii) The 'Modernization' of EC Competition Law and the
Consumer Welfare Standard 44
(iv) Socio-Political or 'Non-Efficiency' Factors and the
Relationship of Competition With Other Community Policies 49
C. The Limits of Competition, Public Services, and Regulation 52
(i) The Limits of Competition 52
(ii) Competition and Regulation 53
D. The New Economy 54
8. Competition Law and the International Context 56
9. The Techniques and Tools of Competition Law 56
10. Market Power, Market Definition, and Barriers to Entry 5 8
A. Market Power 58
B. Market Definition and EC Competition Law 60
(i) The Importance of Market Definition 60
(ii) Relevant Market Definition in the Case Law of the
Court of Justice 61
(iii) The Commission Notice on the Definition of the
Relevant Market for the Purposes of Community
Competition Law 63
(iv) Demand and Supply Substitution 64
(v) Demand Substitution 65
(vi) Primary and Secondary Markets (Aftermarkets) 78
CONTENTS | xv
(vii) One Market or Two? 78
(viii) Two Sided Industries 79
(ix) Supply Substitution 79
(x) The Geographic Market 81
C. Barriers to Entry 84
(i) The Role of Barriers to Entry 84
(ii) The Definition of a Barrier to Entry 8 5
11. Conclusions 92
12. Further Reading 93
2. THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AND THE COMPETITION
PROVISIONS 95
1. Central Issues 95
2. Introduction 96
3. Introduction to the European Community 96
A. The European Union and the European Community 96
B. The Sources of European Community law 98
(i) Introduction 98
(ii) The Treaty Establishing the European Community 98
(iii) The EC Institutions 98
(iv) Community Acts 103
(v) The Case Law of the Community Courts 103
(vi) The General Principles of Community Law 105
C. A New Legal Order of International Law 106
(i) Direct Effect 106
(ii) Supremacy 107
(iii) Article 234 (Ex Article 177) of the EC Treaty 108
4. The Competition Provisions 108
A. General 108
(i) Article 3(l)(g) of the Treaty 108
(ii) The Main Treaty Provisions and The Merger Regulation 109
(iii) Special Sectors 109
B. The Substantive Provisions of the Treaty 112
(i) Article 81 (Ex Article 85) 113
(ii) Article 82 (Ex Article 86) 113
(iii) Articles 86 and 31 (Ex Articles 90 and 3 7) 113
C. The Procedural Provisions 114
(i) Article 83 (Ex Article 87) 114
(ii) Article 84 (Ex Article 88) 116
xvi | CONTENTS
(iii) Article 85 (Ex Article 89) 116
D. The Merger Regulation 117
E. Other Relevant Treaty Provisions 117
5. The Competition Rules and the European Economic Area 118
6. Modernization 119
7. Conclusions 119
8. Further Reading 120
3. ARTICLE 81: THE ELEMENTS 121
1. Central Issues 121
2. Introduction 121
3. The Text of Article 81 123
4. The Scheme of Article 81 124
A. The Three Paragraphs 124
(i) The Prohibition 124
(ii) Nullity 124
(iii) Legal Exception—Declaration of Inapplicability 124
B. The Consequences of Infringement 125
(i) Nullity and Private Proceedings Between the
Parties to a Contract 125
(ii) Investigation, Detection, and Penalties—the Commission 125
(iii) Investigation, Detection, and Penalties—the National
Competition Authorities 125
(iv) Damages and Other Private Proceedings 126
C. Burden and Standard of Proof 126
5. The Interpretation and Application of Article 81 (1) 127
A. General 127
B. 'Undertaking' and 'Asociations of Undertaking' 128
(i) Every Entity Engaged in an Economic Activity: the
Constituent Elements 128
(ii) The Notion of an Undertaking is a Relative Concept 129
(iii) The legal Status or Form or the Entity is Immaterial 130
(iv) Public Bodies and Bodies Performing Public Functions 131
(v) Employees and Trade Unions 139
(vi) Single Economic Entity 141
(vii) Associations of Undertakings 146
C. The meaning of'Agreement', 'Decision', and 'Concerted Practice' 148
(i) Introduction 14g
(ii) Agreement 148
CONTENTS | xvii
(iii) Decisions by Associations of Undertakings 171
(iv) Concerted Practices 173
D. Object or Effect the Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion
ofCompetition 181
E. An Appreciable Effect on Competition 182
(i) Volkv.Vervaecke 182
(ii) Commission Notice on Agreements of Minor Importance
which do not Appreciably Restrict Competition under
Article 81(1) (De Minimis) 183
(iii) Networks of Agreements 186
(iv) Outgrowing the Notice 186
(v) The Importance of Market Shares and Hard-core Restraints 186
(vi) Effect of the Notice 189
F. An Appreciable Effect on Trade between Member States 191
(i) Jurisdictional Limit 191
(ii) The Tests 192
(iii) Pattern of Trade Test 192
(iv) An Increase in Trade 193
(v) Partitioning of the Common Market 194
(vi) Agreements Operating in One Member State 196
(vii) Restrictions on Competition and Restrictions on Trade 197
(viii) Agreements which Appreciably Affect Trade between
Member States 197
(ix) The Relationship between Community and National Law 199
G. Agreements Required by National Legislation 199
H. Commission Notices 200
I. Extraterritoriality 201
6. Article 81(2) 201
7. Exclusions 201
8. Conclusions 203
9. Further Reading 203
4. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTICLE 81(1) AND
ARTICLE 81(3) OF THE TREATY 205
1. Central Issues 205
2. Introduction and Background 206
A. Article 81(1) and Article 81(3) 206
B. Possible Ways of Reconciling Article 81(1) and 81 (3) 207
C. The Interpretation of'Object or Effect is the Prevention,
Restriction, or Distortion of Competition'—the Broad Approach 208
xviii | CONTENTS
D. The Drawbacks of a Broad Interpretation of Article 81(1):
the Need for More Economic Approach? 209
E. Section 1 of the Sherman Act 212
F. Modernization 213
(i) Modernization and Regulation 1/2003 213
(ii) The CFI's Judgment in Mitropole 215
G. The Importance of the debate 218
3. Article 81 (1), Agreements which have as their Object or Effect the
Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 219
A. General 219
B. Object or Effect 220
(i) Alternative, Not Cumulative, Requirements 220
(ii) The Object of the Agreement 220
(iii) The Effect of the Agreement 222
C. Agreements that restrict Competition by Object 223
(i) Horizontal Agreements 223
(ii) Vertical Agreements 225
(iii) Intellectual Property Licensing Agreements 233
(iv) Restrictions by Object and 'Hard-Core' Restraints 234
(v) Object Cases and Appreciability 234
(vi) A Criticism? 235
D. Agreements that Restrict Competition by Effect 236
(i) General 236
(ii) A Rejection of the Rule of Reason 236
(iii) The Analytical Framework Set Out by the Commission
in the Article 81(3) Guidelines 237
(iv) Restraints on Inter-Brand Competition: Appraisal of an
Agreement in its Legal and Economic Context 237
(v) Restraints on Intra-Brand Competition 246
(vi) Ancillary Restraints 248
(vii) Weighing Anti- and Pro-Competitive Effects—Balancing
Under Article 81(1)? 258
E. Conclusions on the Approach Required Under Article 81(1) 267
4. Article 81(3) 269
A. General 269
B. The Interpretation and Application of Article 81(3) 271
(i) Criterion 1: The Agreement Must lead to an Improvement
in the Production or Distribution of Goods or the Promotion
of Technical or Economic Progress 271
(ii) Criterion 2: Allowing Consumers a Fair Share of the
Resulting Benefit 277
CONTENTS | xix
(iii) Criterion 3: Indispensable Restrictions 279
(iv) Criterion 4: The Agreement must not Afford the Parties the
Possibility of Eliminating Competition 281
C. Application in Individual Cases 284
D. Block Exemptions 284
(i) General 284
(ii) Current Block Exemptions 284
(iii) Block Exemptions are Directly Applicable 287
(iv) Market Share Thresholds 288
(v) Opposition Procedure 288
(vi) Withdrawal of Block Exemptions 288
(vii) Safe Harbours 289
E. Unilateral Action and Article 81 (3) 289
F. The Relationship Between Article 81(3) and Article 82 290
5. Conclusions 290
6. Further Reading 291
5. ARTICLE 82: THE ELEMENTS 293
1. Central Issues 293
2. Introduction 294
3. The Text of Article 82 295
4. The Reform of Article 82 295
5. The Scheme of Article 82 298
A. The Prohibition 298
B. Consequences of Infringement 299
(i) Investigation, Fines, and Other Remedies 299
(ii) Private Action 300
6. The Interpretation and Application of Article 82 301
A. The Meaning of One or More Undertakings 301
(i) General 301
(ii) Public Bodies and Bodies Performing Public Functions 301
(iii) One or More Undertakings—Collective Dominance 301
B. Dominant Position 303
(i) What is Meant by a'Dominant Position? 303
(ii) The Definition of Dominant Position in the Case-law of the ECJ 304
(iii) Problems with the Definition of Dominant Position 306
(iv) Effects-based Analysis and the Concept of Dominance 310
(v) Assessing Dominance 312
(vi) Super-Dominance 313
xx I CONTENTS
C. A Dominant Position within a Substantial Part of the
Common Market 313
(i) Purpose of the requirement 313
(ii) Meaning of a Substantial Part of the Common Market 313
(iii) Relevance of Volume of Production 314
(iv) A Member State is Likely to be a Substantial Part of the
Common Market 314
(v) Transport Cases 315
D. The Meaning of Abuse 316
(i) Introduction 316
(ii) Exploitative and Exclusionary (Anti-competitive) Abuses 316
(iii) Categories of Abuse are not Mutually Exclusive 321
(iv) The Broad Nature of the Concept of Abuse 322
(v) Exclusionary Abuses: Distinguishing Competition on the
Merits from Exclusionary Behaviour 322
E. An Effect on Trade Between Member States 339
(i) General 339
(ii) Abuse of a Dominant Position Covering Several
Member States 340
(iii) Abuse of a Dominant Position Covering a Single
Member State 340
(iv) Abuse of a Dominant Position Covering only Part of a
Member State 342
(v) Abuses Involving Trade with Third Countries 342
7. The Relationship Between Article 82 and Article 81 343
8. Comparison Between Article 82 and Section 2 of the US Sherman Act 345
9. Conclusions 348
10. Further Reading 349
6. ARTICLE 82: ESTABLISHING DOMINANCE 350
1. Central Issues 350
2. Introduction 350
3. Market Definition 352
A. General 352
B. The Product Market 353
(i) Demand Substitution 353
(ii) Supply Substitution 380
