Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia:
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| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Polish |
| Published: |
Kraków
Akad. Muzyczna
2007
|
| Series: | Prace Habilitacyjne / Akademia Muzyczna w Krakowie
2 |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache.- Zugl.: Kraków, Akad. Muzyczna, Habil.-Schr. |
| Physical Description: | 331 S. Notenbeisp. CD (12 cm) |
| ISBN: | 9788387182717 |
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Spis treści
Wstęp
1.
Praktyka kompozytorska
.16
1.1.
Wenecja
(1540-1604) .16
1.1.1.
Toccata
.18
1.1.2.
Canzona.
26
1.2.
Rzym
(1593-1604).34
.2.1.
Toccata .
35
.2.2.
Ricercar/canzona
.41
.3.
Ferrara
(ок.
1560-1607).45
.3.1.
Ricercar
.46
.3.2.
Canzona
.56
.3.3.
Toccata
.61
.3.4.
Durezze e
ligature
.65
.4.
Neapol
(ок.
1585-1615).75
.4.1.
Canzona
і
capriccio
.78
.4.2.
Ricercar
.89
.4.3.
Durezze e
ligature
.96
.4.4.
Toccata
.101
1.5.
Girolamo Frescobaldi
(1608-1616).109
1.5.1. //
primo libro delle fantasie a quattro
.110
1.5.2.
Recercari, et canzoni franzese
.116
1.5.3.
Toccale e partite
d
'intavolatura di
címbalo.
.
Libro Primo
. 125
2.
Praktyka wykonawcza
. 137
2.1.
Systemy notacji włoskiej muzyki na instrumenty klawiszowe
Wybór instrumentu, przeznaczenie utworów, zagadnienia
krytyki tekstu
. 137
2.2.
Organy w Italii na przełomie
XVI
i
XVII
wieku
. 157
2.3.
Registracja: fakty, hipotezy i rozwiązania praktyczne
. 166
2.3.1.
Włoskie wskazówki registracyjne 1558-ok.
1666 . 166
2.3.2.
Założenia
regi
stracji wybranych utworów włoskich
na polskich organach przełomu
XVII
i
XVIII
wieku
. 192
2.4.
Metrum i tempo: od systemu proporcji do supremacji wyrazu
. 201
2.4.1.
Tactus
. 202
2.4.2.
System proporcji
. 205
2.4.3.
Tempo w służbie afektu
. 207
2.5.
Od diminucji
do affetti:
sfera muzycznego
decornilo
.213
2.5.1.
Sztuka diminucji w świetle traktatu Diruty
.214
2.5.2.
Passaggi
i
grazie
jako nośniki afektu
.229
2.5.3.
Inne „maniery" wykonawcze
.250
2.6.
Technika gry organowej w świetle włoskich źródeł
teoretycznych przełomu
XVI
i
XVII
wieku
.254
2.6.1.
Zagadnienia ogólne
.255
2.6.2.
Aplikatura: przekazy źródłowe i ich ograniczenia
.257
2.6.3.
Konsekwencje artykułacyj
ne
.269
Zakończenie
.283
Aneks
1.
Reprezentacyjne dyspozycje włoskich organów
.289
Aneks
2.
Przedmowy do pierwszej księgi
toccát
Frescobal
diego
. 296
Wykaz skrótów
.300
Bibliografía.
301
Summary
.315
Indeks nazwisk
.323
Opis płyty
.330
Summary
This work serves as an extended commentary to the attached CD of Italian
keyboard music from the turn of the seventeenth century. The period in question is
known today mainly as a time of great stylistic changes in vocal music that lead to
the rise of the highly expressive stile
moderno.
Keyboard music of this time, how¬
ever, is largely unfamiliar in Poland. Girolamo Frescobaldi is the only major com¬
poser of the period whose works appear in concerts today, and he is undoubtedly die
greatest master of early seventeenth-century Italian keyboard music. This book at¬
tempts to show the stylistic evolution that led to his achievements. It was in many
ways analogous to that in vocal music, and affected man}' aspects of both composi¬
tion and performance practice. Because of the wealth of keyboard music written in
Italy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it became necessary to restrict the
material to only three genres: toccata,
ricercar,
and
canzona.
They represent the most
independent kind of instrumental music of the time, free of vocal models, cantus
firmi,
dance patterns, or liturgical restrictions.
Part
1
discusses the evolution of the genres. Before reaching its climax in the
early prints of Girolamo Frescobaldi
(1.5.),
it was concentrated in four major cen¬
tres: Venice
(1.1.),
Rome
(1.2.),
Ferrara
(1.3.)»
апс*
Naples
(1.4.).
Frescobaldi's two
books of
1615,
Recercari, and
canzoni
fi-anzese
.,
and
Toccate e
partite.
Libro
Primo,
can be seen as both a summary of the achievements of his predecessors and
an opening of new lines in the genres' development. For this reason, this date was
chosen as a borderline for the discussion.
The stylistic development of the toccata is perhaps the most spectacular. The
genre had its origins in the
intonazione, a
type of prelude establishing the mode with
chords and passagework. Indeed, Toccata del
quinto tono
by Andrea
Gabrieli
(who
is most probably responsible for establishing a „classical" shape of Venetian toccata
after an experimental stage represented by Sperindio
Bertoldo
and Annibale
Pado¬
vano)
proves to be a reworking of his
Intonazione del quinto tono,
revealing a close
relationship between the two genres. The Venetian toccatas typically open with
a slow introduction, which then unfolds into virtuosic, mostly scalar figuration based
on slow-moving chords; some pieces have a central imitative section, clearly articu¬
lated by strong cadences.
This form of the toccata is documented in two prints of
1593:
Gabrieli's Into-
315
natìoni
d
Organo, and Girolamo
Diruta's
//
Transilvano
(Part
1).
