Biostatistics: a guide to design, analysis and discovery
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| Main Authors: | , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Amsterdam [u.a.]
Elsevier, Acad. Press
2007
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Physical Description: | XVII, 502 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0123694922 9780123694928 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Forthofer, Ronald N. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Biostatistics |b a guide to design, analysis and discovery |c Ronald N. Forthofer ; Eun Sul Lee ; Mike Hernandez |
| 264 | 1 | |a Amsterdam [u.a.] |b Elsevier, Acad. Press |c 2007 | |
| 300 | |a XVII, 502 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 7 | |a Geneeskunde |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Statistiek |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Medizin | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Statistik | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Biometry | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Biometry |x methods | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Medicine |x Research |x Statistical methods | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Research Design | |
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| 700 | 1 | |a Lee, Eun Sul |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Hernandez, Mike |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
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| adam_text | Table
of Contents
Preface
........................................................ xv
1
Introduction
................................................... 1
1.1
What Is Biostatistics?
........................................ 1
1.2
Data
—
The Key Component of a Study
........................ 2
1.3
Design
—
The Road to Relevant Data
.......................... 4
1.4
Replication
—
Part of the Scientific Method
..................... 6
1.5
Applying Statistical Methods
.................................. 7
Exercises
.................................................. 7
References
................................................. 8
2
Data and Numbers
.............................................. 9
2.1
Data: Numerical Representation
............................... 9
2.2
Observations and Variables
................................... 10
2.3
Scales Used with Variables
................................... 10
2.4
Reliability and Validity
...................................... 11
2.5
Randomized Response Technique
.............................. 13
2.6
Common Data Problems
..................................... 14
Conclusion
................................................ 17
Exercises
.................................................. 18
References
................................................. 20
3
Descriptive Methods
............................................ 21
3.1
Introduction to Descriptive Methods
............................ 21
3.2
Tabular and Graphical Presentation of Data
...................... 22
3.2.1
Frequency Tables
..................................... 23
3.2.2
Line Graphs
......................................... 24
3.2.3
Bar Charts
........................................... 27
3.2.4
Histograms
.......................................... 30
3.2.5
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
................................... 35
3.2.6
Dot Plots
............................................ 37
3.2.7
Scatter Plots
......................................... 38
3.3
Measures of Central Tendency
................................ 39
3.3.1
Mean, Median, and Mode
.............................. 40
3.3.2
Use of the Measures of Central Tendency
.................. 42
3.3.3
The Geometric Mean
.................................. 42
viii Table of
Contents
3.4
Measures of Variability
...................................... 45
3.4.1
Range and Percentiles
................................. 45
3.4.2
Box Plots
............................................ 47
3.4.3
Variance and Standard Deviation
........................ 48
3.5
Rates and Ratios
............................................ 51
3.5.1
Crude and Specific Rates
............................... 52
3.5.2
Adjusted Rates
....................................... 53
3.6
Measures of Change over Time
................................ 55
3.6.1
Linear Growth
....................................... 55
3.6.2
Geometric Growth
.................................... 57
3.6.3
Exponential Growth
................................... 58
3.7
Correlation Coefficients
...................................... 60
3.7.1
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
.......................... 60
3.7.2
Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient
................... 63
Conclusion
................................................ 64
Exercises
.................................................. 64
References
................................................. 68
4
Probability and Life Tables
...................................... 71
4.1
A Definition of Probability
................................... 71
4.2
Rules for Calculating Probabilities
............................. 73
4.2.1
Addition Rule for Probabilities
.......................... 73
4.2.2
Conditional Probabilities
............................... 75
4.2.3
Independent Events
................................... 77
4.3
Definitions from Epidemiology
................................ 80
4.3.1
Rates and Probabilities
................................. 80
4.3.2
Sensitivity, Specificity, and Predicted Value Positive
and Negative
......................................... 81
4.3.3
Receiver Operating Characteristic Plot
.................... 83
4.4
Bayes
Theorem
............................................ 84
4.5
Probability in Sampling
...................................... 87
4.5.1
Sampling with Replacement
............................ 87
4.5.2
Sampling without Replacement
.......................... 88
4.6
Estimating Probabilities by Simulation
.......................... 89
4.7
Probability and the Life Table
................................. 91
4.7.1
The First Four Columns in the Life Table
.................. 93
4.7.2
Some Uses of the Life Table
............................ 95
4.7.3
Expected Values in the Life Table
........................ 96
4.7.4
Other Expected Values in the Life Table
.................. 98
Conclusion
................................................ 99
Exercises
.................................................. 99
References
................................................. 102
5
Probability Distributions
........................................ 103
5.1
The Binomial Distribution
.................................... 103
5.1.1
Binomial Probabilities
................................. 103
5.1.2
Mean and Variance of the Binomial Distribution
............ 108
5.1.3
Shapes of the Binomial Distribution
...................... 110
Table
of Contents ¡x
5.2
The
Poisson
Distribution
.....................................
