Holdings: Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis

Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis: with 53 tables

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Bibliographic Details
Other Authors:	Beckhoff, Burkhard (Editor)
Format:	Book
Language:	English
Published:	Berlin [u.a.] Springer 2006
Subjects:	Röntgenfluoreszenzspektroskopie Aufsatzsammlung
Online Access:	Inhaltstext Inhaltsverzeichnis
Item Description:	Literaturangaben
Physical Description:	XXIV, 863, 5 S. Ill., graph. Darst.
ISBN:	9783540286035 3540286039

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adam_text	CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION T. ARAI ......................................................... 1 1.1 THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS AND ORIGIN OF X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF LABORATORY X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETERS............................................... 4 1.3 MEASUREMENT OF SOFT AND ULTRASOFT X-RAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.1 X-RAY TUBES FOR SOFT AND ULTRASOFT X-RAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH WORK ON SOFT AND ULTRASOFT X-RAYS . . . . . 9 1.3.3 SYNTHETIC MULTILAYER ANALYZERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3.4 TOTAL REFLECTION MIRRORS ................................ 13 1.4 ANALYTICAL PRECISION AND ACCURACY IN X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.4.1 CORRECTION OF MATRIX ELEMENT EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.4.2 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF HEAT RESISTANCE ANDHIGHTEMPERATUREALLOYS........................... 19 1.4.3 SEGREGATION INFLUENCING ANALYTICAL ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.5 CONCLUDINGREMARKS ......................................... 26 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2 X-RAY SOURCES 2.1 INTRODUCTION N. LANGHOFF AND A. SIMIONOVICI .................................... 33 2.2 X-RAY TUBES V. ARKADIEV, W. KN¨UPFER AND N. LANGHOFF .......................... 36 2.2.1 BASIC PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.2.2 TECHNOLOGY OF THE COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.2.3 VACUUM ENVELOPE OF X-RAY TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.2.4 TUBE HOUSING ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 VIII CONTENTS 2.2.5 MODERN X-RAY TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.2.6 SOME APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.3 RADIOISOTOPE SOURCES T. * CECH´AK AND J. LEONHARDT ....................................... 54 2.3.1 BASIC PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2.3.2 RADIOISOTOPE SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.3.3 PRODUCTION OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.3.4 RADIATION PROTECTION REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 2.4 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION SOURCES A. SIMIONOVICI AND J. CHAVANNE .................................. 66 2.4.1 SR BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.4.2 STORAGE RING DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2.4.3 GENERATION OF SR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.4.4 SRW PACKAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3 X-RAY OPTICS 3.1 INTRODUCTION A. ERKO ......................................................... 85 3.2 MIRROR OPTICS V. ARKADIEV AND A. BJEOUMIKHOV ................................... 89 3.2.1 TOTAL EXTERNAL REFLECTION MIRRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.2.2 CAPILLARY OPTICAL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.3 DIFFRACTION OPTICS * ELEMENTS OF DIFFRACTION THEORY A. ERKO ......................................................... 111 3.3.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 3.3.2 FRAUNHOFER APPROXIMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 3.3.3 FRESNEL APPROXIMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 3.3.4 BRAGG DIFFRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.4 OPTICS FOR MONOCHROMATORS A. ANTONOV, V. ARKADIEV, B. BECKHOFF, A. ERKO, I. GRIGORIEVA, B. KANNGIESSER AND B. VIDAL ....................................... 115 3.4.1 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.4.2 MULTILAYERS FOR X-RAY OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 3.4.3 HOPG-BASED OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 3.4.4 LATERALLY GRADED SIGE CRYSTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 3.5 FOCUSING DIFFRACTION OPTICS A. ERKO ......................................................... 167 3.5.1 ZONE PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 3.5.2 REFLECTION ZONE PLATE AND BRAGGFRESNEL OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . 179 3.5.3 BRAGGFRESNEL HOLOGRAPHIC OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 3.6 REFRACTION X-RAY OPTICS A. ERKO ......................................................... 187 3.6.1 COMPOUND REFRACTIVE LENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 CONTENTS IX 4 X-RAY DETECTORS AND XRF DETECTION CHANNELS 4.1 INTRODUCTION F. SCHOLZE ....................................................... 199 4.2 X-RAY DETECTORS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING A. LONGONI AND C. FIORINI ........................................ 203 4.2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.2.