In
the two books of
toccatas by
Claudio
Merulo
(Rome,
1598
and
1604),
which were engraved for the
first time in Italy on copper plates, the genre seems to achieve a fully independent
stage. The pieces are much longer and do not give any impression of being mere
preludes. Their figuration is more varied, both melodically and rhythmically, the
harmonic pace is more dynamic, and the almost obligatory imitative sections are
now subtly integrated into the pieces, sometimes leaving doubts as to their actual
beginnings and endings.
In
Ferrara, Èrcole Pasquini
developed another concept of the toccata, which is
based on clearly articulated sections filled with contrasting material. Instead of the
long scales in Venetian toccatas, his figurations consist of short and rhythmically
profiled motives, quickly moving from one voice to another. Cadences are under¬
lined with long "dominant" and "predominant" chords that help create an overall
tonal structure. Pasquini is also one of the first composers who experimented with
a new style,
durezze e
ligature, with emphasis on dissonances and chromaticism.
Compositions in this style are also found in Neapolitan music, most promi¬
nently in the output of Giovanni
de Macque.
Indeed, his
Seconde Stravaganze
can
be seen as a miniature toccata with a slow
durezze
opening, some sequential figura¬
tion, a mere allusion to an imitative section, and a relatively long coda based on
a "dominant" chord filled with trills and passagework. This structure, obviously
derived from Venetian and
Ferrarese
models, served as a starting point for Neapoli¬
tan toccatas, as can be seen in works by Giovanni Maria
Trabaci
and Ascanio
Mayone. The most important aspect of the genre's e\'olution, namely its move from
simple, scalar passagework to diverse and expressive figuration, grouped into clearly
delineated sections, reaches its peak in the first book of Frescobaldi's toccatas. In
the preface, Frescobaldi stresses precisely these two aspects of the new style:
affetti
cantabili
(singing affects) and
diversità di passi
(diversity of sections). His pieces
are as fully developed as Merulo's, but dispense entirely with any contrapuntal sec¬
tions. Instead, the composer indulges into a play with motives, derived from Pas¬
quini, but applied with unprecedented perfection in regard to their careful planning
and development. As a result, Frescobaldi's toccatas give a simultaneous impression
of spontaneity and unit. They are splendid examples of the new expressive style,
analogous to that of the "modern madrigals" quoted in his preface.
In the case of the contrapuntal genres, the evolution of style is much more sub¬
tle. The
ricercar
reaches the highest level of contrapuntal
virtuosit)'
in the Ferrarese-
Neapolitan school. Its main feature is economy of thematic material, itself fully
exploited by use of complicated, learned devices, such as
inganno or
hexachordal
inversion. Nevertheless, almost each composer reveals an individual approach to the
316
genre.
The pieces from the Bourdeney codex (probably by Jacques
Brumel)
have
neutral, hexachordally conceived subjects, constantly manipulated by inversion and
inganni.
Their various shapes, together with carefully planned use of countersub-
jects, help create a clear overall design. Luzzasco Luzzasclii uses more rhythmically
profiled subjects, but his most characteristic feature is a camouflaging of sectional
articulation by manipulation of the weight of cadences. Neapolitan ricercars of Gio¬
vanni
de Macque
and Giovanni Maria
Trabaci
strive to eliminate non-thematic ma¬
terial even further and to purge the genre of any ornamentation. They are usually of
the oligothematic type, in which all subjects are shown at the very beginning of
a piece and then presented in various combinations, including all subjects together
(conclusione).
The heirs of this tradition are Frescobaldi's
Fantasie
of
1608,
ex¬
tremely dense and complicated, although more "modern" at the same time in its use
of chromaticism and a wider spectrum of rhythmic values. Frescobaldi's tribute to
the Ferrarese-Neapolitan school can also be found in the
Recercan,
and
canzoni
franzese. of
1615,
in which he exploits features such as oligothematicism, hexa-
chordal inversion, and use of four subjects. Contrastingly, the pieces from this col¬
lection usually have clearly articulated sections. They are also contrapuntally less
dense; instead, various oblighi are stressed, which serve as additional requirements
for the composer and can be regarded as one of the characteristic elements of
Frescobaldi's stile
mitico.
The
canzona
is a genre of vocal origin. This books shows only one line of its
development, namely, a variation
canzona,
which uses the same subject, changed
melodically and/or rhythmically, in at least two sections. The use of variation, de¬
rived from the learned
ricercar,
helps the
canzona
establish itself as a purely instru¬
mental genre, independent of vocal ancestors. Simple examples of this procedure
can be seen first in canzonas and canzona-like pieces of the Venetians Andrea
Gab¬
rieli
and
Vincenzo
Pellegrini. It is
Èrcole Pasquini,
however, who unifies all three
sections of his
canzona (No.
16)
with various shapes of the same subject, designed
in such a way that an effective climax appears near the end of the piece. The genre
also assimilates the "toccata style", especially at cadences, which are often orna¬
mented with quite long
passaggi.
Extremely unusual and imaginative diminutions
can be found above all in the ornamented version of Gesualdo's
canzona
-
itself
a fairly conservative piece
-
but also in the
Capriccio sopra re, fa, mi, sol
by Mac¬
que, one of very few Italian
Capriccios
before Frescobaldi's book of
1624,
close to
the
canzona in
its overall character and construction. Frescobaldi's Canzon
seconda
from his
1615
print has little ornamentation; instead, it proves to be a contrapuntal
masterpiece in five sections (with two of them divided into subsections), based on
317
a single subject shown in various versions, and shaped with a perfect sense of dra¬
matic tension.