Ill
5.2.1
Poisson
Probabilities
...................................
Ill
5.2.2
Mean and Variance of the
Poisson
Distribution
............. 113
5.2.3
Finding
Poisson
Probabilities
............................ 114
5.3
The Normal Distribution
..................................... 116
5.3.1
Normal Probabilities
.................................. 116
5.3.2
Transforming to the Standard Normal Distribution
.......... 118
5.3.3
Calculation of Normal Probabilities
...................... 119
5.3.4
The Normal Probability Plot
............................ 122
5.4
The Central Limit Theorem
................................... 124
5.5
Approximations to the Binomial and
Poisson
Distributions
......... 126
5.5.1
Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution
......... 126
5.5.2
Normal Approximation to the
Poisson
Distribution
.......... 129
Conclusion
................................................ 131
Exercises
.................................................. 131
References
................................................. 133
6
Study Designs
.................................................. 135
6.1
Design: Putting Chance to Work
............................... 135
6.2
Sample Surveys and Experiments
.............................. 137
6.3
Sampling and Sample Designs
................................ 138
6.3.1
Sampling Frame
...................................... 139
6.3.2
Importance of Probability Sampling
...................... 140
6.3.3
Simple Random Sampling
.............................. 141
6.3.4
Systematic Sampling
.................................. 142
6.3.5
Stratified Random Sampling
............................ 144
6.3.6
Cluster Sampling
..................................... 144
6.3.7
Problems Due to Unintended Sampling
................... 145
6.4
Designed Experiments
....................................... 148
6.4.1
Comparison Groups and Randomization
.................. 149
6.4.2
Random Assignment
.................................. 150
6.4.3
Sample Size
......................................... 152
6.4.4
Single- and Double-Blind Experiments
.................... 154
6.4.5
Blocking and Extraneous Variables
....................... 155
6.4.6
Limitations of Experiments
............................. 156
6.5
Variations in Study Designs
.................................. 158
6.5.1
The Crossover Design
................................. 158
6.5.2
The Case Control Design
............................... 159
6.5.3
The Cohort Study Design
.............................. 160
Conclusion
................................................ 160
Exercises
.................................................. 161
References
................................................. 166
7
Interval Estimation
............................................. 169
7.1
Prediction, Confidence, and Tolerance Intervals
................... 169
7.2
Distribution-Free Intervals
.................................... 170
7.2.1
Prediction Interval
.................................... 170
7.2.2
Confidence Interval
................................... 171
7.2.3
Tolerance Interval
..................................... 175
χ
Table of Contents
7.3
Confidence Intervals Based on the Normal Distribution
............ 176
7.3.1
Confidence Interval for the Mean
........................ 177
7.3.2
Confidence Interval for a Proportion
...................... 182
7.3.3
Confidence Interval for Crude and Adjusted Rates
.......... 185
7.4
Confidence Interval for the Difference of Two Means and Proportions
188
7.4.1
Difference of Two Independent Means
.................... 188
7.4.2
Difference of Two Dependent Means
..................... 194
7.4.3
Difference of Two Independent Proportions
................ 196
7.4.4
Difference of Two Dependent Proportions
................. 197
7.5
Confidence Interval and Sample Size
........................... 198
7.6
Confidence Intervals for Other Measures
........................ 200
7.6.1
Confidence Interval for the Variance
..................... 201
7.6.2
Confidence Interval for Pearson Correlation Coefficient
...... 203
7.7
Prediction and Tolerance Intervals Based on the Normal Distribution
205
7.7.1
Prediction Interval
.................................... 205
7.7.2
Tolerance Interval
..................................... 206
Conclusion
................................................ 206
Exercises
.................................................. 207
References
................................................. 211
8
Tests of Hypotheses
............................................. 213
8.1
Preliminaries in Tests of Hypotheses
........................... 213
8.1.1
Terms Used in Hypothesis Testing
....................... 215
8.1.2
Determination of the Decision Rule
...................... 216
8.1.3
Relationship of the Decision Rule, a and
β
................ 218
8.1.4
Conducting the Test
................................... 221
8.2
Testing Hypotheses about the Mean
............................ 223
8.2.1
Known Variance
...................................... 223
8.2.2
Unknown Variance
.................................... 228
8.3
Testing Hypotheses about the Proportion and Rates
............... 229
8.4
Testing Hypotheses about the Variance
.......................... 231
8.5
Testing Hypotheses about the Pearson Correlation Coefficient
....... 232
8.6
Testing Hypotheses about the Difference of Two Means
............ 234
8.6.1
Difference of Two Independent Means
.................... 234
8.6.2
Difference of Two Dependent Means
..................... 237
8.7
Testing Hypotheses about the Difference of Two Proportions
........ 238
8.7.1
Difference of Two Independent Proportions
................ 238
8.7.2
Difference of Two Dependent Proportions
................. 239
8.8
Tests of Hypotheses and Sample Size
........................... 240
8.9
Statistical and Practical Significance
............................ 243
Conclusion
................................................ 243
Exercises
.................................................. 244
References
................................................. 248
9
Nonparametric Tests
............................................ 249
9.1
Why Nonparametric Tests?