C. The Geographic Market 383
D. The Temporal Market 3gg
E. The Tetra Pdk //Case 3gg
CONTENTS | xxi
4. Assessing Market Power 394
A. General 394
B. Market Shares in the Case of Single Undertaking Dominance 396
(i) General 396
(ii) High Market Shares and the Presumption of Dominance 397
(iii) Low Market Shares and Dominance 399
(iv) Market Shares and the Commission Discussion Paper 404
(v) Problems with the Role of Market Shares in the Assessment
of Market Power 405
C. Market Shares in the Case of Collective Dominance 406
D. Other Factors Indicating Dominance 407
(i) General 407
(ii) Some Leading Cases 407
(iii) Summary of 'Other Factors Indicating Dominance' 415
E. Power over Locked-In Customers and on Aftermarkets 425
F. Buyer Power 428
G. Dominant Positions in the New Economy 429
H. Super-Dominance 431
5. Conclusions 431
6. Further Reading 432
7- CONDUCT WHICH CAN BE ABUSE 434
1. Central Issues 434
2. Introduction 435
3. Abuse and the Degree of Dominance 435
4. Dominance and Abuse on Different Markets 436
5. Exploitative and Exclusionary Pricing Policies 440
A. General 440
B. Price Discrimination 440
(i) What is Price Discrimination? 440
(ii) Primary Line and Secondary Line Injury 442
6. Exclusionary Pricing Abuses and Tying 443
A. Predatory Pricing 443
(i) General 443
(ii) Cost Levels 445
(iii) The Areeda-Turner Test 446
(iv) Problems with the Areeda-Turner Test 446
(v) The AKZO Case 447
(vi) Some Problems with the Criteria Laid Down in AKZO 450
xxii | CONTENTS
(vii) The AKZO Test and the reform of Article 82 45 3
(viii) Predatory Pricing where Dominance and Abuse are on
Different Markets 453
(ix) Cross-Subsidies, Incremental Costs, and Multi-Product Firms 456
(x) Recoupment 459
(xi) Predatory Pricing in New Economy Markets 464
(xii) The Digital Undertaking 465
(xiii) Limit Pricing 465
(xiv) Transformation Costs and 'Price' or 'Margin' Squeezing 465
B. Selective Low Pricing 466
C. The Meeting Competition Defence 474
D. Exclusive Dealing (Single Branding) Contracts 475
(i) General 475
E. Discount and Rebate Schemes 481
(i) General 481
(ii) Quantity (Volume) Discounts and Loyalty Rebates 484
(iii) The Cases 485
F. Reform of the Law on Single Branding Discounts and Rebates 510
(i) General 510
(ii) Single Branding and the Discussion Paper 510
(iii) Rebates and the Discussion Paper: Unconditional
and Conditional Rebates 511
G. Comparison with US Law on Discounts and Rebates under
Section 2 of the Sherman Act 513
H. Tying 514
(i) General 514
(ii) Commercial Reasons for Tying 516
(iii) Single or Distinct Products 516
(iv) Lack of Customer Choice 517
(v) The Case Law 518
(vi) Mixed Bundling 521
(vii) Technological Tying and the Microsoft Case 522
(viii) The Discussion Paper Proposals 528
7. Refusals to Supply 529
A. General 529
B. The Commercial Solvents Case: refusal to Supply in Order to
Exclude Competitors from Ancillary Markets 5 30
C. Refusal to Supply in Response to an Attack on the Dominant
Undertaking's Commercial Interests 532
D. The Refusal to Supply Spare Parts 535
CONTENTS | xxiii
E. Refusal to Supply and the'Essential Facilities'Concept 536
(i) General 536
(ii) Access to Facilities and Resources 537
(iii) The Development of the 'Essential Facilities'
Doctrine in EC Law 537
(iv) The European Night Services Case 545
(v) The Oscar Bronner case 547
(vi) Refusal to Supply in the Financial Industry 552
F. Refusal to Supply and Intellectual Property Rights 553
(i) General 553
(ii) The Car Parts Cases 553
(iii) The Magill Case 557
(iv) The Ladbroke Case 561
(v) The IMS Case 563
G. Interoperability 571
H. The Essential Facilities Doctrine in US Law 575
I. Refusal to Supply in the Discussion Paper 579
8. Other Exclusionary Practices 580
A. General 580
B. The Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights 581
C. The Misuse of Intellectual Property Rights or other
Regulatory Procedures 581
D. Pursuit of legal Proceedings, Vexatious Litigation, and
Enforcing Legal Rights 582
E. Vertical and Horizontal Integration 584
F. Strategic Entry Deterrence and Raising Rivals' Costs 584
9. Exploitative Abuses 585
A. Unfairly High or Low Pricing 585
(i) Unfairly High Prices 585
(ii) Low Prices on the Buying Side 594
B. Discrimination Contrary to Article 82(c) 594
(i) General 594
(ii) The Application of Article 82(c) to Discounts and Rebates 595
(iii) Article 82(c) and the Transport Sector 595
(iv) Article 82(c) and Statutory Monopolists 597
(v) Geographical Price Discrimination 597
(vi) Delivered Pricing 601
(vii) Competitive Disadvantage and Article 82(c) 602
C. Imposing Unfair Trading Conditions and Entering into
Restrictive Agreements 604
xxiv | CONTENTS
D. Inefficiency 607
10. Export Bans and other Conduct Hindering Inter-Member
State Trade 607
11. Abuse and Collective Dominance 609
12. Conclusions 609
13. Further Reading 610
8. COMPETITION, THE STATE, AND PUBLIC
UNDERTAKINGS: ARTICLE 86 613
1. Central Issues 613
2. Introduction 614
A. General 614
B. The Limits of Competition Law 616
C. Some Concepts 621