Part
2
is devoted to aspects of performance practice. Chapter
2.1.
discusses no¬
tation of Italian keyboard music. During the period in question, two systems were in
use: two-staff keyboard notation
{intavolatura),
showing exact distribution of notes
between two hands, and four-staff open score
{partitura),
showing exact voice-
leading. The
intavolatura
was more suitable for free pieces like the toccatas; it was
also commonly used for intabulations of contrapuntal music preserved in
partbooks
(which often constituted a potential keyboard repertoire). It could be printed from
movable type or copper plates, though the latter technique, being very expensive and
time-consuming, was used only for toccatas of Merulo and Frescobaldi. Most music
preserved in manuscripts was also notated in this system. Open score was the most
popular notation for contrapuntal pieces. Frescobaldi used it invariably for his fanta¬
sias, ricercars, and
-
later
-
capriccios. It was also a system preferred by Neapolitan
composers, who applied it to all printed music, regardless of genre, perhaps because
their prints were of the opera
omnia
collecta type. As
much as the
intavolatura
showed exactly how music had to be played, the
partitura
often required some ad¬
justments in order to be performed on the keyboard. It is especially true of Neapoli¬
tan music with its broadly spaced voices, sometimes making a composition hardly
playable at all. Another explanation of this feature is the possibility of an ensemble
or harp performance (some pieces are explicitly designated for the latter). In connec¬
tion with notation and source situation, critical approach to the text of individual
pieces is offered, mainly as far as music preserved in manuscripts is concerned.
Social function of the discussed genres leads to the question of whether the organ or
harpsichord is a preferred instrument for the pieces performed on the CD. It seems
that the abstract genres could be used as much in church as for entertainment or
study on whatever instrument was available and convenient. Although some titles of
the prints or other remarks by composers show their preferences in this matter, they
by no means exclude other possibilities for performance.
Chapter
2.2.
offers a brief history of organ building in Italy up to the beginning
of the seventeenth century, based on historical evidence and original stop-lists of
representative instruments (quoted in Appendix
1).
A typical Italian organ of the
period had one manual with a keyboard range of up to five octaves (starting from F]
or C], in the latter case usually with a short octave) and a pedal of about one octave
(usually pull-downs of the manual's lowest keys). Stops were grouped into the
ripi¬
eno
(all principal ranks, always starting with
a Principale,
and typically going up to
Vigesimanona; mixture-type stops were rare, usually all ranks were drawn sepa¬
rately) and
registri da
concerto (mainly wide-scale open flutes at the octave and
318
twelfth or fifteenth, and, rarely, regal-type reeds). A special stop, called
Voce
Umana
or Fiffaro, at that time built only in the North, was a treble principal, tuned
slightly higher at the same pitch as the
Principale. In
Tuscany and Rome, however,
some organs were constructed by Flemish builders or under their influence; these
instruments would have a broader palette of stops, including open and stopped flutes
at the
Principale
pitch and higher, and more reeds, e.g. a full-length
Tromba
and/or
Trombone. An important aspect of Italian organ building is the sound quality of the
instruments: always delicate, rounded, and vocal.
Instructions for registration, discussed in chapter 2.3., are rare in the period and
come invariably from the north of Italy. They include a list of
1558
from Valvasone,
the famous treatise
L'Arte
orgmüca
by Costanzo Antegnati
(1608),
a chapter from
the second part of Girolamo Diruta's
11
Transilvano
(1609),
and indications for
a few pieces from
Adriano
Banchieri's treatise
L
'Organo suonarino
(1605,
2161
1).
All registration possibilities from these sources are listed in tables. They show that
the
ripieno
consisted only of principal ranks and was used for the beginning and end
of church services, as well as for
intonazioni
and toccatas. Diruta's instructions are
grouped by modes and based on their character, whereas Antegnati gives separate
registrations for canzonas with or without diminutions, for slow pieces, for elevation
music, for accompanying vocal pieces, and for dialogues. Each source gives some
unique combinations. The Valvasone list prefers high-pitched stops added to the
Principale, Diruta
avoids the quint-sounding stops entirely and bases about half of
his registrations on the Octave or the Octave Flute, and Antegnati gives many col¬
ourful, but mostly low-pitch, consort-like possibilities. It is then clear that some
aesthetic evolution took place towards the end of the
Cinquecento,,
although the
sources are not fully comparable:
Diruta,
for example, seems to consider mainly
contrapuntal music based on modes, and Antegnati refers to a broader spectrum of
genres. Both authors, however, speak about a practice of improvising
versets
during
church services, not about performance of
written^down
music. Moreover, none of
the sources mentions any registrations for the more extraordinary organs. In this
matter, it was necessary to take two lists of
Willem
Hermans into consideration.
Although they describe registrations for instruments constructed by the Flemish
builder only around the middle of the seventeenth century and include many combi¬
nations either with stops definitely not in use some fifty years earlier or unsuitable
for older music, some registrations help understand how a variety of flutes and reeds
could be used on earlier Italian organs in Rome.
As there are no Italian organs available in Poland, the recording was made on
an anonymous Polish instrument of
1704
in the Holy Cross church in
Krakow,
re¬
constructed and restored by Richard Jacoby
(Kassel,
Germany) and
Ekkehart
Gross
319
(Waditz, Germany) in
2003.
Regardless of many obvious differences in overall
shape, stop-list, and voicing, this organ is relatively close to an Italian ideal, largely
due to its vocal sound quality. Registrations chosen for individual pieces mirror the
spirit, rather than the letter, of Italian instructions from the period. Apart from many
"standard" combinations of principals, it was possible to try other possibilities, in¬
cluding a chimney flute and a stopped flute (both
8'),
used alone or with principals
for pieces of Roman composers.
At the time of transition between the Renaissance and the Baroque, matters of
tempo, time signatures, and proportions were extremely complicated, and their full
presentation was beyond the scope of this study. Chapter
2.4.
offers only a general
discussion of the subject, with emphasis on solutions chosen for the performed
pieces. Music of the late sixteenth century was still governed by the tactus principle.
The tactus, understood as a period of time between two downward movements of
the "conductor's" hand, had to be constant in a given piece, regardless of how it was
divided internally. Thus, a change of what looks like a time signature indicated
a change of the notes' speed, but not a change of the basic tempo, "conducted" alia
breve or alla semibreve.