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF X-RAY DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF THE MOST COMMONLY USED X-RAY DETECTORS.............................................216 4.2.4 SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 4.2.5 SILICON DRIFT DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 4.2.6 BASICS OF SIGNAL ELECTRONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 4.2.7 SHAPE FACTORS OF SOME FILTERING AMPLIFIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 4.2.8 AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 4.2.9 APPENDIX 1 * THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 4.2.10 APPENDIX 2 * CALCULATION OF THE ENC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 4.2.11 APPENDIX 3 * DIGITAL PULSE PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 4.3 HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGING X-RAY CCD SPECTROMETERS L. STR¨UDER, N. MEIDINGER AND R. HARTMANN ......................... 262 4.3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 4.3.2 FULLY DEPLETED BACKSIDE ILLUMINATED PN-CCDS . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 4.3.3 FRAME STORE PN-CCDS FOR ROSITA, AND XEUS . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 4.3.4 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 4.4 WAVELENGTH DISPERSIVE XRF AND A COMPARISON WITH EDS N. KAWAHARA AND T. SHOJI ........................................ 284 4.4.1 DISPERSION MATERIALS FOR WDXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 4.4.2 DETECTORS AND ELECTRONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 4.4.3 OPTICS USED FOR THE WD SPECTROMETER AND ITS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 4.4.4 TYPES OF WDXRF SPECTROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 4.4.5 SELECTED APPLICATIONS SUITABLE FOR WDXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 4.4.6 COMPARISON OF WDXRF AND EDXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 5 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 5.1 OVERVIEW M. MANTLER ..................................................... 309 5.2 BASIC FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETER EQUATIONS M. MANTLER ..................................................... 311 5.2.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETER EQUATIONS FOR BULK MATERIALS . . . . . . 312 5.2.2 DIRECT EXCITATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 5.2.3 INDIRECT EXCITATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 5.2.4 USE OF STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 XC O N T E N T S 5.3 MATRIX CORRECTION METHODS AND INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 5.3.1 THE NATURE OF INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS M. MANTLER ................................................. 327 5.3.2 THE LACHANCETRAILL ALGORITHM J.P. WILLIS, G.R. LACHANCE .................................... 335 5.3.3 THE CLAISSEQUINTIN ALGORITHM J.P. WILLIS, G.R. LACHANCE .................................... 340 5.3.4 THE COLA ALGORITHM J.P. WILLIS, G.R. LACHANCE .................................... 343 5.3.5 THE DE JONGH ALGORITHM B.A.R. VREBOS ............................................... 345 5.3.6 THE BROLLTERTIAN ALGORITHM K.-E. MAUSER ............................................... 347 5.3.7 THE JAPANESE INDUSTRIAL STANDARD METHOD N. KAWAHARA ................................................ 349 5.3.8 THE FUNDAMENTAL ALGORITHM R.M. ROUSSEAU .............................................. 350 5.4 COMPENSATION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 B.A.R. VREBOS ................................................... 358 5.4.1 INTERNAL STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 5.4.2 STANDARD ADDITION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 5.4.3 DILUTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 5.4.4 SCATTERED RADIATION COMPTON SCATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 5.5 THIN AND LAYERED SAMPLES P.N. BROUWER ................................................... 369 5.5.1 DIRECT EXCITATION BY POLYCHROMATIC SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 5.5.2 INDIRECT EXCITATION BY POLYCHROMATIC SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 5.5.3 BACK-CALCULATION SCHEMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 5.5.4 SOLVABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 5.5.5 APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 5.6 COMPLEX EXCITATION EFFECTS AND LIGHT ELEMENTS N. KAWAHARA .................................................... 379 5.6.1 INDIRECT EXCITATION PROCESSES IN THE LOW ENERGY REGION . . . . 379 5.6.2 SECONDARY EXCITATION BY ELECTRONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 5.6.3 CASCADE EFFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 5.7 STANDARDLESS METHODS K.-E. MAUSER ................................................... 384 5.7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 5.7.2 SEMIQUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 5.7.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR A STANDARDLESS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 5.8 MONTE CARLO METHODS M. MANTLER ..................................................... 394 5.9 ERRORS AND RELIABILITY ISSUES M. MANTLER ..................................................... 