Handbook of agricultural geophysics:
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| Format: | Book |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Boca Raton [u.a.]
CRC Press
2008
|
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXII, 410 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0849337283 9780849337284 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Handbook of agricultural geophysics |c ed. by Barry J. Allred ... |
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| _version_ | 1804135766232662016 |
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| adam_text | Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................xiii
Editors..............................................................................................................................................xv
Contributors...................................................................................................................................xvii
List of Important Agricultural and Geophysical Quantities...........................................................xxi
SECTION I Agricultural Geophysics Overview
Chapter 1 General Considerations for Geophysical Methods Applied to Agriculture.................3
Barry J, Allred, M. Reza Ehsani, and Jeffrey J. Daniels
Chapter 2 Past, Present, and Future Trends of Soil Electrical Conductivity Measurement
Using Geophysical Methods.......................................................................................17
Dennis L. Corwin
Chapter 3 History of Ground-Penetrating Radar Applications in Agriculture...........................45
M. E. Collins
SECTION II Agricultural Geophysics Measurements
and Methods
Chapter 4 Theoretical Insight on the Measurement of Soil Electrical Conductivity..................59
Dennis L. Corwin, Scott M. Lesch, and Hamid J. Farahani
Chapters Resistivity Methods....................................................................................................85
Barry J. Allred, Douglas Groom, M. Reza Ehsani, and Jeffrey J. Daniels
Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Induction Methods........................................................................109
Jeffrey J. Daniels, Mark Vendl, M. Reza Ehsani, and Barry J. Allred
Chapter 7 Ground-Penetrating Radar Methods (GPR).............................................................129
Jeffrey Daniels, M. Reza Ehsani, and Barry J. Allred
Chapter 8 Magnetometry, Self-Potential, and Seismic: Additional Geophysical Methods
Having Potentially Significant Future Use in Agriculture.......................................147
Barry J. Allred, Michael Rogers, M. Reza Ehsani, and Jeffrey J. Daniels
IX
x Contents
SECTION III The Global Positioning System and Geographic
Information Systems
Chapter 9 Integration of the Global Positioning System (GPS) into Agricultural
Geophysics...............................................................................................................165
Dorota A. Grejner-Brzezinska
Chapter 10 Integration of Geographic Information Systems (GISs) with Agricultural
Geophysics...............................................................................................................199
Carolyn J. Merry
SECTION IV Resistivity and Electromagnetic Induction
Case Histories
Chapter 11 Apparent Electrical Conductivity for Delineating Spatial Variability in Soil
Properties.................................................................................................................211
Brian J. Wienhold and John W. Doran
Chapter 12 Dependence of Soil Apparent Electrical Conductivity (ECa) upon Soil Texture
and Ignition Loss at Various Depths in Two Morainic Loam Soils in Southeast
Norway.....................................................................................................................217
Audun Korsaeth
Chapter 13 Relations between a Commercial Soil Survey Map Based on Soil Apparent
Electrical Conductivity (ECa) and Measured Soil Properties on a Morainic Soil
in Southeast Norway................................................................................................225
Audun Korsaeth, Hugh Riley, Sigrun H. Kvœrn0, and Live S. Vestgarden
Chapter 14 Mapping Pesticide Partition Coefficients By Electromagnetic Induction................233
Dan B. Jaynes
Chapter 15 Can Apparent Soil Electrical Conductivity Be Used to Map Soil-Herbicide
Partition Coefficients? A Case Study in Three Colorado Fields..............................241
Dale L. Shaner, Hamid J. Farahani, Gerald W. Buchleiter, and Mary K. Brodahl
Chapter 16 Delineating Site-Specific Management Units Using Geospatial ECa
Measurements...........................................................................................................247
Dennis L. Corwin, Scott M. Lesch, Peter J. Shouse, Richard Soppe, and
James E. Ayars
Contents xi
Chapter 17 Mapping of Soil Drainage Classes Using Topographical Data and Soil
Electrical Conductivity.............................................................................................255
A. N. Kravchenko
Chapter 18 Productivity Zones Based on Bulk Soil Electrical Conductivity: Applications
for Dryland Agriculture and Research.....................................................................263
Cinthia K. Johnson, Rhae A. Drijber, Brian J. Wienhold, and John W. Doran
Chapter 19 Four-Year Summary of the Use of Soil Conductivity as a Measure of Soil and
Crop Status...............................................................................................................273
Roger A. Eigenberg, John A. Nienaber, Bryan L. Woodbury, and Richard B.