................................... 249
9.2
The Sign Test
.............................................. 249
9.3
The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
............................... 253
Table
of Contents
xi
9.4
The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test
................................. 257
9.5
The Kruskal-Wallis Test
...................................... 261
9.6
The Friedman Test
.......................................... 262
Conclusion
................................................ 264
Exercises
.................................................. 264
References
................................................. 268
10
Analysis of Categorical Data
..................................... 269
10.1
The Goodness-of-Fit Test
..................................... 269
10.2
The
2
by
2
Contingency Table
................................. 273
10.2.1
Comparing Two Independent Binomial Proportions
......... 274
10.2.2
Expected Cell Counts Assuming No Association:
Chi-Square Test
...................................... 274
10.2.3
The Odds Ratio
—
a Measure of Association
.............. 277
10.2.4
Fisher s Exact Test
.................................... 279
10.2.5
The Analysis of Matched-Pairs Studies
................... 280
10.3
The
r
by
с
Contingency Table
................................. 282
10.3.1
Testing Hypothesis of No Association
.................... 282
10.3.2
Testing Hypothesis of No Trend
......................... 284
10.4
Multiple
2
by
2
Contingency Tables
............................ 286
10.4.1
Analyzing the Tables Separately
......................... 287
10.4.2
The Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel Test
...................... 288
10.4.3
The Mantel-Haenszel Common Odds Ratio
................ 290
Conclusion
................................................ 291
Exercises
.................................................. 291
References
................................................. 295
11
Analysis of Survival Data
........................................ 297
11.1
Data Collection in Follow-up Studies
........................... 297
11.2
The Life-Table Method
....................................... 299
11.3
The Product-Limit Method
................................... 306
11.4
Comparison of Two Survival Distributions
....................... 310
11.4.1
The CMH Test
....................................... 310
11.4.2
The Normal Distribution Approach
....................... 313
11.4.3
The Log-Rank Test
.................................... 313
11.4.4
Use of the CMH Approach with Small Data Sets
........... 314
Conclusion
................................................ 316
Exercises
.................................................. 316
References
................................................. 320
12
Analysis of Variance
............................................ 323
12.1
Assumptions for Use of the ANOVA
........................... 323
12.2
One-Way ANOVA
.......................................... 324
12.2.1
Sums of Squares and Mean Squares
...................... 325
12.2.2
The
F
Statistic
....................................... 326
12.2.3
The ANOVA Table
.................................... 327
12.3
Multiple Comparisons
....................................... 329
xii
Table
of Contents
12.3.1
Error Rates: Individual and Family
....................... 329
12.3.2
The Tukey-Kramer Method
............................. 330
12.3.3
Fisher s Least Significant Difference Method
............... 330
12.3.4
Dunnett s Method
..................................... 331
12.4
Two-Way ANOVA for the Randomized Block Design with
m
Replicates
............................................... 332
12.5
Two-Way ANOVA with Interaction
............................. 335
12.6
Linear Model Representation of the ANOVA
..................... 339
12.6.1
The Completely Randomized Design
..................... 339
12.6.2
The Randomized Block Design with
m
Replicates
........... 341
12.6.3
Two-Way ANOVA with Interaction
....................... 341
12.7
ANOVA with Unequal Numbers of Observations in Subgroups
...... 342
Conclusion
................................................ 345
Exercises
.................................................. 345
References
................................................. 347
13
Linear Regression
.............................................. 349
13.1
Simple Linear Regression
.................................... 349
13.1.1
Estimation of Coefficients
.............................. 351
13.1.2
The Variance of
Щ
................................... 353
13.1.3
The Coefficient of Determination (R2)
.................... 355
13.2
Inference about the Coefficients
............................... 357
13.2.1
Assumptions for Inference in Linear Regression
............ 357
13.2.2
Regression Diagnostics
................................ 358
13.2.3
The Slope Coefficient
.................................. 361
13.2.4
The r-intercept
....................................... 362
13.2.5
ANOVA Table Summary
............................... 363
13.3
Interval Estimation for
μΥΙΧ
and Y X
............................ 364
13.3.1
Confidence Interval for
μ^χ
............................. 364
13.3.2
Prediction Interval for Y X
.............................. 366
13.4
Multiple Linear Regression
................................... 368
13.4.1
The Multiple Linear Regression Model
.................... 368
13.4.2
Specification of a Multiple Linear Regression Model
......... 369
13.4.3
Parameter Estimates, ANOVA, and Diagnostics
............ 374
13.4.4
Multicollinearity Problems
.............................. 376
13.4.5
Extending the Regression Model: Dummy Variables
......... 378