(i) Services of General Economic Interest 621
(ii) Services of General Interest 622
(iii) Public Services 622
(iv) Universal Service 622
3. Article 10 623
4. Article 86 624
A. The Objectives of Article 86 624
B. The Format of Article 86 625
(i) Article 86(1): Prohibition Addressed to Member States 625
(ii) Article 86(2): Provision Addressed to Undertakings
Providing for Limited Immunity from the Treaty Rules 625
(iii) Article 86(3): Policing and Legislative Powers of the
Commission 625
C. Article 86(1) 626
(i) Definitions 626
(ii) Measures which are Forbidden by Article 86(1) 629
(iii) Summary of the Measures which Make Abuse
Unavoidable or Create a Situation in which the Undertaking
is Led to Abuse its Dominant Position 650
D. Article 86(2) 652
(i) The Purpose of Article 86(2) 652
(ii) Undertakings having the Character of a Revenue
Producing Monopoly 652
(iii) Undertakings Entrusted with the Operation of
Services of General Economic Interest 653
(iv) No Effect on Trade Contrary to the Interests
of the Community 667
CONTENTS | xxv
E. The Direct Effect of Article 86(1) and (2) 667
(i) Article 86(1) 667
(ii) Article 86(2) 667
F. Article 86(3) 668
(i) The Ambit of the Provision 668
(ii) Decisions 668
(iii) Directives 669
5. Services of General Economic Interest and State Aids 671
6. Services of General (Economic) Interest and Political and
Legal Developments 671
A. Article 16 EC 671
(i) The Background to Article 16 671
(ii) Article 16 and its Place in the Treaty 672
(iii) The Interpretation and Meaning of Article 16 673
B. Article 36 of the Charter 675
C. The Commission's 2000 Communication on Services
of General Interest 675
D. The Commission's Green Paper of 2003 676
E. The Commission's White Paper of 2004 and Subsequent Developments 677
7. Conclusion 677
8. Further Reading 678
9. DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENTS 679
1. Central Issues 679
2. Introduction 679
A. General 679
B. Methods of Distribution 680
(i) Factors Affecting Choice 680
(ii) Vertical Integration 680
(iii) Agency 681
(iv) Distribution through Independent Distributors 682
C. Competition Rules and Distribution 684
(i) The Impact of the Competition Rules on Methods
of Distribution 684
(ii) Vertical Integration 685
(iii) Agency 685
(iv) Distribution Agreements 688
3. The Community Approach—An Overview 702
A. The Background: Single Market Project and Restrictions on
Economic Freedom 702
xxvi | CONTENTS
B. Criticisms of this Approach 702
C. The New More Economic Approach: The Block
Exemption and Reform 708
D. Methodology 709
4. Distribution Agreements and Article 81(1) of the Treaty 712
A. General 712
B. Object or Effect the Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion
of Competition 712
(i) The Object or Effect 712
(ii) Vertical Agreements which have as their Object the
Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 713
(iii) Agreements which have as their Effect the Prevention,
Restriction, or Distortion of Competition 718
5. Article 81(3) 738
A. General 738
B. The Old Block Exemptions 738
C. The Verticals Regulation—Regulation 2790/1999 739
(i) The Background 739
(ii) The Recitals 741
(iii) Article 1—Definitions 741
(iv) Article 2—The Main Exemption 742
(v) Article 3—The Market Share Cap 747
(vi) Article 4—Hard-Core Restrictions 749
(vii) Article 5—Severable, Non-Exempted Obligations 755
(viii) Article 6—Withdrawal of the Block Exemption
by the Commission 757
(ix) Article 7—Withdrawal of the Block Exemption by a
National Competition Authority (NCA) 757
(x) Article 8—Regulations to Deal with Networks of
Agreements 758
(xi) Articles 9.10, and 11—Market Share, Turnover,
Transitional Provisions, and Connected Undertakings 758
(xii) Article 12—The Old Block Exemptions 759
(xiii) Article 13—Commencement and Expiry 759
D. The Motor Vehicle Distribution Block Exemption 759
E. Article 81 (3)—Individual Assessment 760
(i) Introduction 760
(ii) Hard-Core Restraints 761
(iii) Non-Compete Provisions and Other Restraints 764
6. Subcontracting Agreements 768
CONTENTS | xxvii
7. Article 82 and Distribution 769
8. Conclusions and the Future 770
9. Further Reading 771
1O. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 772
1. Central Issues 772
2. Introduction 772
A. General 772
B. Types of Intellectual Property Rights 7 74
(i) The Nature of Intellectual Property Rights 774
(ii) Patents 774
(iii) Trade Marks 774
(iv) Copyright 775
(v) Designs 775
(vi) Know-How 776
(vii) Miscellaneous 776
C. The Relationship between Intellectual Property Rights
and Competition Law 777
D. Relevant Provisions of the EC Treaty other than the
Competition Articles 779
E. The Case Law of the Court: Existence, Exercise, and the
Exhaustion of Rights 781
3. Exploiting Intellectual Property Rights by Licensing 784
A. General 784
B. Commercial Considerations in Licenses 785
(i) General 785
(ii) Royalties 786
(iii) Territorial Restrictions on Production: Exclusive
and Sole Licences 786
(iv) Sales Restrictions 787