Ferguson
Chapter 20 Soil ECa Mapping Helps Establish Research Plots at a New Research and
Extension Center......................................................................................................281
Hamid J. Farahani, David A. Claypool, R. P. Kelli Belden, Larry C. Munn,
and Robert A. Flynn
Chapter 21 Mapping Golf-Course Features with Electromagnetic Induction, with
Examples from Dublin, Ohio...................................................................................287
Richard S. Taylor
Chapter 22 Comparison of Geoelectrical Instruments in Different Soilscapes.........................295
Robin Gebbers and Erika Liick
SECTION V Ground-Penetrating Radar Case Histories
Chapter 23 GPR Surveys across a Prototype Surface Barrier to Determine Temporal and
Spatial Variations in Soil Moisture Content.............................................................305
William P. Clement and Andy L. Ward
Chapter 24 Soil Water Content Measurement Using the Ground-Penetrating Radar Surface
Reflectivity Method..................................................................................................317
J. David Redman
Chapter 25 Assessing Spatial and Temporal Soil Water Content Variation with GPR..............323
Bernd Lennartz, Britta Schmalz, Derk Wachsmuth, and Heiner Stoffregen
Chapter 26 Ground-Penetrating Radar Mapping of Near-Surface Preferential Flow................337
Robert S. Freeland
xii Contents
Chapter 27 An Application of Ground-Penetrating Radar in Golf Course Management..........345
R. Boniak, S.-K. Chong, S. J. Indorante, andJ. A. Doolittle
Chapter 28 Ground-Penetrating Radar Investigation of a Golf Course Green: Computer
Processing and Field Survey Setup Considerations.................................................353
Barry J. Allred, Edward L. McCoy, and J. David Redman
Chapter 29 Agricultural Drainage Pipe Detection Using Ground-Penetrating Radar...............363
Barry J. Allred and Jeffrey J. Daniels
Chapter 30 Using Ground-Penetrating Radar to Estimate Tree Root Mass: Comparing
Results from Two Florida Surveys...........................................................................375
John R. Butnor, Daniel B. Stover, Brian E. Roth, Kurt H. Johnsen,
Frank P. Day, and Daniel Mclnnis
Glossary........................................................................................................................................383
Index..............................................................................................................................................393
Index
Note: Page numbers in bold refer to figures or tables.
AC. See Alternating electric current (AC)
Accuracy of Global Positioning System, 191-192
Acoustic waves, 161
Active methods, 5
Active microwaves (AM), 17, 18
Adobe Systems, Inc., 342
AEM. See Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) systems
Aerial photogrammetry, 207
AGCF. See Automatic Gain Control Function (AGCF)
AgGPS Parallel Swathing Option, 63
Agricultural applications
contamination transport and GPR, 346
cover crop, 276, 277-278
directed soil sampling, 32-34
electrical conductivity, 273
electromagnetic induction, 19
environmental and hydrological disciplines, 107
and GPR, 47
loop-loop systems, 118
magnetometry methods, 151-152
no-cover, all treatments, 278
organic and commercial amendments, 276
resistivity methods, 106-107
self-potential methods, 155
soil spatial variability, 32
use of lime, 214
Agricultural drainage pipe, 363, 373
Agricultural geophysics
applications of, 9,10
computer software/systems, 14
defined, 383
and GPS, 166, 194-196
ground surface trends, 5
mapping concepts, 200
outlook, 13-14
studies conducted by McCorkle, 12
use of GIS, 9
Agricultural research activity/techniques
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 281-282
gamma ray attenuation, 17, 24-25
manure/compost application comparison, 274
soil heterogeneity, 263-264
soil moisture measurement, 4
time domain reflectometry, 17-18
tree root mass, 375-376
Agricultural Research Service, 46