Two of the most popular proportions, proportio sesquilat-
era and proportio
tripla, are
described and applied to the pieces recorded on the CD.
The speed of the tactus itself became a more complicated question as soon as small
note values were introduced into music. Eventually, not only did it generally slow
down, but also the proportion
2:1
between the
с
tactus and
φ
tactus was ruined.
Moreover, at the turn of the seventeenth century the stile
moderno
emerged, which
regarded expression of affects as the most important aim of performance. Because
many contrasting affects could be presented in one piece, they required a flexible
tactus in order to bring them out. What had been obvious in vocal music equipped
with text was soon transmitted into instrumental music, also seen as a small musical
drama. This practice is first documented in the preface to Frescobaldi's first book of
toccatas (the full Italian text of its two versions, together with Polish translation, is
given in Appendix
2).
However, it is highly probable that some slightly earlier
pieces may also require internal changes of the tactus speed, e.g. the expressive
durezze,
highly contrasting, sectional pieces by Pasquini, Macque, and Mayone, or
Menilo
's toccatas, in which many pre-Frescobaldian
affetti cantabili
can be de¬
tected.
Chapter
2.5.
is devoted to ornamentation. The discussion of the Renaissance art
of diminution is mainly based on Diruta's
//
Transilvano, with original examples
demonstrating specific ornamental figures, such as
groppi, tremoli,
and tremoletti.
At the turn of the seventeenth century, the purpose of introducing ornamentation
was changing drastically. Excessive diminutions, improvised by performers just for
320
pleasure, were reduced. Instead, composers started to write their ornaments down
and place them carefully to give them expressive meaning. The long
passaggi
of
even notes changed into shorter, rhythmically profiled figures. Many shapes of trills
and
accenti are
shown in examples, and their performance practice is discussed in
connection with notation and historical evidence. The chapter also analyzes Fresco-
baldi's hints for execution of
passaggi, passi doppi,
and
durezze
sections, dotting
semiquavers when another hand has quavers, and arpeggiating the opening chords of
his toccatas.
Playing technique is the subject of chapter
2.6.
General remarks about the pos¬
ture, hand position, and quality of sound are taken from
Diruta
's
treatise, followed
by a detailed discussion of fingering. Two separate systems of playing scales existed
side by side in Italy: one, described by
Diruta,
preferred the second and fourth fin¬
gers on good notes, another, given in Banchieri's
L
'Organo suonarìno,
regarded the
third finger as the "good" one. In as much as their effect in performance can be quite
different, both of them require some degree of „counteraction" from the player in
order to make the notes sound as even as possible. The sources also provide finger¬
ings for certain ornaments, as well as for intervals and chords. No mention is made
about "position" fingering, which nevertheless must ha\'e been used alongside the
paired fingering. Although the picture emerging from the treatises might appear at
first to be exhaustive, it actually gives direct solutions for only a limited number of
cases. Not surprisingly, Diruta's system can very easily be applied to Venetian toc¬
catas with their scalar diminutions and chordal accompaniment; on the other hand,
nothing is said in the sources about playing contrapuntal pieces, which can be highly
complicated, requiring flexible fingering in order to bring out the voice leading. All
told, the systems described in the treatises serve merely as a starting point for the
„historically informed" player.
Historical fingerings have important consequences for articulation. Legato is of
course possible for playing neither figuration nor polyphony. Instead, alternation of
various fingering possibilities result in subtle shadings between more "open" and
more connected playing, as well as between more even and more uneven succession
of notes. It is easily achievable on historical instruments with sensitive action, such
as the organ in the Holy Cross church in
Kraków.
Finally,
Étienne Darbellay's
theory is discussed, which claims that beaming in
the toccata prints of
Menilo
and Frescobaldi may indicate articulation. It seems that
the meaning of this factor is rather overestimated; no mention of it is made in any
source of the period, including Frescobaldi's exhaustive preface. Nevertheless, there
are many spots in the prints in question, as well as in some manuscripts, where the
graphic design is apparently suggestive. Some of them may refer to changes in the
321
degree of articulation; others just single out beginnings of off-beat motives. It is not
completely evident to what degree they should affect actual playing, but they do
influence the performer's way of thinking about music.
The coexistence of various styles, evolution of genres, and changes in perform¬
ance practice are unquestionably the most fascinating aspects of Italian organ music
at the, turn of the seventeenth century. They force us to think about the period in
a more dynamic way, and to seek for new, imaginative ways of performance. Hope¬
fully, this knowledge of performance practice will help bring the rich aesthetic di¬
versity of this little-known music closer to the public's awareness.
322 |
| adam_txt |
Spis treści
Wstęp
1.
Praktyka kompozytorska
.16
1.1.
Wenecja
(1540-1604) .16
1.1.1.
Toccata
.18
1.1.2.
Canzona.
26
1.2.
Rzym
(1593-1604).34
.2.1.
Toccata .
35
.2.2.
Ricercar/canzona
.41
.3.
Ferrara
(ок.
1560-1607).45
.3.1.
Ricercar
.46
.3.2.
Canzona
.56
.3.3.
Toccata
.61
.3.4.
Durezze e
ligature
.65
.4.
Neapol
(ок.
1585-1615).75
.4.1.
Canzona
і
capriccio
.78
.4.2.
Ricercar
.89
.4.3.
Durezze e
ligature
.96
.4.4.
Toccata
.101
1.5.
Girolamo Frescobaldi
(1608-1616).109
1.5.1. //
primo libro delle fantasie a quattro
.110
1.5.2.
Recercari, et canzoni franzese
.116
1.5.3.
Toccale e partite
d
'intavolatura di
címbalo.
.
Libro Primo
. 125
2.
Praktyka wykonawcza
. 137
2.1.
Systemy notacji włoskiej muzyki na instrumenty klawiszowe
Wybór instrumentu, przeznaczenie utworów, zagadnienia
krytyki tekstu
. 137
2.2.
Organy w Italii na przełomie
XVI
i
XVII
wieku
. 157
2.3.