(v) Field of Use Restrictions 787
(vi) Tying and Bundling 788
(vii) Non-Compete Obligations 788
(viii) No-Challenge Clauses 788
(ix) Improvements 789
C. Development of Competition Policy towards Licensing
of Intellectual Property Rights 789
(i) General 789
(ii) The Evolution of the Commission's Policy towards
Licensing Agreements 790
xxviii | CONTENTS
(iii) Exclusivity and Territorial Restrictions in the
Case Law of the Court 791
(iv) Non-Territorial Restraints 796
(v) The Block Exemptions on Patent Licensing and
Know-How Licensing Prior to 1 May 2004 797
D. The Adoption of the TTBER and the Technology
Transfer Guidelines 798
(i) The Commission's Review Process and the
Adoption of the New Measures 798
(ii) Methodology 800
(iii) General Principles: Application of Article 81 to
Intellectual Property Rights 803
(iv) Points of General Importance in the Application of
Article 81 to Technology Transfer Agreements 804
4. Regulation 772/2004, the Technology Transfer Block Exemption 807
A. General 807
B. The Scheme of the TTBER 807
C. Principal Features of the TTBER 808
D. Scope of the TTBER 809
(i) Agreements to which the TTBER May Apply 809
(ii) Relationship with other Block Exemptions 812
E. Safe Harbour: The Market Share Thresholds 813
(i) The Market Share Thresholds 813
(ii) Market Definition 814
(iii) Market Shares 815
(iv) The Distinction between Competitors and
Non-Competitors (Competing and Non-Competing
Undertakings) 816
(v) Non-Competitors which Subsequently become
Competitors 817
F. Hard-Core Restrictions 818
(i) General 818
(ii) Agreements between Competing Undertakings 818
(iii) Agreements between Non-Competing Undertakings 822
G. Excluded Restrictions 825
(i) Introduction 825
(ii) Improvements 826
(iii) No Challenge Clauses 827
(iv) Limitations on Technology Exploitation or R D 827
H. Withdrawal and Disapplication of the Block Exemption 827
(i) Withdrawal 827
CONTENTS | xxix
(ii) Disapplication 828
I. Duration of the Exemption 828
5. The Application of Article 81 to Agreements Falling
Outside the TTBER 829
A. General Principles 829
(i) Technology Transfer Agreements Outside the TTBER 829
(ii) No Presumption of Illegality 829
(iii) The Second Safe Harbour 830
(iv) The Approach to the Analysis of Individual Agreements 830
(v) Relevant Factors 832
B. The Application of the TTBER and the Guidelines to Specific
Provisions 833
(i) Provisions not Generally Restrictive of Article 81(1) 833
(ii) Royalty Obligations 833
(iii) Exclusive and Sole Licences 834
(iv) Sales Restrictions 835
(v) Output Restrictions 836
(vi) Field of Use Restrictions 837
(vii) Captive Use Restrictions 838
(viii) Tying and Bundling 838
(ix) Non-Compete Obligations 839
(x) No-Challenge Clauses 840
(xi) Improvements 840
(xii) Settlement and Non-Assertion Agreements 841
C. Technology Pools 841
6. Trade Mark Licences 843
A. General 843
B. The Campari Decision 844
C. The Moosehead/Whitbread Decision 846
D. The Current Position 848
7. Trade Mark Delimitation Agreements 848
8. Copyright Licences other than Software Licences 849
A. General 849
B. Performance Copyright 849
9. Software Licences and Interoperability 852
10. The Application of Article 82 to Intellectual Property Rights 855
11. Conclusions 856
12. Further Reading 857
xxx I CONTENTS
11. CARTELS AND OLIGOPOLY 858
1. Central Issues 858
2. Introduction 858
A. Cartels and Oligopoly 858
B. Explicit and Tacit Collusion 859
(i) Cartels and Tacit Collusion 859
(ii) Tacit Collusion, Coordinated Effects and an
Oligopolistic Market 871
(iii) Unilateral (or Non-Coordinated) Effects 873
C. Competition Law and Collusion (Explicit and Tacit) 873
3. Cartels 875
A. Introduction 875
B. Scope of Article 81 875
(i) Article 81(1) 875
(ii) Establishing a Breach of Article 81(1) 877
(iii) Article 81(3) 880
C. Price Fixing, Restrictions on Output, Market Sharing, and
Collusive Tendering 880
(i) General 880
(ii) Article 81(1) 880
(iii) Article 81(3) 895
D. Restrictions on Non-Price Trading Conditions, Advertising,
and Promotion and Promotion and Information
Sharing Agreements 899
(i) General 899
(ii) Restrictions on Non-Price Trading Conditions 900
(iii) Restrictions on Advertising and Promotion 901
(iv) Information Sharing Agreements 902
4. Oligopoly 911
A. Oligopoly and Article 81 911
(i) The Oligopoly Problem 911
(ii) Tacit Collusion and Concerted Practices 911
(iii) Concerted Practices and Unilateral Price
Announcements in Advance 916
B. Oligopoly and Article 82 918
(i) 'One or More Undertakings' 918
(ii) Abuse of a Collective Dominant Position 930
(iii) Remedies and Fines 934
(iv) Conclusions 935
CONTENTS | xxxi
C. Alternative Methods for Dealing with Oligopolistic
Markets under EC Law 935
(i) Merger Regulation 935
(ii) Sector Inquiries 935
(iii) Cartels and Other Agreements 938
5. Conclusions 938
6. Further Reading 939
12. MERGERS 941
1. Central Issues 941
2. Introduction 942
A. What is a Merger? 942
B. The Purposes of Merger Control 942
(i) The Motives for, and Advantages of, a Merger 943