Conclusion
................................................ 380
Exercises
.................................................. 380
References
................................................. 385
14
Logistic and Proportional Hazards Regression
..................... 387
14.1
Simple Logistic Regression
................................... 387
14.1.1
Proportion, Odds and Logit
............................. 389
14.1.2
Estimation of Parameters
............................... 390
14.1.3
Computer Output
..................................... 391
14.1.4
Statistical Inference
................................... 392
14.2
Multiple Logistic Regression
.................................. 394
14.2.1
Model and Assumptions
................................ 394
14.2.2
Residuals
............................................ 398
Table of Contents
xiii
14.2.3
Goodness-of-Fit Statistics
.............................. 399
14.2.4
The ROC Curve
...................................... 401
14.3
Ordered Logistic Regression
.................................. 403
14.4
Conditional Logistic Regression
............................... 407
14.5
Introduction to Proportional Hazard Regression
.................. 409
Conclusion
................................................ 415
Exercises
.................................................. 416
References
................................................. 419
15
Analysis of Survey Data
......................................... 421
15.1
Introduction to Design-Based Inference
......................... 421
15.2
Components in Design-Based Analysis
......................... 422
15.2.1
Sample Weights
...................................... 422
15.2.2
Poststratification
...................................... 423
15.2.3
The Design Effect
..................................... 424
15.3
Strategies for Variance Estimation
............................. 426
15.3.1
Replicated Sampling: A General Approach
................ 426
15.3.2
Balanced Repeated Replication
.......................... 427
15.3.3
Jackknife Repeated Replication
.......................... 428
15.3.4
Linearization Method
.................................. 430
15.4
Strategies for Analysis
....................................... 431
15.4.1
Preliminary Analysis
.................................. 432
15.4.2
Subpopulation
Analysis
................................ 433
15.5
Some Analytic Examples
..................................... 434
15.5.1
Descriptive Analysis
.................................. 434
15.5.2
Contingency Table Analysis
............................. 435
15.5.3
Linear and Logistic Regression Analysis
.................. 437
Conclusion
................................................ 440
Exercises
.................................................. 440
References
................................................. 442
Appendix A: Review of Basic Mathematic Concepts
............ 445
Appendix B: Statistical Tables
............................... 451
Bl. Random Digits
.......................... 452
B2. Binomial Probabilities
.................... 454
B3.
Poisson
Probabilities
...................... 458
B4. Cumulative Distribution Function
for Standard Normal Distribution
........... 461
B5. Critical Values for the
t
Distribution
......... 463
B6. Graphs for Binomial Confidence Interval
..... 464
B7. Critical Values for the Chi-Square
(χ2)
Distribution
......................... 466
B8. Factors, k, for Two-Sided Tolerance
Limits for Normal Distributions
............. 467
B9. Critical Values for Wilcoxon Signed
Rank Test
............................... 469
BIO.
Critical Values for Wilcoxon Rank
Sum Test
............................... 470
xiv
Table
of Contents
Bil.
Critical Values for the
F
Distribution
........ 474
B12. Upper Percentage Pints of the
Studentized Range
....................... 477
ВІЗ.
t
for Comparisons Between
p
Treatment
Means and a Control for a Joint Confidence
Coefficient of
p
= 0.95
and
p
= 0.99 ......... 479
Appendix C: Selected Governmental Sources of
Biostatistical Data
............................ 481
CI.
Population Census Data
................... 481
CH. Vital Statistics
........................... 482
CIII.
Sample Surveys
.......................... 483
CIV.
Life Tables
.............................. 484
Appendix D: Solutions to Selected Exercises
................. 487
Index
..................................................... 493
Biostatistics
A Guide to Design,
Analysis, and Discovery
Second
Edition
Ronald
N.
Fortiwfer
Boulder County, Colorado
EunSulLee
Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine
Oregon Hearth Science University, Portland, Oregon
Mike Hernandez
Department of Biostatistics and Applied Mathematics
M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
Easy-to-use guide
Includes access to a companion website with further examples
and a full explanation of computer packages
Stresses the importance of sample survey and experimental designs
Presents life tables and survival analysis
Introduces strategies for analyzing complex sample survey data
This stand-alone self-teaching guide on biostatistics focuses on the proper use
and interpretation of statistical methods. Highlighting the role of experimental
and sample survey designs and the importance of randomization, this book is the
most user-friendly guide available for readers with varying backgrounds. Extensive
examples and exercises with real data, descriptive formula rationales, and detailed
descriptions of appropriate methods for data analysis make the second edition of
Biostsatistics the ideal book for learning at all levels.
|
| adam_txt |
Table
of Contents
Preface
. xv
1
Introduction
. 1
1.1
What Is Biostatistics?