Registracja: fakty, hipotezy i rozwiązania praktyczne
. 166
2.3.1.
Włoskie wskazówki registracyjne 1558-ok.
1666 . 166
2.3.2.
Założenia
regi
stracji wybranych utworów włoskich
na polskich organach przełomu
XVII
i
XVIII
wieku
. 192
2.4.
Metrum i tempo: od systemu proporcji do supremacji wyrazu
. 201
2.4.1.
Tactus
. 202
2.4.2.
System proporcji
. 205
2.4.3.
Tempo w służbie afektu
. 207
2.5.
Od diminucji
do affetti:
sfera muzycznego
decornilo
.213
2.5.1.
Sztuka diminucji w świetle traktatu Diruty
.214
2.5.2.
Passaggi
i
grazie
jako nośniki afektu
.229
2.5.3.
Inne „maniery" wykonawcze
.250
2.6.
Technika gry organowej w świetle włoskich źródeł
teoretycznych przełomu
XVI
i
XVII
wieku
.254
2.6.1.
Zagadnienia ogólne
.255
2.6.2.
Aplikatura: przekazy źródłowe i ich ograniczenia
.257
2.6.3.
Konsekwencje artykułacyj
ne
.269
Zakończenie
.283
Aneks
1.
Reprezentacyjne dyspozycje włoskich organów
.289
Aneks
2.
Przedmowy do pierwszej księgi
toccát
Frescobal
diego
. 296
Wykaz skrótów
.300
Bibliografía.
301
Summary
.315
Indeks nazwisk
.323
Opis płyty
.330
Summary
This work serves as an extended commentary to the attached CD of Italian
keyboard music from the turn of the seventeenth century. The period in question is
known today mainly as a time of great stylistic changes in vocal music that lead to
the rise of the highly expressive stile
moderno.
Keyboard music of this time, how¬
ever, is largely unfamiliar in Poland. Girolamo Frescobaldi is the only major com¬
poser of the period whose works appear in concerts today, and he is undoubtedly die
greatest master of early seventeenth-century Italian keyboard music. This book at¬
tempts to show the stylistic evolution that led to his achievements. It was in many
ways analogous to that in vocal music, and affected man}' aspects of both composi¬
tion and performance practice. Because of the wealth of keyboard music written in
Italy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it became necessary to restrict the
material to only three genres: toccata,
ricercar,
and
canzona.
They represent the most
independent kind of instrumental music of the time, free of vocal models, cantus
firmi,
dance patterns, or liturgical restrictions.
Part
1
discusses the evolution of the genres. Before reaching its climax in the
early prints of Girolamo Frescobaldi
(1.5.),
it was concentrated in four major cen¬
tres: Venice
(1.1.),
Rome
(1.2.),
Ferrara
(1.3.)»
апс*
Naples
(1.4.).
Frescobaldi's two
books of
1615,
Recercari, and
canzoni
fi-anzese
.,
and
Toccate e
partite.
Libro
Primo,
can be seen as both a summary of the achievements of his predecessors and
an opening of new lines in the genres' development. For this reason, this date was
chosen as a borderline for the discussion.
The stylistic development of the toccata is perhaps the most spectacular. The
genre had its origins in the
intonazione, a
type of prelude establishing the mode with
chords and passagework. Indeed, Toccata del
quinto tono
by Andrea
Gabrieli
(who
is most probably responsible for establishing a „classical" shape of Venetian toccata
after an experimental stage represented by Sperindio
Bertoldo
and Annibale
Pado¬
vano)
proves to be a reworking of his
Intonazione del quinto tono,
revealing a close
relationship between the two genres. The Venetian toccatas typically open with
a slow introduction, which then unfolds into virtuosic, mostly scalar figuration based
on slow-moving chords; some pieces have a central imitative section, clearly articu¬
lated by strong cadences.
This form of the toccata is documented in two prints of
1593:
Gabrieli's Into-
315
natìoni
d
Organo, and Girolamo
Diruta's
//
Transilvano
(Part
1).
In
the two books of
toccatas by
Claudio
Merulo
(Rome,
1598
and
1604),
which were engraved for the
first time in Italy on copper plates, the genre seems to achieve a fully independent
stage. The pieces are much longer and do not give any impression of being mere
preludes. Their figuration is more varied, both melodically and rhythmically, the
harmonic pace is more dynamic, and the almost obligatory imitative sections are
now subtly integrated into the pieces, sometimes leaving doubts as to their actual
beginnings and endings.
In
Ferrara, Èrcole Pasquini
developed another concept of the toccata, which is
based on clearly articulated sections filled with contrasting material. Instead of the
long scales in Venetian toccatas, his figurations consist of short and rhythmically
profiled motives, quickly moving from one voice to another. Cadences are under¬
lined with long "dominant" and "predominant" chords that help create an overall
tonal structure. Pasquini is also one of the first composers who experimented with
a new style,
durezze e
ligature, with emphasis on dissonances and chromaticism.
Compositions in this style are also found in Neapolitan music, most promi¬
nently in the output of Giovanni
de Macque.
Indeed, his
Seconde Stravaganze
can
be seen as a miniature toccata with a slow
durezze
opening, some sequential figura¬
tion, a mere allusion to an imitative section, and a relatively long coda based on
a "dominant" chord filled with trills and passagework. This structure, obviously
derived from Venetian and
Ferrarese
models, served as a starting point for Neapoli¬
tan toccatas, as can be seen in works by Giovanni Maria
Trabaci
and Ascanio
Mayone. The most important aspect of the genre's e\'olution, namely its move from
simple, scalar passagework to diverse and expressive figuration, grouped into clearly
delineated sections, reaches its peak in the first book of Frescobaldi's toccatas. In
the preface, Frescobaldi stresses precisely these two aspects of the new style:
affetti
cantabili
(singing affects) and
diversità di passi
(diversity of sections). His pieces
are as fully developed as Merulo's, but dispense entirely with any contrapuntal sec¬
tions. Instead, the composer indulges into a play with motives, derived from Pas¬
quini, but applied with unprecedented perfection in regard to their careful planning
and development. As a result, Frescobaldi's toccatas give a simultaneous impression
of spontaneity and unit. They are splendid examples of the new expressive style,
analogous to that of the "modern madrigals" quoted in his preface.