(ii) The Adverse Consequence of Mergers 944
C. The History of the European Merger Control 949
(i) The Initial Lacuna 949
(ii) The Drive for Merger Control at the Community Level 949
(iii) The Catalyst for the ECMR 950
(iv) The Original EC Merger Control Regulation—Council
Regulation (EEC) 4064/89 953
(v) The 1996 Green Paper and Council Regulation
(EC) 1310/97 953
(vi) The 2001 Green Paper 954
(vii) The Current Merger Control Regulation, Council
Regulation (EC) 139/2004 955
(viii) The Future 956
D. Scheme of the ECMR 956
3. Jurisdiction 958
A. Concentrations 958
(i) Definition 958
(ii) Joint Ventures 962
(iii) Article 3(5) 966
(iv) Abandonment of a Concentration 966
B. Community Dimension 967
(i) A Bright Line Jurisdictional Test 967
(ii) Article 1(2) 968
(iii) The 1996 Green Paper 969
(iv) Article 1(3) of the ECMR 969
(v) Review of the Thresholds 970
xxxii | CONTENTS
(vi) Concentrations, Undertakings Concerned, and
Calculation of Turnover 971
C. Concentrations with a Community Dimension:
A One-Stop Shop? 975
(i) Exclusive Competence of the Commission under
the ECMR 975
(ii) Case Allocation 975
(iii) Article 9—Distinct Markets 978
(iv) Article 4(4) Request for Referral to a National
Competition Authority 984
(v) Article 21 (4)—Legitimate Interests 985
(vi) Article 296 of the EC Treaty—Essential Interests of Security 986
(vii) Breach of Article 21 988
D. Concentrations without a Community Dimension 988
(i) National Law Applies 988
(ii) Joint Ventures 989
(iii) Article 22, Referrals to the Commission 989
(iv) Article 4(5), Request for a Referral to the Commission 992
E. A Residual Role for Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty 992
(i) The Relevance of Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty 992
(ii) Application in the National Courts 993
(iii) The Commission and National Competition Authorities 993
4. Procedure 994
A. Notification 994
B. Pre-Notification Reasoned Submissions 996
(i) Background 996
(ii) Article 4(4), Request for Referral to a National
Competition Authority 997
(iii) Article 4(5), Request for a Referral to the Commission 997
(iv) Notice on Case Allocation 998
(v) Review 998
C. Suspension 99g
D. Phase I Investigation 999
(i) Article 6(l)(a) 1000
(ii) Article 6(l)(b) 1000
(iii) Article 6(l)(c) 1000
(iv) Article 10(6) 1001
E. Phase II 1001
F. Conduct of Merger Investigations 1003
5. Substantive Appraisal of Concentrations under the
EC Merger Regulation 1005
CONTENTS | xxxiii
A. Background 1005
B. Reform and the New Substantive Test 1007
C. Burden and Standard of Proof and Counterfactual 1009
D. A Significant Impediment to Effective Competition, in
Particular by the Creation or Strengthening of a Dominant Position 1010
(i) General 1010
(ii) Market Definition 1011
(iii) Competitive Assessment of Horizontal Mergers 1018
(iv) Countervailing Buyer Power 1037
(v) Entry Analysis and Barriers to Entry 1038
(vi) Efficiencies 1040
(vii) The Failing Firm Defence or Rescue Mergers 1047
(viii) Competitive Assessment of Non-Horizontal Mergers 1052
(ix) Industrial, Social, and other Policy 1070
E. Article 2(4), (5), Joint Ventures 1072
F. Restrictions Directly Related and Necessary to the
Concentration 1075
G. Commitments or Remedies 1077
(i) Legal Basis and Time Periods 1077
(ii) The Commission's Notice on Remedies Acceptable
under the ECMR 1078
(iii) Types of Commitments 1079
(iv) Structural Remedies: Divestiture 1080
(v) Other Remedies: Access Remedies, Behavioural
Commitments and 'Remedy Packages' 1081
(vi) Other Cases 1083
(vii) Breach of a Condition or Obligations 1084
6. ECMR Statistics 1084
7. Appeals 1084
8. International Issues 1088
A. The Long Arm of the ECMR 1088
B. Reciprocity 1089
9. Conclusions 1089
10. Further Reading 1090
13. JOINT VENTURES AND OTHER BENEFICIAL HORIZONTAL
ARRANGEMENTS 1091
1. Central Issues 1091
2. Introduction 1091
3. Joint Ventures 1093
xxxiv | CONTENTS
A. What is a Joint Venture? 1093
B. Competition Concerns in Respect of Joint Ventures 1094
C. Joint Ventures and the Merger Regulation 1094
D. The Commission's Approach to the Assessment of Joint
Ventures under Article 81 before 2000 1095
(i) General 1095
(ii) The Development of the Commission's Policy towards
the Application of Article 81 to Joint Ventures 109 5
(iii) The 199 3 Notice on the Assessment of Cooperative
Joint Ventures 1099
(iv) The Application of Article 81 (1) and (3) to Joint
Ventures after 199 3: Some Examples 1099
4. Research and Development Agreements, Specialization
Agreements, and the 1985 Block Exemptions 1102
A. General 1102
B. Specialization Agreements 1103
C. Research and Development Agreements 1104
5. The Assessment of Horizontal Cooperation Agreements in the
Light of the Commission Guidelines and of Block Exemptions
2658/2000 and 2659/2000 1105
A. General 1105
B. The Policy of the Horizontal Guidelines 1106
C. Research and Development Agreements 1108
(i) General 1108
(ii) Market Definition and Market Shares 1109