Agricultural test plots, 104-105
Agriculture, 5, 199
Agriculture products and management. 47, 51
Agrigeophysics, 14
Agronomic research, 263-264, 270, 273-274
Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) systems, 4, 19, 23
Airborne magnetometers, 4, 148
Alber s equal area projection, 206
Almanac data, 168, 169, 184, 193
Alternating electric current (AC), 95, 98, 112, 153
AM. See Active microwaves (AM)
American Golf Foundation, 345
American Wire Gauge (AWG), 154
Ampere, André-Marie, 110
Ampere s law, 110-111, 112
Amplitude, 115, 313-314, 319
Amplitude filtering. 122
Amp meter, 111
AMT. See Audio magnetotelluric (AMT) method
Anaerobic conditions, 345
Analogous regression performed, 236-237
Analysis of variance (ANOV). 227. 267
Anisotropy paradox, 103
Anomalies, 6, 7
ANOV. See Analysis of variance (ANOV)
Antenna frequency, 138-139, 364. 365-366, 368
Antenna phase center location, 174
Antenna Reference Point (ARP), 174
Antenna ringing. 136-137
Antennas, 135-137, 347
Anthropogenic properties, 28,48
Anti-Spoofing (AS), 170, 177, 194
Apparent conductivity by EMI, 287-288
Apparent electrical conductivity (ECa)
agricultural research techniques, 281-282
analogous regression performed, 236-237
basic principles and theory. 66-68
bulk density, 18
bulk volume of soil, 10
case studies, 74-77
cation exchange capacity, 32. 227, 234
clay content, 268-269
contour map. 235
correlation coefficient. 11. 72-73, 220. 221
crop yield. 248, 268-269
data analysis, 101-102, 103.219
defined. 383
differential GPS, 219. 227
-directed soil sampling. 28-30, 32-34, 68, 69-71, 70,
249-250, 253-254
electrical resistivity, 21-23
electric potential. 93
electromagnetic induction, 23-24. 217. 225
electromagnetic methods, 242
EM-EC, device. 218-219. 227
farm field map, 11-12
field measurements, 64. 278-279
field observations vs. soil properties, 67
herbicides, 241-242
herbicide-soil binding, 242-243
historial perspective, 18-19
393
394
Index
integrates multiple soil properties, 268
locations, 218,226
mapping, 214, 234, 264, 265-267
maps and plots, 62, 104, 242, 275-276
measured with EMI, 106, 211, 234
measurement and soil samples, 242
measurement of water content, 24-26
measurement range. 236
measurements, 219, 227
methods, 211-212, 282-283
vs. microbial-scale measurements, 269
misconceptions surrounding, 64-66
mobile measurement equipment, 28-29, 296
mobilization of, 19
observed associations to, 27-28
organic matter, 67
physicochemical nature, 30
productivity zones, 267, 269-270
results and discussion, 212-214, 220-222, 227-230,
243-245, 284-286
sampling-site scale, 267, 268
Schlumberger array, 94
sensor techniques, 217-218
signal velocity and attenuation use, 18
sites. 242
site-specific nutrient management, 270
soil and field properties, 234
vs. soil edaphic properties, 267-268
soil properties. 64-66, 71-74, 77, 106, 220-222, 247
soil salinity, 19-21, 61-62. 72, 234
soil sampling, 219, 227, 235. 282
soil volumetric water content, 234
spatial variability, 18, 30-32
statistics and data analyses, 227
surveys, 69, 72-73, 248-249, 275-276
time domain reflectometry, 26-27
Wenner array, 22, 100
yield and precipitation relationships, 270
Applied signal voltage, 26
Archie s law, 87
ArcView GIS, 227
Areal resistivity mapping, 94
Argillic and spodic horizons, 46
Argillic horizon, 49,51
ARP. See Antenna Reference Point (ARP)
Arrays. 287
Artificial energy, 157
Artificial source methods, 113
AS. See Anti-Spoofing (AS)
Atmosphere, 50
Atmospheric delays. 170-172
Atomic clock, 172
Atrazine sorption, 235, 237
Attenuation
applied signal voltage, 26
effect of permittivity on, 134
electrical conductivity in bulk soil, 18
and rnagnetometry, 151
seismic waves, 157, 161
wave s amplitude, 310
Attenuation constant. 120
Audio magnetotelluric (AMT) method, 113
Automatic Gain Control Function (AGCF), 355, 358
AWG. See American Wire Gauge (AWG)
Azimuthal orientation, 115
Azimuthal rotation data collection, 101
Azimuthal rotation resistivity surveys, 103, 105
B
BA. See Bottom of Antenna Mount (BA)
Backscattered reflection, 141