In the case of the contrapuntal genres, the evolution of style is much more sub¬
tle. The
ricercar
reaches the highest level of contrapuntal
virtuosit)'
in the Ferrarese-
Neapolitan school. Its main feature is economy of thematic material, itself fully
exploited by use of complicated, learned devices, such as
inganno or
hexachordal
inversion. Nevertheless, almost each composer reveals an individual approach to the
316
genre.
The pieces from the Bourdeney codex (probably by Jacques
Brumel)
have
neutral, hexachordally conceived subjects, constantly manipulated by inversion and
inganni.
Their various shapes, together with carefully planned use of countersub-
jects, help create a clear overall design. Luzzasco Luzzasclii uses more rhythmically
profiled subjects, but his most characteristic feature is a camouflaging of sectional
articulation by manipulation of the weight of cadences. Neapolitan ricercars of Gio¬
vanni
de Macque
and Giovanni Maria
Trabaci
strive to eliminate non-thematic ma¬
terial even further and to purge the genre of any ornamentation. They are usually of
the oligothematic type, in which all subjects are shown at the very beginning of
a piece and then presented in various combinations, including all subjects together
(conclusione).
The heirs of this tradition are Frescobaldi's
Fantasie
of
1608,
ex¬
tremely dense and complicated, although more "modern" at the same time in its use
of chromaticism and a wider spectrum of rhythmic values. Frescobaldi's tribute to
the Ferrarese-Neapolitan school can also be found in the
Recercan,
and
canzoni
franzese. of
1615,
in which he exploits features such as oligothematicism, hexa-
chordal inversion, and use of four subjects. Contrastingly, the pieces from this col¬
lection usually have clearly articulated sections. They are also contrapuntally less
dense; instead, various oblighi are stressed, which serve as additional requirements
for the composer and can be regarded as one of the characteristic elements of
Frescobaldi's stile
mitico.
The
canzona
is a genre of vocal origin. This books shows only one line of its
development, namely, a variation
canzona,
which uses the same subject, changed
melodically and/or rhythmically, in at least two sections. The use of variation, de¬
rived from the learned
ricercar,
helps the
canzona
establish itself as a purely instru¬
mental genre, independent of vocal ancestors. Simple examples of this procedure
can be seen first in canzonas and canzona-like pieces of the Venetians Andrea
Gab¬
rieli
and
Vincenzo
Pellegrini. It is
Èrcole Pasquini,
however, who unifies all three
sections of his
canzona (No.
16)
with various shapes of the same subject, designed
in such a way that an effective climax appears near the end of the piece. The genre
also assimilates the "toccata style", especially at cadences, which are often orna¬
mented with quite long
passaggi.
Extremely unusual and imaginative diminutions
can be found above all in the ornamented version of Gesualdo's
canzona
-
itself
a fairly conservative piece
-
but also in the
Capriccio sopra re, fa, mi, sol
by Mac¬
que, one of very few Italian
Capriccios
before Frescobaldi's book of
1624,
close to
the
canzona in
its overall character and construction. Frescobaldi's Canzon
seconda
from his
1615
print has little ornamentation; instead, it proves to be a contrapuntal
masterpiece in five sections (with two of them divided into subsections), based on
317
a single subject shown in various versions, and shaped with a perfect sense of dra¬
matic tension.
Part
2
is devoted to aspects of performance practice. Chapter
2.1.
discusses no¬
tation of Italian keyboard music. During the period in question, two systems were in
use: two-staff keyboard notation
{intavolatura),
showing exact distribution of notes
between two hands, and four-staff open score
{partitura),
showing exact voice-
leading. The
intavolatura
was more suitable for free pieces like the toccatas; it was
also commonly used for intabulations of contrapuntal music preserved in
partbooks
(which often constituted a potential keyboard repertoire). It could be printed from
movable type or copper plates, though the latter technique, being very expensive and
time-consuming, was used only for toccatas of Merulo and Frescobaldi. Most music
preserved in manuscripts was also notated in this system. Open score was the most
popular notation for contrapuntal pieces. Frescobaldi used it invariably for his fanta¬
sias, ricercars, and
-
later
-
capriccios. It was also a system preferred by Neapolitan
composers, who applied it to all printed music, regardless of genre, perhaps because
their prints were of the opera
omnia
collecta type. As
much as the
intavolatura
showed exactly how music had to be played, the
partitura
often required some ad¬
justments in order to be performed on the keyboard. It is especially true of Neapoli¬
tan music with its broadly spaced voices, sometimes making a composition hardly
playable at all. Another explanation of this feature is the possibility of an ensemble
or harp performance (some pieces are explicitly designated for the latter). In connec¬
tion with notation and source situation, critical approach to the text of individual
pieces is offered, mainly as far as music preserved in manuscripts is concerned.
Social function of the discussed genres leads to the question of whether the organ or
harpsichord is a preferred instrument for the pieces performed on the CD. It seems
that the abstract genres could be used as much in church as for entertainment or
study on whatever instrument was available and convenient. Although some titles of
the prints or other remarks by composers show their preferences in this matter, they
by no means exclude other possibilities for performance.
Chapter
2.2.
offers a brief history of organ building in Italy up to the beginning
of the seventeenth century, based on historical evidence and original stop-lists of
representative instruments (quoted in Appendix
1).