. 1
1.2
Data
—
The Key Component of a Study
. 2
1.3
Design
—
The Road to Relevant Data
. 4
1.4
Replication
—
Part of the Scientific Method
. 6
1.5
Applying Statistical Methods
. 7
Exercises
. 7
References
. 8
2
Data and Numbers
. 9
2.1
Data: Numerical Representation
. 9
2.2
Observations and Variables
. 10
2.3
Scales Used with Variables
. 10
2.4
Reliability and Validity
. 11
2.5
Randomized Response Technique
. 13
2.6
Common Data Problems
. 14
Conclusion
. 17
Exercises
. 18
References
. 20
3
Descriptive Methods
. 21
3.1
Introduction to Descriptive Methods
. 21
3.2
Tabular and Graphical Presentation of Data
. 22
3.2.1
Frequency Tables
. 23
3.2.2
Line Graphs
. 24
3.2.3
Bar Charts
. 27
3.2.4
Histograms
. 30
3.2.5
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
. 35
3.2.6
Dot Plots
. 37
3.2.7
Scatter Plots
. 38
3.3
Measures of Central Tendency
. 39
3.3.1
Mean, Median, and Mode
. 40
3.3.2
Use of the Measures of Central Tendency
. 42
3.3.3
The Geometric Mean
. 42
viii Table of
Contents
3.4
Measures of Variability
. 45
3.4.1
Range and Percentiles
. 45
3.4.2
Box Plots
. 47
3.4.3
Variance and Standard Deviation
. 48
3.5
Rates and Ratios
. 51
3.5.1
Crude and Specific Rates
. 52
3.5.2
Adjusted Rates
. 53
3.6
Measures of Change over Time
. 55
3.6.1
Linear Growth
. 55
3.6.2
Geometric Growth
. 57
3.6.3
Exponential Growth
. 58
3.7
Correlation Coefficients
. 60
3.7.1
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
. 60
3.7.2
Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient
. 63
Conclusion
. 64
Exercises
. 64
References
. 68
4
Probability and Life Tables
. 71
4.1
A Definition of Probability
. 71
4.2
Rules for Calculating Probabilities
. 73
4.2.1
Addition Rule for Probabilities
. 73
4.2.2
Conditional Probabilities
. 75
4.2.3
Independent Events
. 77
4.3
Definitions from Epidemiology
. 80
4.3.1
Rates and Probabilities
. 80
4.3.2
Sensitivity, Specificity, and Predicted Value Positive
and Negative
. 81
4.3.3
Receiver Operating Characteristic Plot
. 83
4.4
Bayes'
Theorem
. 84
4.5
Probability in Sampling
. 87
4.5.1
Sampling with Replacement
. 87
4.5.2
Sampling without Replacement
. 88
4.6
Estimating Probabilities by Simulation
. 89
4.7
Probability and the Life Table
. 91
4.7.1
The First Four Columns in the Life Table
. 93
4.7.2
Some Uses of the Life Table
. 95
4.7.3
Expected Values in the Life Table
. 96
4.7.4
Other Expected Values in the Life Table
. 98
Conclusion
. 99
Exercises
. 99
References
. 102
5
Probability Distributions
. 103
5.1
The Binomial Distribution
. 103
5.1.1
Binomial Probabilities
. 103
5.1.2
Mean and Variance of the Binomial Distribution
. 108
5.1.3
Shapes of the Binomial Distribution
. 110
Table
of Contents ¡x
5.2
The
Poisson
Distribution
.
Ill
5.2.1
Poisson
Probabilities
.