Basin- and landscape-scale assessments, 19
Beckum test site, 296, 298
Biases and errors of GPS, 170
Binary models, 207
Biot, Jean Baptiste, 110
Body waves, 156
Borehole magnetometry, 148
Borehole methods, 296, 317
Bornim test site, 296,298
Bottom of Antenna Mount (BA), 174
Box plots, 334
Broadcast ephemeris errors, 172-173, 175, 182
Broadcasting corrections, 185-186
Broadview Water District, California, 34, 74, 76, 248
Bulk density, 18, 32, 66, 106, 249
Bulk soil solution, 91
Bulk solid electrical resistivity value, 5
Bulk volume of soil, 10
C/A. See Coarse-acquisition (C/A) code
Calibration curves developed for TDR, 328, 330
Calibration of EMI equipment, 24
California Method, 353-354, 355
Capacitance probes (CPs), 17, 18, 26
Capacitively coupled resistivity, 98-100, 295
Carrier phase, 178, 180,181-182, 185
Cartesian geocentric coordinates, 179, 201
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
correlated with SOM, 230
defined, 384
and ECa, 32, 227, 234
GPR and low, 47
physical and chemical properties of texture, 286
sodium adsorption ratio, 390
soil-applied herbicides, 241
soil EC, map, 286
soil electrical conductivity impact, 7
soil properties, 60
and soil solution, 89-90
soil texture, 300
solid-liquid phase pathway, 67
CGF. See Constant Gain Function (CGF)
Chang Hêng, 4
Choke ring antennas, 172
Clay content
and EC,, 268-269
electrical conductivity, 234,258
and OM influence, 67
soil properties, 60,91, 212
Claypans, 60,64, 234
Cleveland Museum of Natural History, 161
Index
395
Clock estimation procedure, 174
CMP. See Common midpoint (CMP) method
Coachella Valley, 74, 76
Coarse-acquisition (C/A) code, 168,169, 170, 192
Coefficient of variation (CV), 284, 286
Cokriging models, 71
Collection methods, 282-283
Common coordinate systems, 204-206
Common midpoint (CMP) method, 306, 310
Computer-controlled multielectrode systems, 95-96,
100-101
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture (Corwin), 28
Computer software/systems
agricultural geophysics, 14
computer-controlled multielectrode systems, 95-96
data input devices, 199
data processing, 340-343, 348
descriptive statistics and regression, 235-236
EKKO Mapper software, 358
ESAP software package, 30, 71, 212, 248-249
geostatistical software package, 258
GIS software, 200, 204, 207, 249
GPR computer-processing procedures, 361
GPS software, 174
Hydrus-2D package, 327
interpretation, 145
mapping software, 149, 196
mathematical models, 124
MINITAB, 219, 227
modeling software, 321
one-dimensional forward modeling approach, 102
postcollection processing, 377
RES2DINV, 105, 297, 299
SAS software, 249
Sensors Software Inc., 355-356
Sigma Scan Pro Image Analysis software, 377
three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51
Conductive/metallic objects, 109
Conductive/semiconductive materials, 127-128
Conductivity data modeling, 71-72
Conductivity value, 5
Constant Gain Function (CGF), 355, 356, 361
Constant separation traversing resistivity survey, 100,101,
106, 107
Contamination transport and GPR, 346
Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS), 187,
189-190
Continuous measurement systems, 96—100
Contour maps, 121-122, 124,235
Control Segment, 167, 172-173, 174
Conventional equipment, 95
Correlation coefficient (r)
between ECa and soil properties, 72-73,220,221
between ECa and soybean yield, 11
EC, map use, 242
between GPR estimates and root biomass, 50
soil properties, 73, 227-228
spatial EC, patterns, 104
Correlation matrix of soil properties, 76
Corrugated plastic tubing (CPT), 363, 366,368
CORS. See Continuously Operating Reference Stations
(CORS)
Cost-effective technologies, 264
Cover crop, 276, 277-278
CPs. See Capacitance probes (CPs)
CPT. See Corrugated plastic tubing (CPT)
Crop patterns, 33
Crop yield
apparent electrical conductivity, 268-269
defined, 384
directed soil sampling, 249-250
ECa measurements, 248
factors influencing, 247
field-scale measure, 268
mapping and yield heterogeneity, 268
monitoring data, 73
productivity zones, 263-264
response model development, 251-252