395 5.9.1 MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT OF STATISTICAL ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 CONTENTS XI 5.9.2 COUNTING STATISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 5.9.3 DETECTION LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 5.10 STANDARDIZED METHODS K.-E. MAUSER ................................................... 400 5.10.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 5.10.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF STANDARDIZED METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 5.10.3 STANDARDIZED METHODS VERSUS UNIVERSAL CALIBRATIONS ANDSTANDARDLESSMETHODS..............................403 5.10.4 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 SYMBOLS AND TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 6 SPECIMEN PREPARATION J. INJUK, R. VAN GRIEKEN, A. BLANK, L. EKSPERIANDOVA AND V. BUHRKE .. 411 6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 6.2 LIQUIDS.....................................................412 6.2.1 DIRECT ANALYSIS OF LIQUIDS AND SOLUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 6.2.2 CONVERSION OF LIQUIDS INTO QUASI-SOLID SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . 413 6.2.3 CONVERSION OF LIQUIDS INTO ORGANIC GLASSY POLYMERSPECIMENS....................................414 6.2.4 CONVERSION OF LIQUIDS INTO THIN FILMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 6.2.5 ANALYSIS OF SOLUTIONS AFTER PRECONCENTRATION OF MICROIMPURITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 6.3 SOLID SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 6.3.1 METALLIC SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 6.3.2 POWDER SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 6.3.3 FUSED SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 6.4 BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 6.5 AEROSOLANDDUSTSPECIMENS ..................................427 6.6 STANDARDS...................................................428 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 7 METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND APPLICATIONS 7.1 MICRO X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY B. KANNGIESSER AND M. HASCHKE .................................... 433 7.1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 7.1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF MICRO-XRF LABORATORY UNITS . . . . . . . 434 7.1.3 APPLICATIONS OF MICRO X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . 442 7.1.4 3D MICRO X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 7.2 MICRO-XRF WITH SYNCHROTRON RADIATION A. SIMIONOVICI AND P. CHEVALLIER .................................. 474 7.2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 7.2.2 THE GENERAL SETUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 7.2.3 QUANTITATIVE ASPECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 7.2.4 ELEMENTAL MAPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 7.2.5 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 XII CONTENTS 7.3 TOTAL-REFLECTION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (TXRF) WAFER ANALYSIS C. STRELI, P. WOBRAUSCHEK, L. FABRY, S. PAHLKE, F. COMIN, R. BARRETT, P. PIANETTA, K. L¨UNING AND B. BECKHOFF ............................ 498 7.3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 7.3.2 ANALYSIS OF METALLIC SURFACE CONTAMINATION BYMEANSOFTXRF....................................500 7.3.3 HISTORIC BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 7.3.4 INSTRUMENTATION OF TOTAL REFLECTION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 7.3.5 QUANTIFICATION OF TXRF ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 7.3.6 SURFACE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 7.3.7 STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 7.3.8 AUTOMATED VAPOR PHASE DECOMPOSITION (VPD) PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 7.3.9 LOW Z DETERMINATION * PROBLEMS * SOLUTIONS ANDRESULTS...........................................519 7.3.10 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION INDUCED TXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 7.3.11 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 7.4 ANALYSIS OF LAYERS V. R¨OSSIGER AND B. NENSEL ......................................... 554 7.4.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ANALYSIS OF LAYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 7.4.2 THEORY OF THE QUANTITATIVE LAYER ANALYSIS: YIELD CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 7.4.3 CALCULATION OF THE UNKNOWN MEASUREMENT QUANTITIES X IJ . . 563 7.4.4 THE WINFTM PROGRAM...............................567 7.4.5 INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 7.4.6 APPLICATION EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 7.4.7 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 7.5 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES S. KURUNCZI, J. OS´AN, S. T¨OR¨OK AND M. BETTI ........................ 601 7.5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 7.5.2 WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 7.5.3 ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 7.5.4 MONTE CARLO BASED QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR SINGLE PARTICLES .............................................627 7.5.5 RADIONUCLIDES AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 7.6 GEOLOGY, MINING, METALLURGY D. RAMMLMAIR, M. WILKE, K. RICKERS, R.A. SCHWARZER, A. M¨OLLER AND A. WITTENBERG ...................................... 