Ill
5.2.2
Mean and Variance of the
Poisson
Distribution
. 113
5.2.3
Finding
Poisson
Probabilities
. 114
5.3
The Normal Distribution
. 116
5.3.1
Normal Probabilities
. 116
5.3.2
Transforming to the Standard Normal Distribution
. 118
5.3.3
Calculation of Normal Probabilities
. 119
5.3.4
The Normal Probability Plot
. 122
5.4
The Central Limit Theorem
. 124
5.5
Approximations to the Binomial and
Poisson
Distributions
. 126
5.5.1
Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution
. 126
5.5.2
Normal Approximation to the
Poisson
Distribution
. 129
Conclusion
. 131
Exercises
. 131
References
. 133
6
Study Designs
. 135
6.1
Design: Putting Chance to Work
. 135
6.2
Sample Surveys and Experiments
. 137
6.3
Sampling and Sample Designs
. 138
6.3.1
Sampling Frame
. 139
6.3.2
Importance of Probability Sampling
. 140
6.3.3
Simple Random Sampling
. 141
6.3.4
Systematic Sampling
. 142
6.3.5
Stratified Random Sampling
. 144
6.3.6
Cluster Sampling
. 144
6.3.7
Problems Due to Unintended Sampling
. 145
6.4
Designed Experiments
. 148
6.4.1
Comparison Groups and Randomization
. 149
6.4.2
Random Assignment
. 150
6.4.3
Sample Size
. 152
6.4.4
Single- and Double-Blind Experiments
. 154
6.4.5
Blocking and Extraneous Variables
. 155
6.4.6
Limitations of Experiments
. 156
6.5
Variations in Study Designs
. 158
6.5.1
The Crossover Design
. 158
6.5.2
The Case Control Design
. 159
6.5.3
The Cohort Study Design
. 160
Conclusion
. 160
Exercises
. 161
References
. 166
7
Interval Estimation
. 169
7.1
Prediction, Confidence, and Tolerance Intervals
. 169
7.2
Distribution-Free Intervals
. 170
7.2.1
Prediction Interval
. 170
7.2.2
Confidence Interval
. 171
7.2.3
Tolerance Interval
. 175
χ
Table of Contents
7.3
Confidence Intervals Based on the Normal Distribution
. 176
7.3.1
Confidence Interval for the Mean
. 177
7.3.2
Confidence Interval for a Proportion
. 182
7.3.3
Confidence Interval for Crude and Adjusted Rates
. 185
7.4
Confidence Interval for the Difference of Two Means and Proportions
188
7.4.1
Difference of Two Independent Means
. 188
7.4.2
Difference of Two Dependent Means
. 194
7.4.3
Difference of Two Independent Proportions
. 196
7.4.4
Difference of Two Dependent Proportions
. 197
7.5
Confidence Interval and Sample Size
. 198
7.6
Confidence Intervals for Other Measures
. 200
7.6.1
Confidence Interval for the Variance
. 201
7.6.2
Confidence Interval for Pearson Correlation Coefficient
. 203
7.7
Prediction and Tolerance Intervals Based on the Normal Distribution
205
7.7.1
Prediction Interval
. 205
7.7.2
Tolerance Interval
. 206
Conclusion
. 206
Exercises
. 207
References
. 211
8
Tests of Hypotheses
. 213
8.1
Preliminaries in Tests of Hypotheses
. 213
8.1.1
Terms Used in Hypothesis Testing
. 215
8.1.2
Determination of the Decision Rule
. 216
8.1.3
Relationship of the Decision Rule, a and
β
. 218
8.1.4
Conducting the Test
. 221
8.2
Testing Hypotheses about the Mean
. 223
8.2.1
Known Variance
. 223
8.2.2
Unknown Variance
. 228
8.3
Testing Hypotheses about the Proportion and Rates
. 229
8.4
Testing Hypotheses about the Variance
. 231
8.5
Testing Hypotheses about the Pearson Correlation Coefficient
. 232
8.6
Testing Hypotheses about the Difference of Two Means
. 234
8.6.1
Difference of Two Independent Means
. 234
8.6.2
Difference of Two Dependent Means
. 237
8.7
Testing Hypotheses about the Difference of Two Proportions
. 238
8.7.1
Difference of Two Independent Proportions
. 238
8.7.2
Difference of Two Dependent Proportions
. 239
8.8
Tests of Hypotheses and Sample Size
. 240
8.9
Statistical and Practical Significance
. 243
Conclusion
. 243
Exercises
. 244
References
. 248
9
Nonparametric Tests
. 249
9.1
Why Nonparametric Tests?