(iii) Substantive Assessment According to the Guidelines 1110
(iv) The Block Exemption Regulation on R D Agreements,
Regulation 2659/2000 1112
D. Production Agreements 1116
(i) The Guidelines 1116
(ii) The Block Exemption Regulation on Specialization
Agreements, Regulation 2658/2000 1118
E. Purchasing Agreements 1121
F. Commercialization Agreements 1125
(i) General 1125
(ii) The Joint Selling of Football Rights 1128
G. Standardization Agreements 1132
H. Environmental Agreements 1133
I. Agreements in Particular Sectors H35
6. Conclusions H35
7. Further Reading 1136
CONTENTS | xxxv
14. PUBLIC ENFORCEMENT BY THE COMMISSION AND THE NATIONAL
COMPETITION AUTHORITIES OF THE ANTITRUST PROVISIONS 1137
1. Central Issues 1137
2. Introduction 1138
3. The Old Enforcement Regime Set Up by Regulation 17 1139
4. Modernization 1140
A. The Reasons for Modernization 1140
B. The Proposals in the White Paper 1141
C. The Modernization'Package' 1142
(i) Regulation 1 /2003, the New Implementing Regulation
and the Modernization Notices 1142
(ii) Regulation 1/2003 1143
(iii) Regulation 773/2004 1146
(iv) The Modernization Notices 1146
5. The European Competition Network 1146
6. Enforcement by the Commission 1147
A. General 1147
(i) The Broad Powers of the Commission 1147
(ii) Findings of Inapplicability and Guidance Letters 1148
(iii) The Initiation of Proceedings 1151
B. Fact-Finding by the Commission 1152
(i) General 1152
(ii) Article 18 Requests for Information 1152
(iii) Article 20 Inspections 1154
(iv) Inspections on Private Premises under Article 21 1171
(v) The Power to Take Statements 1172
(vi) The Right not to Incriminate Oneself 1173
(vii) Legal Privilege 1181
C. The Second Stage of the Procedure 1188
(i) General: The Right to be Heard 1188
(ii) The Statement of Objections 1189
(iii) The Hearing Officer 1190
(iv) Access to the File 1190
(v) The Oral Hearing 1200
D. Commission Decisions 1201
(i) General 1201
(ii) Final Decisions 1202
(iii) Procedural Decisions 1208
(iv) Interim Measures 1208
xxxvi | CONTENTS
E. Fines and Periodic Penalty Payments 1210
(i) General 1210
(ii) Fines for Procedural Infringements 1212
(iii) Periodic Penalty Payments 1212
(iv) Fines for Substantive Infringements 1213
F. Informal Settlements 1251
(i) General 1251
G. Sector Inquiries 1251
7. Proceedings before the Court of Justice 1252
A. Judicial Review 1252
(i) General 1252
(ii) Article 230 EC 1253
(iii) Locus Standi—Who can bring an Action? 1254
(iv) Which Acts can be Challenged? 1255
(v) The Grounds of Review 1256
(vi) The Effects of Annulment 1263
(vii) Appeals against Penalties: Article 229 EC 1264
(viii) Appeals from the Court of First Instance to the
Court of Justice 1264
(ix) Interim Measures by the Court under Article 242 EC 1267
B. Actions for Damages under Article 288 EC 1269
8. Enforcement by the National Competition Authorities within the
European Competition Network 1270
A. General 1270
B. Division of Work 1271
(i) Case Allocation—which Authority is Well Placed to deal
with a Case? 1271
(ii) Transfer of Information 1274
(iii) Leniency Applications 1276
C. Consistent Application of Articles 81 and 82 1279
(i) General 1279
(ii) Mechanism of Cooperation 1280
D. EC and National Competition Law 1282
9. The Relationship between EC and National Competition Law 1282
10. Sanctions against Individuals 1285
11. Complaints 1287
A. General 1287
B. Where to Complain 1288
C. Standing 1289
D. The Procedure 1292
CONTENTS | xxxvii
E. The Obligations of the Commission 1292
F. Rejection of the Complaint 1294
(i) Introduction 1294
(ii) The Community Interest 1294
(iii) Allegations not Substantiated 1298
(iv) Investigation by Another Competition Authority 1298
(v) The Commission is Obliged to make a Formal Rejection
of the Complaint 1298
G. Acting on a Complaint 1298
H. Judicial Review Proceedings 1299
(i) An Omission to Act 1299
(ii) Review of Acts 1299
I. Complaints and the Merger Regulation 1300
12. Conclusions 1300
13. Further Reading 1301
15. PROCEEDINGS IN THE NATIONAL COURTS 1303
1. Central Issues 1303
2. Introduction 1303
A. General 1303
B. Direct Effect and the Principle of National Procedural Autonomy 1304
C. A Paucity of Antitrust Litigation in Europe 1306
D. Regulation 1 /2O03, the 2005 Green Paper and Encouragement
of Private Actions 1309
E. Uniform and Concurrent Application of Articles 81 and 82 1314
(i) Cooperation between the Commission and National Courts 1314
(ii) Judgments Contrary to Decisions of the Commission 1315
F. Conclusion 1319
3. The Enforceability of Agreements Infringing Articles 81 or 82 1319
A. Article 81 1319
(i) The Sanction of Nullity 1319
(ii) Severance 1321
(iii) Nullity and Illegality 1322
(iv) Transient Nullity 1322
B. Article 82 1324
(i) Void and Unenforceable? 1324
(ii) Severance 1324
(iii) Illegality 1325
C. Conclusions 1325
xxxviii I CONTENTS
4. Remedies: Damages Actions and Injunctions 1325
A. Damages 1325
(i) A Community Right to Damages 1325
(ii) Damages Claims in the English Courts 1338