640 7.6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 7.6.2 MACROSCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 7.6.3 MESOSCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 7.6.4 MICROSCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 7.6.5 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 CONTENTS XIII 7.7 APPLICATION IN ARTS AND ARCHAEOLOGY O. HAHN, I. REICHE AND H. STEGE ................................... 687 7.7.1 GENERAL REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 7.7.2 MATERIALS GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 7.7.3 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 7.8 XRF-APPLICATION IN NUMISMATICS J. ENGELHARDT .................................................... 700 7.8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 7.8.2 HISTORY OF XRF INVESTIGATIONS OF COINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 7.8.3 GENERAL REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 7.8.4 PREPARATION OF COINS FOR SURFACE AND BULK ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . 705 7.8.5 METALS AND STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 7.8.6 ACCURACY AND PRECISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 7.8.7 SOME EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL QUESTIONS OF THE NUMISMATIST . . . 707 7.8.8 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 7.8.9 RECOMMENDED READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 7.9 ANALYSIS FOR FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS J. ZI¸EBA-PALUS ................................................... 712 7.9.1 THE SPECIFICITY OF FORENSIC RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 7.9.2 THE XRF METHOD IN FORENSIC RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 7.9.3 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 7.10 X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS IN THE LIFE SCIENCES G. WESELOH, S. STAUB AND J. FEUERBORN ............................. 728 7.10.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 7.10.2 X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF X-RAY TUBES AND RADIOISOTOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 7.10.3 TOTAL REFLECTION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS (TXRF) . . . . . 736 7.10.4 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION INDUCED TXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 7.10.5 X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS USING SYNCHROTRON RADIATION . 751 7.11 NON-INVASIVE IDENTIFICATION OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS BY EDXRS P. HOFFMANN .................................................... 769 7.11.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 7.11.2 EXPERIMENTAL PART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 7.11.3 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 7.11.4 DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 8 APPENDIX 8.1 X-RAY SAFETY AND PROTECTION P. AMBROSI ...................................................... 835 8.1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 8.1.2 RADIATION PROTECTION QUANTITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 8.1.3 HEALTH HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 XIV CONTENTS 8.1.4 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 8.1.5 SYSTEM OF RADIATION PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 8.2 USEFUL DATA SOURCES AND LINKS R. WEDELL AND W. MALZER ......................................... 845 INDEX ..........................................................849
adam_txt	CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION T. ARAI . 1 1.1 THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS AND ORIGIN OF X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF LABORATORY X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETERS. 4 1.3 MEASUREMENT OF SOFT AND ULTRASOFT X-RAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.1 X-RAY TUBES FOR SOFT AND ULTRASOFT X-RAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH WORK ON SOFT AND ULTRASOFT X-RAYS . . . . . 9 1.3.3 SYNTHETIC MULTILAYER ANALYZERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3.4 TOTAL REFLECTION MIRRORS . 13 1.4 ANALYTICAL PRECISION AND ACCURACY IN X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.4.1 CORRECTION OF MATRIX ELEMENT EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.4.2 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF HEAT RESISTANCE ANDHIGHTEMPERATUREALLOYS. 19 1.4.3 SEGREGATION INFLUENCING ANALYTICAL ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.5 CONCLUDINGREMARKS . 26 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2 X-RAY SOURCES 2.1 INTRODUCTION N. LANGHOFF AND A. SIMIONOVICI . 33 2.2 X-RAY TUBES V. ARKADIEV, W. KN¨UPFER AND N. LANGHOFF . 36 2.2.1 BASIC PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.2.2 TECHNOLOGY OF THE COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.2.3 VACUUM ENVELOPE OF X-RAY TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.2.4 TUBE HOUSING ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 VIII CONTENTS 2.2.5 MODERN X-RAY TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.2.6 SOME APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.3 RADIOISOTOPE SOURCES T. * CECH´AK AND J. LEONHARDT . 