. 249
9.2
The Sign Test
. 249
9.3
The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
. 253
Table
of Contents
xi
9.4
The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test
. 257
9.5
The Kruskal-Wallis Test
. 261
9.6
The Friedman Test
. 262
Conclusion
. 264
Exercises
. 264
References
. 268
10
Analysis of Categorical Data
. 269
10.1
The Goodness-of-Fit Test
. 269
10.2
The
2
by
2
Contingency Table
. 273
10.2.1
Comparing Two Independent Binomial Proportions
. 274
10.2.2
Expected Cell Counts Assuming No Association:
Chi-Square Test
. 274
10.2.3
The Odds Ratio
—
a Measure of Association
. 277
10.2.4
Fisher's Exact Test
. 279
10.2.5
The Analysis of Matched-Pairs Studies
. 280
10.3
The
r
by
с
Contingency Table
. 282
10.3.1
Testing Hypothesis of No Association
. 282
10.3.2
Testing Hypothesis of No Trend
. 284
10.4
Multiple
2
by
2
Contingency Tables
. 286
10.4.1
Analyzing the Tables Separately
. 287
10.4.2
The Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel Test
. 288
10.4.3
The Mantel-Haenszel Common Odds Ratio
. 290
Conclusion
. 291
Exercises
. 291
References
. 295
11
Analysis of Survival Data
. 297
11.1
Data Collection in Follow-up Studies
. 297
11.2
The Life-Table Method
. 299
11.3
The Product-Limit Method
. 306
11.4
Comparison of Two Survival Distributions
. 310
11.4.1
The CMH Test
. 310
11.4.2
The Normal Distribution Approach
. 313
11.4.3
The Log-Rank Test
. 313
11.4.4
Use of the CMH Approach with Small Data Sets
. 314
Conclusion
. 316
Exercises
. 316
References
. 320
12
Analysis of Variance
. 323
12.1
Assumptions for Use of the ANOVA
. 323
12.2
One-Way ANOVA
. 324
12.2.1
Sums of Squares and Mean Squares
. 325
12.2.2
The
F
Statistic
. 326
12.2.3
The ANOVA Table
. 327
12.3
Multiple Comparisons
. 329
xii
Table
of Contents
12.3.1
Error Rates: Individual and Family
. 329
12.3.2
The Tukey-Kramer Method
. 330
12.3.3
Fisher's Least Significant Difference Method
. 330
12.3.4
Dunnett's Method
. 331
12.4
Two-Way ANOVA for the Randomized Block Design with
m
Replicates
. 332
12.5
Two-Way ANOVA with Interaction
. 335
12.6
Linear Model Representation of the ANOVA
. 339
12.6.1
The Completely Randomized Design
. 339
12.6.2
The Randomized Block Design with
m
Replicates
. 341
12.6.3
Two-Way ANOVA with Interaction
. 341
12.7
ANOVA with Unequal Numbers of Observations in Subgroups
. 342
Conclusion
. 345
Exercises
. 345
References
. 347
13
Linear Regression
. 349
13.1
Simple Linear Regression
. 349
13.1.1
Estimation of Coefficients
. 351
13.1.2
The Variance of
Щ
. 353
13.1.3
The Coefficient of Determination (R2)
. 355
13.2
Inference about the Coefficients
. 357
13.2.1
Assumptions for Inference in Linear Regression
. 357
13.2.2
Regression Diagnostics
. 358
13.2.3
The Slope Coefficient
. 361
13.2.4
The r-intercept
. 362
13.2.5
ANOVA Table Summary
. 363
13.3
Interval Estimation for
μΥΙΧ
and Y\X
. 364
13.3.1
Confidence Interval for
μ^χ
. 364
13.3.2
Prediction Interval for Y\X
. 366
13.4
Multiple Linear Regression
. 368
13.4.1
The Multiple Linear Regression Model
. 368
13.4.2
Specification of a Multiple Linear Regression Model
. 369
13.4.3
Parameter Estimates, ANOVA, and Diagnostics
. 374
13.4.4
Multicollinearity Problems
. 376
13.4.5
Extending the Regression Model: Dummy Variables
. 378
Conclusion
. 380
Exercises
. 380
References
. 385
14
Logistic and Proportional Hazards Regression
. 387
14.1
Simple Logistic Regression
. 387
14.1.1
Proportion, Odds and Logit
. 389
14.1.2
Estimation of Parameters
. 390
14.1.3
Computer Output
. 391
14.1.4
Statistical Inference
. 392
14.2
Multiple Logistic Regression
. 394
14.2.1
Model and Assumptions
. 394
14.2.2
Residuals
. 398
Table of Contents
xiii
14.2.3
Goodness-of-Fit Statistics
. 399
14.2.4
The ROC Curve
. 401
14.3
Ordered Logistic Regression
. 403
14.4
Conditional Logistic Regression
. 407
14.5
Introduction to Proportional Hazard Regression
. 409
Conclusion
. 415
Exercises
. 416
References
. 419
15
Analysis of Survey Data
. 421
15.1
Introduction to Design-Based Inference
. 421
15.2
Components in Design-Based Analysis
. 422
15.2.1
Sample Weights
. 422
15.2.2
Poststratification
. 423
15.2.3
The Design Effect
. 424
15.3
Strategies for Variance Estimation
. 426
15.3.1
Replicated Sampling: A General Approach
. 426
15.3.2
Balanced Repeated Replication
. 427
15.3.3
Jackknife Repeated Replication
. 428
15.3.4
Linearization Method
. 430
15.4
Strategies for Analysis
. 431
15.4.1
Preliminary Analysis
. 432
15.4.2
Subpopulation
Analysis
. 433
15.5
Some Analytic Examples
. 434
15.5.1
Descriptive Analysis
. 434
15.5.2
Contingency Table Analysis
. 435
15.5.3
Linear and Logistic Regression Analysis
. 437
Conclusion
. 440
Exercises
. 440
References
. 442
Appendix A: Review of Basic Mathematic Concepts
. 445
Appendix B: Statistical Tables
. 451
Bl. Random Digits
. 452
B2. Binomial Probabilities
. 454
B3.