SSCM, 64, 73, 247-248, 249-250
SSMUs, 34, 73
studies relating ECa to, 72, 253,264
Cross-validation, 257, 258-259
Current electrodes, 93
Current flow pathways, 30-32, 66,91-93
Curve matching, 126
CV. See Coefficient of variation (CV)
D
D Agostino-Pearson test, 236
Data analysis, 101-105,219, 309-314
Database management system, 199-200
Data collection and analysis
collection methods, 282-283
common coordinate systems, 204-206
database management system, 199-200
discriminant analysis, 259-260
field measurements, 319-321
field operations, 8-9
finding the optimal offset, 310
geophysical data analysis, 9
geophysical method selection, 7
geostatistical procedures, 257-258
GIS models and modeling, 207-208
GPR measurements, 355, 365
investigation depth/feature resolution issues, 7-
link spatial data, 203
mobile instruments, 296
root mass and GPR data, 378-380
seismic methods, 160-161
site conditions influence correlations, 300—301
soil electrical conductivity, 256-257
spatial and biological scales, 267
spatial databases, 206-207
surface methods with raw data, 299
survey protocol, 339—340
wide-offset surveys, 310-314
Data input devices, 199
Data processing, 121-123, 149-151, 340-343.348
Data types, 205-206
DC. See Direct electric current (DC)
DCBs. See Differential code biases (DCBs)
Delineation, 60,252-254
Delta process, 175
DEM. See Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
396
Index
Dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPI.), 145
Department of Transportation (DOT). 187
DepoMtional sand, 60
Depth-distance cross section. 140
Depth of penetration. 22. 120, 138
Depth sections, 104-105
Depth sensitivity. 301
Depth-weighed effect. 225
Depth-weighted nonlinear response of EMI. 24
Design-based sampling, 30
Deterministic conversion model. 72
DGPS. See Differential GPS (DGPS)
Dielectric constant (e)
discontinuity. 364-365
electromagnetic wave. 130. 323-324
GPR method. 12
material to polari/e. 309
radar reflection coefficient. 370
radar signal velocity. 6
relative. 330
soil volumetric water content. 365
TDR technique. 27
velocity of GPR electromagnetic waves. 324-325
velocity of propagation. 18. 64
WOR GPR. 311-313
Dielectric permittivity, 18. 64
Difference radargrams. 327-328
Differential code biases (DCBs). 174
Differential GPS (DGPS)
defined. 387
EC, measurements. 219. 227
geo-referenced data. 299
GPS positioning modes. 190
mathematical models. 166
message format. 184-187
positioning accuracy. 191-192
precise point positioning, 189
real time tracking. 340
relative positioning. 180-182
relativistic propagation error. 172
services. 182-184
Diffraction scattering. 131
Diffusion potential gradients, 153
Digital Elevation Model (DEM). 206
Dipole-dipole array. 94. 95,98-99. 100. 105
Dipole mode. 24
Direct applications, 45-48
Direct contact method. 63
Direct electric current (DC). 95. 112
Direct or indirect applications. 45
Direct soil sampling. 30
Discriminant analysis/geostatistical procedures, 257-258.
259-260
DISCRIM procedure. 257
Dispersion. 157
Dissolved ion mobility. 87. 88. 89
Distance, 8
Distance-dependent biases, 187-188
Division of Geoprobe® Systems. 256
DNAPL. See Dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL)
DOD. See U.S. Department of Defense (DOD)
Doppler. 169. 178
DOT. See Department of Transportation (DOT)
Drainage classes. 236, 256, 257, 258
Drainage pipe detection, 364
Drainage tiles, 346-347. 349. 350
Drainage water management, 106
Dryland system research. 264
Dualem. Inc.. 19
DUALE.M-2. 19.24,274
Dye experiment, 330
Dynamic factors, 32. 68
Earth
borehole magnetometry, 148
electric potential gradients, 6
geographic coordinate system. 204
geophysics studies. 3
GPS receiver clock, 172
GPS satellites, 166-167
gravitational field, 4
magnetic field, 6, 147-148, 149
natural EM field, 113
operational constellation, 167-168
seismic waves. 155-156, 157
surface can be modeled. 124-125
Zeeman-effect, 148
Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed (ECEF), 168
Earthquakes. 4, 155, 161
Earth Resistivity Meter (ERM), 299-300