A typical Italian organ of the
period had one manual with a keyboard range of up to five octaves (starting from F]
or C], in the latter case usually with a short octave) and a pedal of about one octave
(usually pull-downs of the manual's lowest keys). Stops were grouped into the
ripi¬
eno
(all principal ranks, always starting with
a Principale,
and typically going up to
Vigesimanona; mixture-type stops were rare, usually all ranks were drawn sepa¬
rately) and
registri da
concerto (mainly wide-scale open flutes at the octave and
318
twelfth or fifteenth, and, rarely, regal-type reeds). A special stop, called
Voce
Umana
or Fiffaro, at that time built only in the North, was a treble principal, tuned
slightly higher at the same pitch as the
Principale. In
Tuscany and Rome, however,
some organs were constructed by Flemish builders or under their influence; these
instruments would have a broader palette of stops, including open and stopped flutes
at the
Principale
pitch and higher, and more reeds, e.g. a full-length
Tromba
and/or
Trombone. An important aspect of Italian organ building is the sound quality of the
instruments: always delicate, rounded, and vocal.
Instructions for registration, discussed in chapter 2.3., are rare in the period and
come invariably from the north of Italy. They include a list of
1558
from Valvasone,
the famous treatise
L'Arte
orgmüca
by Costanzo Antegnati
(1608),
a chapter from
the second part of Girolamo Diruta's
11
Transilvano
(1609),
and indications for
a few pieces from
Adriano
Banchieri's treatise
L
'Organo suonarino
(1605,
2161
1).
All registration possibilities from these sources are listed in tables. They show that
the
ripieno
consisted only of principal ranks and was used for the beginning and end
of church services, as well as for
intonazioni
and toccatas. Diruta's instructions are
grouped by modes and based on their character, whereas Antegnati gives separate
registrations for canzonas with or without diminutions, for slow pieces, for elevation
music, for accompanying vocal pieces, and for dialogues. Each source gives some
unique combinations. The Valvasone list prefers high-pitched stops added to the
Principale, Diruta
avoids the quint-sounding stops entirely and bases about half of
his registrations on the Octave or the Octave Flute, and Antegnati gives many col¬
ourful, but mostly low-pitch, consort-like possibilities. It is then clear that some
aesthetic evolution took place towards the end of the
Cinquecento,,
although the
sources are not fully comparable:
Diruta,
for example, seems to consider mainly
contrapuntal music based on modes, and Antegnati refers to a broader spectrum of
genres. Both authors, however, speak about a practice of improvising
versets
during
church services, not about performance of
written^down
music. Moreover, none of
the sources mentions any registrations for the more extraordinary organs. In this
matter, it was necessary to take two lists of
Willem
Hermans into consideration.
Although they describe registrations for instruments constructed by the Flemish
builder only around the middle of the seventeenth century and include many combi¬
nations either with stops definitely not in use some fifty years earlier or unsuitable
for older music, some registrations help understand how a variety of flutes and reeds
could be used on earlier Italian organs in Rome.
As there are no Italian organs available in Poland, the recording was made on
an anonymous Polish instrument of
1704
in the Holy Cross church in
Krakow,
re¬
constructed and restored by Richard Jacoby
(Kassel,
Germany) and
Ekkehart
Gross
319
(Waditz, Germany) in
2003.
Regardless of many obvious differences in overall
shape, stop-list, and voicing, this organ is relatively close to an Italian ideal, largely
due to its vocal sound quality. Registrations chosen for individual pieces mirror the
spirit, rather than the letter, of Italian instructions from the period. Apart from many
"standard" combinations of principals, it was possible to try other possibilities, in¬
cluding a chimney flute and a stopped flute (both
8'),
used alone or with principals
for pieces of Roman composers.
At the time of transition between the Renaissance and the Baroque, matters of
tempo, time signatures, and proportions were extremely complicated, and their full
presentation was beyond the scope of this study. Chapter
2.4.
offers only a general
discussion of the subject, with emphasis on solutions chosen for the performed
pieces. Music of the late sixteenth century was still governed by the tactus principle.
The tactus, understood as a period of time between two downward movements of
the "conductor's" hand, had to be constant in a given piece, regardless of how it was
divided internally. Thus, a change of what looks like a time signature indicated
a change of the notes' speed, but not a change of the basic tempo, "conducted" alia
breve or alla semibreve.
Two of the most popular proportions, proportio sesquilat-
era and proportio
tripla, are
described and applied to the pieces recorded on the CD.
The speed of the tactus itself became a more complicated question as soon as small
note values were introduced into music. Eventually, not only did it generally slow
down, but also the proportion
2:1
between the
с
tactus and
φ
tactus was ruined.
Moreover, at the turn of the seventeenth century the stile
moderno
emerged, which
regarded expression of affects as the most important aim of performance. Because
many contrasting affects could be presented in one piece, they required a flexible
tactus in order to bring them out. What had been obvious in vocal music equipped
with text was soon transmitted into instrumental music, also seen as a small musical
drama. This practice is first documented in the preface to Frescobaldi's first book of
toccatas (the full Italian text of its two versions, together with Polish translation, is
given in Appendix
2).
However, it is highly probable that some slightly earlier
pieces may also require internal changes of the tactus speed, e.g. the expressive
durezze,
highly contrasting, sectional pieces by Pasquini, Macque, and Mayone, or
Menilo
's toccatas, in which many pre-Frescobaldian
affetti cantabili
can be de¬
tected.
Chapter
2.5.
is devoted to ornamentation. The discussion of the Renaissance art
of diminution is mainly based on Diruta's
//
Transilvano, with original examples
demonstrating specific ornamental figures, such as
groppi, tremoli,
and tremoletti.
At the turn of the seventeenth century, the purpose of introducing ornamentation
was changing drastically. Excessive diminutions, improvised by performers just for
320
pleasure, were reduced. Instead, composers started to write their ornaments down
and place them carefully to give them expressive meaning. The long
passaggi
of
even notes changed into shorter, rhythmically profiled figures. Many shapes of trills
and
accenti are
shown in examples, and their performance practice is discussed in
connection with notation and historical evidence. The chapter also analyzes Fresco-
baldi's hints for execution of
passaggi, passi doppi,
and
durezze
sections, dotting
semiquavers when another hand has quavers, and arpeggiating the opening chords of
his toccatas.