54 2.3.1 BASIC PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2.3.2 RADIOISOTOPE SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.3.3 PRODUCTION OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.3.4 RADIATION PROTECTION REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 2.4 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION SOURCES A. SIMIONOVICI AND J. CHAVANNE . 66 2.4.1 SR BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.4.2 STORAGE RING DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2.4.3 GENERATION OF SR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.4.4 SRW PACKAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3 X-RAY OPTICS 3.1 INTRODUCTION A. ERKO . 85 3.2 MIRROR OPTICS V. ARKADIEV AND A. BJEOUMIKHOV . 89 3.2.1 TOTAL EXTERNAL REFLECTION MIRRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.2.2 CAPILLARY OPTICAL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.3 DIFFRACTION OPTICS * ELEMENTS OF DIFFRACTION THEORY A. ERKO . 111 3.3.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 3.3.2 FRAUNHOFER APPROXIMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 3.3.3 FRESNEL APPROXIMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 3.3.4 BRAGG DIFFRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.4 OPTICS FOR MONOCHROMATORS A. ANTONOV, V. ARKADIEV, B. BECKHOFF, A. ERKO, I. GRIGORIEVA, B. KANNGIESSER AND B. VIDAL . 115 3.4.1 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.4.2 MULTILAYERS FOR X-RAY OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 3.4.3 HOPG-BASED OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 3.4.4 LATERALLY GRADED SIGE CRYSTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 3.5 FOCUSING DIFFRACTION OPTICS A. ERKO . 167 3.5.1 ZONE PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 3.5.2 REFLECTION ZONE PLATE AND BRAGGFRESNEL OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . 179 3.5.3 BRAGGFRESNEL HOLOGRAPHIC OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 3.6 REFRACTION X-RAY OPTICS A. ERKO . 187 3.6.1 COMPOUND REFRACTIVE LENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 CONTENTS IX 4 X-RAY DETECTORS AND XRF DETECTION CHANNELS 4.1 INTRODUCTION F. SCHOLZE . 199 4.2 X-RAY DETECTORS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING A. LONGONI AND C. FIORINI . 203 4.2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.2.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF X-RAY DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF THE MOST COMMONLY USED X-RAY DETECTORS.216 4.2.4 SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 4.2.5 SILICON DRIFT DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 4.2.6 BASICS OF SIGNAL ELECTRONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 4.2.7 SHAPE FACTORS OF SOME FILTERING AMPLIFIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 4.2.8 AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 4.2.9 APPENDIX 1 * THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 4.2.10 APPENDIX 2 * CALCULATION OF THE ENC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 4.2.11 APPENDIX 3 * DIGITAL PULSE PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 4.3 HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGING X-RAY CCD SPECTROMETERS L. STR¨UDER, N. MEIDINGER AND R. HARTMANN . 262 4.3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 4.3.2 FULLY DEPLETED BACKSIDE ILLUMINATED PN-CCDS . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 4.3.3 FRAME STORE PN-CCDS FOR ROSITA, AND XEUS . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 4.3.4 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 4.4 WAVELENGTH DISPERSIVE XRF AND A COMPARISON WITH EDS N. KAWAHARA AND T. SHOJI . 284 4.4.1 DISPERSION MATERIALS FOR WDXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 4.4.2 DETECTORS AND ELECTRONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 4.4.3 OPTICS USED FOR THE WD SPECTROMETER AND ITS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 4.4.4 TYPES OF WDXRF SPECTROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 4.4.5 SELECTED APPLICATIONS SUITABLE FOR WDXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 4.4.6 COMPARISON OF WDXRF AND EDXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 5 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 5.1 OVERVIEW M. MANTLER . 309 5.2 BASIC FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETER EQUATIONS M. MANTLER . 311 5.2.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETER EQUATIONS FOR BULK MATERIALS . . . . . . 312 5.2.2 DIRECT EXCITATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 5.2.3 INDIRECT EXCITATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 5.2.4 USE OF STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 XC O N T E N T S 5.3 MATRIX CORRECTION METHODS AND INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 5.3.1 THE NATURE OF INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS M. MANTLER . 327 5.3.2 THE LACHANCETRAILL ALGORITHM J.P. WILLIS, G.R. LACHANCE . 335 5.3.3 THE CLAISSEQUINTIN ALGORITHM J.P. WILLIS, G.R. LACHANCE . 340 5.3.4 THE COLA ALGORITHM J.P. WILLIS, G.R. LACHANCE . 343 5.3.5 THE DE JONGH ALGORITHM B.A.R. VREBOS . 345 5.3.6 THE BROLLTERTIAN ALGORITHM K.-E. MAUSER . 347 5.3.7 THE JAPANESE INDUSTRIAL STANDARD METHOD N. KAWAHARA . 349 5.3.8 THE FUNDAMENTAL ALGORITHM R.M. ROUSSEAU . 350 5.4 COMPENSATION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 B.A.R. VREBOS . 