ECa. See Apparent electrical conductivity (ECU)
EC.. See Electrical conductivity (resistivity) (ECe)
ECEF. See Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed (ECEF)
Edaphic/anthropogenic, 34. 35
Edaphic mapping, 28, 33
Eddy currents, 109
EKKO Mapper software, 358
Elastic (seismic) waves. 6, 161
Electrical conductance, 20, 32,61
Electrical conductivity (EC). See also Ohm s Law; Soil
electrical conductivity
agricultural uses, 273
amplitude decay signals, 115
bulk density, 249
clay content, 234
data analysis products, 103
depth of penetration, 120
depth sections. 104-105
depth-weighed effect, 225
drainage classes, 258
electrical current. 86
field-scale, 255
log-transformed. 219
measurements, 235
and molar concentrations of ions, 61
pure solution, 60
saturation percentage, 249
soil pathways, 222, 230
soil salinity measurement, 20
soil volumetric water content, 368
standard soil physicochemical measurement, 59
Electrical conductivity (resistivity) (ECe), 5-6, 7, 10, 18
Electrical current (/ )
Index
397
depth of penetration, 22
electrical conductivity, 86
electrical resistivity, 21, 62
EM methods, 110
four-electrode contact methods, 60
polarization, 133
resistivity method, 5, 85
thermal noise, 173
Electrical resistivity (ER)
agricultural research techniques, 17
apparent electrical conductivity, 21-23, 69
electrical current, 62
vs. EMI, 63
and geospatial measurement of EC, 59
Electric current (/)
antennas, 136
capacitively coupled systems, 98, 99
defined, 86, 385
dissolved ions and, 87, 89
electrode array, 100
electrokinetic, 153
field resistivity surveys, 95
four-electrode array, 93
hemispherical shell, 92
and magnetic field, 110—111
noise, 94
parallel resistors, 91
resistivity, 96
sandy/silty soil capacity, 88
self-potential methods, 6
soil material transfers, 86
transmitted electrolytically through soil, 90
Veris 3100 Soil EC Mapping System, 97
Electric dipole, 117
Electric potential, 92-93, 95, 152. 153, 160, 385
Electric potential gradients, 6
Electrochemical, 153
Electrode arrays, 93-95, 100-101
Electrode configuration, 296
Electrodes at soil surface, 22
Electrokinetic, 153, 155
Electrolytic conductivity, 61
Electromagnetic (EM) methods
arrays used, 287
basic principles, 110-113
data preparation and processing, 121-123
depth of penetration, 120
ECa measurements, 242
vs. EMI, 23
field procedures, 118-119
forward modeling, 124—126
geophysical technique, 45
geophysical techniques, 113-118
and GPR comparison, 47
GPR surface reflectivity, 317
incorporates HCP and PRP arrays, 292-294
interference effects, 120-121
interpretation, 123-124
inverse modeling, 126-127
locate conductive/semiconductive materials, 127-128
locating conductive/metallic objects, 109
measurements profile, 122-123
mode of sensor transport, 119
properties/hydrological parameters, 305-306
rely on EM source, 17-18
station spacing, 119-120
theory and laws, 112-113
velocity, 309. 311-312, 314
visual interpretation, 124
Electromagnetic energy travel, 130
Electromagnetic field (primary field), 5-6, 109. 113
Electromagnetic induction (EMI)
active methods, 5
agricultural applications, 19
agricultural research techniques, 17
agronomic effectiveness/environmental consequences,
273-274
apparent conductivity by EMI, 287-288
apparent electrical conductivity, 23-24, 106. 217. 225.
234
bulk soil volumetric water content. 12
conductivity meter, 29
defined, 385
electrical resistivity, 63
EM methods, 23
employs lower-frequency signals, 18
galvanic contact resistivity, 301
geoelectric instruments, 295
geophysical methods, 3, 4, 5, 13
and geospatial measurement of EC, 59
golf-course green model, 289-290
incorporates HCP and PRP arrays. 292-294
mapping, 287
measurement of soil ECa, 62.63
mobile measurement equipment, 28-29
mobilization of. 21
noncontact measure soil EC. 60
resolution of measurement, 288-289
sensors, 273
soil-plant systems. 35
soil salinity, 10, 23
survey examples, 290-292
surveys for ECa, 69
technique for mapping ECa, 287
vs. GCR methods, 301
Electromagnetic radio energy (radar) pulse, 6, 354-355.