Poisson
Probabilities
. 458
B4. Cumulative Distribution Function
for Standard Normal Distribution
. 461
B5. Critical Values for the
t
Distribution
. 463
B6. Graphs for Binomial Confidence Interval
. 464
B7. Critical Values for the Chi-Square
(χ2)
Distribution
. 466
B8. Factors, k, for Two-Sided Tolerance
Limits for Normal Distributions
. 467
B9. Critical Values for Wilcoxon Signed
Rank Test
. 469
BIO.
Critical Values for Wilcoxon Rank
Sum Test
. 470
xiv
Table
of Contents
Bil.
Critical Values for the
F
Distribution
. 474
B12. Upper Percentage Pints of the
Studentized Range
. 477
ВІЗ.
t
for Comparisons Between
p
Treatment
Means and a Control for a Joint Confidence
Coefficient of
p
= 0.95
and
p
= 0.99 . 479
Appendix C: Selected Governmental Sources of
Biostatistical Data
. 481
CI.
Population Census Data
. 481
CH. Vital Statistics
. 482
CIII.
Sample Surveys
. 483
CIV.
Life Tables
. 484
Appendix D: Solutions to Selected Exercises
. 487
Index
. 493
Biostatistics
A Guide to Design,
Analysis, and Discovery
Second
Edition
Ronald
N.
Fortiwfer
Boulder County, Colorado
EunSulLee
Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine
Oregon Hearth Science University, Portland, Oregon
Mike Hernandez
Department of Biostatistics and Applied Mathematics
M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
Easy-to-use guide
Includes access to a companion website with further examples
and a full explanation of computer packages
Stresses the importance of sample survey and experimental designs
Presents life tables and survival analysis
Introduces strategies for analyzing complex sample survey data
This stand-alone self-teaching guide on biostatistics focuses on the proper use
and interpretation of statistical methods. Highlighting the role of experimental
and sample survey designs and the importance of randomization, this book is the
most user-friendly guide available for readers with varying backgrounds. Extensive
examples and exercises with real data, descriptive formula rationales, and detailed
descriptions of appropriate methods for data analysis make the second edition of
Biostsatistics the ideal book for learning at all levels. |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
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| author | Forthofer, Ronald N. Lee, Eun Sul Hernandez, Mike |
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| dewey-tens | 570 - Biology |
| discipline | Biologie |
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| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T18:00:13Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:59:15Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0123694922 9780123694928 |
| language | English |
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| spelling | Forthofer, Ronald N. Verfasser aut Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery Ronald N. Forthofer ; Eun Sul Lee ; Mike Hernandez Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier, Acad. Press 2007 XVII, 502 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geneeskunde gtt Statistiek gtt Medizin Statistik Biometry Biometry methods Medicine Research Statistical methods Research Design Biostatistik (DE-588)4729990-3 gnd rswk-swf Biostatistik (DE-588)4729990-3 s DE-604 Lee, Eun Sul Verfasser aut Hernandez, Mike Verfasser aut Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015720370&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015720370&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Forthofer, Ronald N. Lee, Eun Sul Hernandez, Mike Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery Geneeskunde gtt Statistiek gtt Medizin Statistik Biometry Biometry methods Medicine Research Statistical methods Research Design Biostatistik (DE-588)4729990-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4729990-3 |
| title | Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery |
| title_auth | Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery |
| title_exact_search | Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery |
| title_full | Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery Ronald N. Forthofer ; Eun Sul Lee ; Mike Hernandez |
| title_fullStr | Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery Ronald N. Forthofer ; Eun Sul Lee ; Mike Hernandez |
| title_full_unstemmed | Biostatistics a guide to design, analysis and discovery Ronald N. Forthofer ; Eun Sul Lee ; Mike Hernandez |
| title_short | Biostatistics |
| title_sort | biostatistics a guide to design analysis and discovery |
| title_sub | a guide to design, analysis and discovery |
| topic | Geneeskunde gtt Statistiek gtt Medizin Statistik Biometry Biometry methods Medicine Research Statistical methods Research Design Biostatistik (DE-588)4729990-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Geneeskunde Statistiek Medizin Statistik Biometry Biometry methods Medicine Research Statistical methods Research Design Biostatistik |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015720370&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015720370&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT forthoferronaldn biostatisticsaguidetodesignanalysisanddiscovery AT leeeunsul biostatisticsaguidetodesignanalysisanddiscovery AT hernandezmike biostatisticsaguidetodesignanalysisanddiscovery |