(iii) Damages Claims in Other Member States 1349
(iv) Damages Claims in the US 1349
(v) Conclusions and Issues Raised in the Green Paper 1350
B. Interim Injunctions 1350
(i) General 1350
(ii) A Community Right to an Injunction 1351
(iii) The Position in English Law 1351
5. Conclusions 1354
6. Further Reading 1354
l6. EXTRATERRITORIALITY, INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS,
AND GLOBALIZATION 1356
1. Central Issues 1356
2. Introduction 1356
3. The Position in US Law 1357
A. General 1357
B. The Effects Doctrine 1358
C. Enforcement and the Reactions of Other States 1362
D. Foreign Plaintiffs in US Courts 1364
E. Discovery in US Courts 1368
F. The Effects Doctrine and Foreign Conduct Affecting Exports 1368
4. International Law 1369
5. The Position in EC Law 1371
A. General 1371
B. The Dyestuffs Case 1371
C. The Woodpulp Case 13 74
D. The Merger Regulation 1377
(i) The Terms of the Merger Regulation 1377
(ii) The Gencor Case 1378
(iii) The Boeing/McDonnell Douglas Case 1385
(iv) The GE/Honeywell Case 1387
6. International Cooperation 1387
A. General 1387
B. Bilateral Agreements 1388
(i) The EC-US Cooperation Agreement 1388
CONTENTS | xxxix
(ii) Other Cooperation Agreements 1391
C. Multilateral Cooperation 1392
(i) General 1392
(ii) UNCTAD and the OECD 1392
(iii) The WTO 1392
(iv) The International Competition Network 1393
(v) A Global Competition Law Regime? 1393
7. Conclusions 1395
8. Further Reading 1396
Addendum on the Council meeting of June 2007 1399
Index 1405 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Jones, Alison 1965- Sufrin, B. E. |
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| author_role | aut aut |
| author_sort | Jones, Alison 1965- |
| author_variant | a j aj b e s be bes |
| building | Verbundindex |
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| dewey-full | 343.0721J552 |
| dewey-hundreds | 300 - Social sciences |
| dewey-ones | 343 - Military, tax, trade & industrial law |
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| dewey-search | 343.0721 J552 |
| dewey-sort | 3343.0721 J552 |
| dewey-tens | 340 - Law |
| discipline | Rechtswissenschaft |
| discipline_str_mv | Rechtswissenschaft |
| edition | 3. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| spelling | Jones, Alison 1965- Verfasser (DE-588)143617036 aut EC competition law EU competition law text, cases, and materials Alison Jones and Brenda Sufrin 3. ed. Oxford [u.a.] Oxford Univ. Press 2008 CV, 1418 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier 2. Aufl. u.d.T.: Jones, Alison: EC competition law Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd rswk-swf Competencia económica desleal - Legislación - Países de la Unión Europea Ley antimonopolio - Países de la Unión Europea Restricciones al comercio Wettbewerbsrecht (DE-588)4121924-7 gnd rswk-swf Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 gnd rswk-swf Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 b Wettbewerbsrecht (DE-588)4121924-7 s DE-604 Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 g 1\p DE-604 Sufrin, B. E. Verfasser (DE-588)171667913 aut Überarbeitung von 2. ed. 2004 978-0-19-926997-6 (DE-604)BV019329443 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016070706&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Jones, Alison 1965- Sufrin, B. E. EU competition law text, cases, and materials Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd Competencia económica desleal - Legislación - Países de la Unión Europea Ley antimonopolio - Países de la Unión Europea Restricciones al comercio Wettbewerbsrecht (DE-588)4121924-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)5098525-5 (DE-588)4121924-7 (DE-588)4022153-2 |
| title | EU competition law text, cases, and materials |
| title_alt | EC competition law |
| title_auth | EU competition law text, cases, and materials |
| title_exact_search | EU competition law text, cases, and materials |
| title_exact_search_txtP | EU competition law text, cases, and materials |
| title_full | EU competition law text, cases, and materials Alison Jones and Brenda Sufrin |
| title_fullStr | EU competition law text, cases, and materials Alison Jones and Brenda Sufrin |
| title_full_unstemmed | EU competition law text, cases, and materials Alison Jones and Brenda Sufrin |
| title_short | EU competition law |
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| title_sub | text, cases, and materials |
| topic | Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd Competencia económica desleal - Legislación - Países de la Unión Europea Ley antimonopolio - Países de la Unión Europea Restricciones al comercio Wettbewerbsrecht (DE-588)4121924-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Europäische Union Competencia económica desleal - Legislación - Países de la Unión Europea Ley antimonopolio - Países de la Unión Europea Restricciones al comercio Wettbewerbsrecht Großbritannien |
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