Playing technique is the subject of chapter
2.6.
General remarks about the pos¬
ture, hand position, and quality of sound are taken from
Diruta
's
treatise, followed
by a detailed discussion of fingering. Two separate systems of playing scales existed
side by side in Italy: one, described by
Diruta,
preferred the second and fourth fin¬
gers on good notes, another, given in Banchieri's
L
'Organo suonarìno,
regarded the
third finger as the "good" one. In as much as their effect in performance can be quite
different, both of them require some degree of „counteraction" from the player in
order to make the notes sound as even as possible. The sources also provide finger¬
ings for certain ornaments, as well as for intervals and chords. No mention is made
about "position" fingering, which nevertheless must ha\'e been used alongside the
paired fingering. Although the picture emerging from the treatises might appear at
first to be exhaustive, it actually gives direct solutions for only a limited number of
cases. Not surprisingly, Diruta's system can very easily be applied to Venetian toc¬
catas with their scalar diminutions and chordal accompaniment; on the other hand,
nothing is said in the sources about playing contrapuntal pieces, which can be highly
complicated, requiring flexible fingering in order to bring out the voice leading. All
told, the systems described in the treatises serve merely as a starting point for the
„historically informed" player.
Historical fingerings have important consequences for articulation. Legato is of
course possible for playing neither figuration nor polyphony. Instead, alternation of
various fingering possibilities result in subtle shadings between more "open" and
more connected playing, as well as between more even and more uneven succession
of notes. It is easily achievable on historical instruments with sensitive action, such
as the organ in the Holy Cross church in
Kraków.
Finally,
Étienne Darbellay's
theory is discussed, which claims that beaming in
the toccata prints of
Menilo
and Frescobaldi may indicate articulation. It seems that
the meaning of this factor is rather overestimated; no mention of it is made in any
source of the period, including Frescobaldi's exhaustive preface. Nevertheless, there
are many spots in the prints in question, as well as in some manuscripts, where the
graphic design is apparently suggestive. Some of them may refer to changes in the
321
degree of articulation; others just single out beginnings of off-beat motives. It is not
completely evident to what degree they should affect actual playing, but they do
influence the performer's way of thinking about music.
The coexistence of various styles, evolution of genres, and changes in perform¬
ance practice are unquestionably the most fascinating aspects of Italian organ music
at the, turn of the seventeenth century. They force us to think about the period in
a more dynamic way, and to seek for new, imaginative ways of performance. Hope¬
fully, this knowledge of performance practice will help bring the rich aesthetic di¬
versity of this little-known music closer to the public's awareness.
322 |
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| author | Szelest, Marcin |
| author_facet | Szelest, Marcin |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Szelest, Marcin |
| author_variant | m s ms |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV022711686 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)749375439 (DE-599)BVBBV022711686 |
| era | Geschichte 1540-1620 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1540-1620 |
| format | Book |
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| genre | (DE-588)4002214-6 Anthologie gnd-content (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Anthologie Hochschulschrift |
| geographic | Italien (DE-588)4027833-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Italien |
| id | DE-604.BV022711686 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T18:26:29Z |
| indexdate | 2025-01-02T17:09:41Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788387182717 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-015917544 |
| oclc_num | 749375439 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 331 S. Notenbeisp. CD (12 cm) |
| publishDate | 2007 |
| publishDateSearch | 2007 |
| publishDateSort | 2007 |
| publisher | Akad. Muzyczna |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Prace Habilitacyjne / Akademia Muzyczna w Krakowie |
| spelling | Szelest, Marcin Verfasser aut Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia Marcin Szelest Kraków Akad. Muzyczna 2007 331 S. Notenbeisp. CD (12 cm) txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Prace Habilitacyjne / Akademia Muzyczna w Krakowie 2 Zsfassung in engl. Sprache.- Zugl.: Kraków, Akad. Muzyczna, Habil.-Schr. Geschichte 1540-1620 gnd rswk-swf Muzyka organowa - 16 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Muzyka organowa - 17 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Muzyka organowa - Włochy - 16 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Orgelmusik (DE-588)4043852-1 gnd rswk-swf Italien (DE-588)4027833-5 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4002214-6 Anthologie gnd-content (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Italien (DE-588)4027833-5 g Orgelmusik (DE-588)4043852-1 s Geschichte 1540-1620 z DE-604 Akademia Muzyczna w Krakowie Prace Habilitacyjne 2 (DE-604)BV022268147 2 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015917544&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015917544&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Szelest, Marcin Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia Muzyka organowa - 16 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Muzyka organowa - 17 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Muzyka organowa - Włochy - 16 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Orgelmusik (DE-588)4043852-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4043852-1 (DE-588)4027833-5 (DE-588)4002214-6 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia |
| title_auth | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia |
| title_exact_search | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia |
| title_full | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia Marcin Szelest |
| title_fullStr | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia Marcin Szelest |
| title_full_unstemmed | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia Marcin Szelest |
| title_short | Przemiany stylistyczne we włoskiej muzyce organowej przełomu XVI i XVII stulecia |
| title_sort | przemiany stylistyczne we wloskiej muzyce organowej przelomu xvi i xvii stulecia |
| topic | Muzyka organowa - 16 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Muzyka organowa - 17 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Muzyka organowa - Włochy - 16 w - historia i krytyka jhpk Orgelmusik (DE-588)4043852-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Muzyka organowa - 16 w - historia i krytyka Muzyka organowa - 17 w - historia i krytyka Muzyka organowa - Włochy - 16 w - historia i krytyka Orgelmusik Italien Anthologie Hochschulschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015917544&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015917544&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV022268147 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT szelestmarcin przemianystylistycznewewłoskiejmuzyceorganowejprzełomuxviixviistulecia |