358 5.4.1 INTERNAL STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 5.4.2 STANDARD ADDITION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 5.4.3 DILUTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 5.4.4 SCATTERED RADIATION COMPTON SCATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 5.5 THIN AND LAYERED SAMPLES P.N. BROUWER . 369 5.5.1 DIRECT EXCITATION BY POLYCHROMATIC SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 5.5.2 INDIRECT EXCITATION BY POLYCHROMATIC SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 5.5.3 BACK-CALCULATION SCHEMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 5.5.4 SOLVABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 5.5.5 APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 5.6 COMPLEX EXCITATION EFFECTS AND LIGHT ELEMENTS N. KAWAHARA . 379 5.6.1 INDIRECT EXCITATION PROCESSES IN THE LOW ENERGY REGION . . . . 379 5.6.2 SECONDARY EXCITATION BY ELECTRONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 5.6.3 CASCADE EFFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 5.7 STANDARDLESS METHODS K.-E. MAUSER . 384 5.7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 5.7.2 SEMIQUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 5.7.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR A STANDARDLESS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 5.8 MONTE CARLO METHODS M. MANTLER . 394 5.9 ERRORS AND RELIABILITY ISSUES M. MANTLER . 395 5.9.1 MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT OF STATISTICAL ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 CONTENTS XI 5.9.2 COUNTING STATISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 5.9.3 DETECTION LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 5.10 STANDARDIZED METHODS K.-E. MAUSER . 400 5.10.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 5.10.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF STANDARDIZED METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 5.10.3 STANDARDIZED METHODS VERSUS UNIVERSAL CALIBRATIONS ANDSTANDARDLESSMETHODS.403 5.10.4 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 SYMBOLS AND TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 6 SPECIMEN PREPARATION J. INJUK, R. VAN GRIEKEN, A. BLANK, L. EKSPERIANDOVA AND V. BUHRKE . 411 6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 6.2 LIQUIDS.412 6.2.1 DIRECT ANALYSIS OF LIQUIDS AND SOLUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 6.2.2 CONVERSION OF LIQUIDS INTO QUASI-SOLID SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . 413 6.2.3 CONVERSION OF LIQUIDS INTO ORGANIC GLASSY POLYMERSPECIMENS.414 6.2.4 CONVERSION OF LIQUIDS INTO THIN FILMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 6.2.5 ANALYSIS OF SOLUTIONS AFTER PRECONCENTRATION OF MICROIMPURITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 6.3 SOLID SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 6.3.1 METALLIC SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 6.3.2 POWDER SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 6.3.3 FUSED SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 6.4 BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 6.5 AEROSOLANDDUSTSPECIMENS .427 6.6 STANDARDS.428 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 7 METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND APPLICATIONS 7.1 MICRO X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY B. KANNGIESSER AND M. HASCHKE . 433 7.1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 7.1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF MICRO-XRF LABORATORY UNITS . . . . . . . 434 7.1.3 APPLICATIONS OF MICRO X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . 442 7.1.4 3D MICRO X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 7.2 MICRO-XRF WITH SYNCHROTRON RADIATION A. SIMIONOVICI AND P. CHEVALLIER . 474 7.2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 7.2.2 THE GENERAL SETUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 7.2.3 QUANTITATIVE ASPECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 7.2.4 ELEMENTAL MAPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 7.2.5 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 XII CONTENTS 7.3 TOTAL-REFLECTION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (TXRF) WAFER ANALYSIS C. STRELI, P. WOBRAUSCHEK, L. FABRY, S. PAHLKE, F. COMIN, R. BARRETT, P. PIANETTA, K. L¨UNING AND B. BECKHOFF . 498 7.3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 7.3.2 ANALYSIS OF METALLIC SURFACE CONTAMINATION BYMEANSOFTXRF.500 7.3.3 HISTORIC BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 7.3.4 INSTRUMENTATION OF TOTAL REFLECTION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 7.3.5 QUANTIFICATION OF TXRF ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 7.3.6 SURFACE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 7.3.7 STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 7.3.8 AUTOMATED VAPOR PHASE DECOMPOSITION (VPD) PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 7.3.9 LOW Z DETERMINATION * PROBLEMS * SOLUTIONS ANDRESULTS.519 7.3.10 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION INDUCED TXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 7.3.11 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 7.4 ANALYSIS OF LAYERS V. R¨OSSIGER AND B. NENSEL . 554 7.4.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ANALYSIS OF LAYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 7.4.2 THEORY OF THE QUANTITATIVE LAYER ANALYSIS: YIELD CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 7.4.3 CALCULATION OF THE UNKNOWN MEASUREMENT QUANTITIES X IJ . . 