364, 366
Electromagnetic wave
dielectric constant, 130, 323-324
free electrons, 170
GPR amd TDR principles, 26
permittivity, 130-131
polarization, 133
propagation velocity of GPR, 324
reflection times, 328
scattering electromagnetic energy. 130
TDR technique, 27
tomographic procedures. 323
transmit antenna, 135-136
and travel time, 134
ELF. See Extremely low frequency (ELF)
Ellipsoid of revolution, 115
EM. See Electromagnetic (EM) methods
EM-ECS device, 218-219, 227
EM-EC, technique, 217-218, 222, 225-226, 230
EM energy (flux). 113
398
Index
EM field (secondary field)
amplitude and orientation, 115
current Row direction, 109
transmitting and receiving. 116-118
vector. 113, 114
EMI. See Electromagnetic induction (EMI)
Energy
input pulse, 136
signal trace, 355. 364
time-varying EM energy, 112
trace, 139
transmitted into soil, 325
Engineering applications, 189
Environmental and hydrological disciplines, 107
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., 257
Eôtvos, Roland von. 4
Ephemeris data, 168. 169. 184
Epsilon process. 175
Equipment
calibration of EMI equipment, 24
EM-EC, device, 218-219, 227
EMI measurement instruments, 274
EM methods, 113-118
fixed-array electrical resistivity. 248
fluxgate and optically pumped magnetometers, 148
gas chromatograph w/mass spectrophotometer, 242
geophysical instruments, 47, 123-124
GPS instrumentation. 192-194
gradiometers. 6, 148
kinematic soil mapping, 295, 296-299
magnetometer, 6
passive remote sensing device, 148
seismic, 160-161
seismoscope, 4
self-potential methods, 153-154
setup, 7-8, 96-100. 153
soil conductivity, 274-275
surveying instruments, 207
thermocouple temperature probes, 274
vehicle-mounted GPR, 318
ER. See Electrical resistivity (ER)
ERDAS, 267
ERM. See Earth Resistivity Meter (ERM)
Error sources. 166, 170, 183, 189, 269
ESAP software package, 30, 71. 212, 248-249
ESP. See Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
ESRI ArcGIS 9.0,283
ESRI ArcMap 9, 343
ESRI ArcView3.3, 249
Evapotranspiration-associated losses, 87
Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), 33
Experimental setup. 325-326
Experiments. 4
Exploratory statistical analyses, 250-251
Extremely low frequency (ELF), 113
Farm equipment technology, 10-11
Farm management, 270-271
Farm-Scale Intensive Cropping Study (FICS), 264-265,
267, 269-270
FDTD. See Finite difference time domain (FDTD)
Feature resolution (detection), 8
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 183, 184
FICS. See Farm-Scale Intensive Cropping Study (FICS)
Field- and landscape-scale issues, 34-35
Field and landscape scales, 59
Field-applied pesticides, 233
Field data collection modes, 100-101
Field measurements
apparent electrical conductivity, 64, 68, 278-279
data collection and analysis, 319-321
geospatial measurements of ECa, 64
ground-penetrating radar methods, 319-321
Field operations, 8-9, 274
Field principles, 149
Field procedures
EM methods, 118-119
geophysical surveys, 137-138
GPR methods, 137-138
self-potential methods, 154-155
Field resistivity surveys, 95
Field-scale
agronomic research, 263-264
crop yield, 268
ECa-directed soil sampling, 69—71
electrical conductivity, 255
soil salinity, 19, 27
volumetric water estimate, 48
yield data integrated by ECa, 269
Field sensor measurements, 119
Field zones, 11-12
Filtering and amplification, 139
Final orbits, 173
Finite difference time domain (FDTD), 321
Finite impulse response filter (FIR) method, 377
FIR. See Finite impulse response filter (FIR) method
Fisher s least significant difference (LSD), 227
Fixed-array electrical resistivity, 248
Fixed-mode antenna arrangement, 137
Fixed offset (FO) method, 325
Florida Cooperative Soil Survey Program, 45,46
Flux-density, 111
Fluxgate magnetometers, 148, 149
FO. See Fixed offset (FO) method
Forward modeling, 124-126
Four-electrode array, 85, 93, 101
Four-electrode contact methods, 60
Fourier Transform, 115
Fox, Robert, 4
Free electrons, 170
Frequency, 161, 313
Frequency domain system, 113, 116
Fresnel, Augustin Jean, 131
FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Fan-pattern seismic refraction surveys, 4
Faraday, Michael, 110,111
Faraday s law, 112
G. See Geometric factor (G)
Galileo, 186, 194
Index
399
Galvanic contact resistivity (GCR), 96-98, 295, 301
Galvanic contact systems, 99, 104
Gamma ray attenuation, 17, 24-25
Garmin WAAS products, 195-196