563 7.4.4 THE WINFTM PROGRAM.567 7.4.5 INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 7.4.6 APPLICATION EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 7.4.7 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 7.5 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES S. KURUNCZI, J. OS´AN, S. T¨OR¨OK AND M. BETTI . 601 7.5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 7.5.2 WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 7.5.3 ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 7.5.4 MONTE CARLO BASED QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR SINGLE PARTICLES .627 7.5.5 RADIONUCLIDES AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 7.6 GEOLOGY, MINING, METALLURGY D. RAMMLMAIR, M. WILKE, K. RICKERS, R.A. SCHWARZER, A. M¨OLLER AND A. WITTENBERG . 640 7.6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 7.6.2 MACROSCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 7.6.3 MESOSCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 7.6.4 MICROSCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 7.6.5 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 CONTENTS XIII 7.7 APPLICATION IN ARTS AND ARCHAEOLOGY O. HAHN, I. REICHE AND H. STEGE . 687 7.7.1 GENERAL REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 7.7.2 MATERIALS GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 7.7.3 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 7.8 XRF-APPLICATION IN NUMISMATICS J. ENGELHARDT . 700 7.8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 7.8.2 HISTORY OF XRF INVESTIGATIONS OF COINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 7.8.3 GENERAL REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 7.8.4 PREPARATION OF COINS FOR SURFACE AND BULK ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . 705 7.8.5 METALS AND STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 7.8.6 ACCURACY AND PRECISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 7.8.7 SOME EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL QUESTIONS OF THE NUMISMATIST . . . 707 7.8.8 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 7.8.9 RECOMMENDED READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 7.9 ANALYSIS FOR FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS J. ZI¸EBA-PALUS . 712 7.9.1 THE SPECIFICITY OF FORENSIC RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 7.9.2 THE XRF METHOD IN FORENSIC RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 7.9.3 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 7.10 X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS IN THE LIFE SCIENCES G. WESELOH, S. STAUB AND J. FEUERBORN . 728 7.10.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 7.10.2 X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF X-RAY TUBES AND RADIOISOTOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 7.10.3 TOTAL REFLECTION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS (TXRF) . . . . . 736 7.10.4 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION INDUCED TXRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 7.10.5 X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS USING SYNCHROTRON RADIATION . 751 7.11 NON-INVASIVE IDENTIFICATION OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS BY EDXRS P. HOFFMANN . 769 7.11.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 7.11.2 EXPERIMENTAL PART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 7.11.3 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 7.11.4 DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 8 APPENDIX 8.1 X-RAY SAFETY AND PROTECTION P. AMBROSI . 835 8.1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 8.1.2 RADIATION PROTECTION QUANTITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 8.1.3 HEALTH HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 XIV CONTENTS 8.1.4 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 8.1.5 SYSTEM OF RADIATION PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 8.2 USEFUL DATA SOURCES AND LINKS R. WEDELL AND W. MALZER . 845 INDEX .849
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spellingShingle	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables Röntgenfluoreszenzspektroskopie (DE-588)4135992-6 gnd
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title	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables
title_auth	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables
title_exact_search	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables
title_exact_search_txtP	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables
title_full	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables B. Beckhoff ... (ed.)
title_fullStr	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables B. Beckhoff ... (ed.)
title_full_unstemmed	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables B. Beckhoff ... (ed.)
title_short	Handbook of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis
title_sort	handbook of practical x ray fluorescence analysis with 53 tables
title_sub	with 53 tables
topic	Röntgenfluoreszenzspektroskopie (DE-588)4135992-6 gnd
topic_facet	Röntgenfluoreszenzspektroskopie Aufsatzsammlung
url	http://deposit.dnb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=2665383&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015687333&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT beckhoffburkhard handbookofpracticalxrayfluorescenceanalysiswith53tables

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