Gas chromatograph w/mass spectrophotometer, 242
GCR. See Galvanic contact resistivity (GCR)
GE HealthCare, 341
Generalized universal kriging models, 71
Geo-aligned data layers, 267
Geocarta SA, 98, 299
Geodetic surveys, 206
Geoelectric instruments, 295, 296-299, 299-301
Geographic coordinate system, 204
Geographic data, 201
Geographic information system (GIS)
common coordinate systems, 204—206
components of, 199-200
computer software/systems, 200, 204, 207, 249
denned,386
farm equipment technology, 10-11
geo-aligned data layers, 267
geophysical data analysis, 9
and GPS, 166
introduction, 199
mapping concepts, 200-203
models and modeling, 207-208
nongeophysical spatial data, 207
sampling strategies, 35
spatial analysis, 249
spatial databases, 206-207
three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51
GeoLog, 296
Geometric factor (G), 93
Geometries, Inc., 99
Geometry, 174-175
Geonics EM38, 19, 24, 217, 218,222
Geonics Limited, Inc., 19, 120, 212, 235, 274, 296-298,
300
Geophones, 7, 160, 386
Geophysical data, 9,13-14, 126-127
Geophysical measurement, 8,9, 118-119, 124-126, 207
Geophysical methods
and agriculture, 5, 199
data collection and analysis, 7
electromagnetic induction, 3,4, 5, 13
and GPS, 195
gravity, 3
ground-penetrating radar, 3,4,5, 13
induced polarization, 3,13
magnetometry, 3,5
nuclear magnetic resonance, 3,13
passive vs. active, 5
potential agricultural uses, 9-13
radioactivity, 3
resistivity, 3,4, 5, 13
seismic, 3,4, 5
self-potential, 3,4, 5
Geophysical surveys
depth of penetration, 120, 138
field procedures, 137-138
hydrological investigation, 5
interference effects, 120-121
and investigation depth of interest. 4-5
multisensor systems, 13
near-surface seismic reflection, 151
planning stages, 7
precision agriculture role, 11
station interval, 8
station spacing, 119-120
Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc., 343, 347, 348, 376
Geophysical techniques
agricultural research techniques, 24
compilation of literature measuring ECa, 65
current status of, 28
EM method and equipment, 45, 113-118
future trends and needs, 34-36
geospatial measurement of EC, 59
GPR subsurface/near-surface use, 345-346
GPS mapping projects, 194, 195
hyperspectral imagery, 35
karst environments, 49
measurement of soil ECa, 62
resistivity method, 85
types of, 45
used in agricultural research, 17-18
Geophysics, 3,4, 17, 386
Geo-referenced data, 35, 299
Geoscan s Geoplot, 149
Geosoft s Oasis Montaj, 149
Geospatial applications, 195
Geospatial ECa measurements, 28
Geospatially interpolated, 343
Geospatial measurements of EC,
characterize within-field variability, 247
field measurements, 64
geophysical techniques, 59
geo-referenced yield data, 35
identify edaphic/anthropogenic properties, 34
impact of, 18
positive benefit, 32, 33
Geostatistical analysis, 13-14, 257-258
Geostatistical models, 71
Geostatistical software package, 258
Geotomo software, 299
Gf Instruments, 298
GGN. See Global GPS Network (GGN)
Gilbert s discovery, 17
GIS. See Geographic information system (GIS)
Global Differential GPS (IGDG). 183
Global GPS Network (GGN), 183
Global Positioning System (GPS)
accuracy of, 191-192
agricultural geophysics, 166
antenna phase center location, 174
defined, 386
DGPS, 182-187
EC,-directed soil sampling, 28-29
ECa measured using EMI and, 211
Error Sources and Approximated Magnitudes, 173
farm equipment technology, 10-11
galvanic contact resistivity, 97
geographic information system, 166
geophysical methods, 195
geo-referenced measurements, 299
guidance devices, 13
how GPS works, 166-167
400
Index
instrumentation, 192-194
integration with geophysical equipment, 9
intentional degradation of satellite signal. 175-176
interference and jamming. 175
introduction. 166
ionosphere and troposphere delays. 170-172
main components of. 167-168
mapping projects, 194-196
mode of sensor transport. 119
moderni/ation/other satellite systems, 194
multiputh. 172
network-based RTK GPS. 187-189
nongeophysical spatial data. 207
obtain positional data, 274
orbital errors, 172-173
point (absolute) positioning, 180
point vs. relative positioning. 180-182
positioning modes. 190
positioning with GPS. 179-180
precise point positioning. 189-190
processing strategies. 191
pseudorange/carrier phase observables. I76-179
real time vs. postprocessing. 190-191
receiver noise and biases. 173-174
receivers. 195-196
reference station error. 174
relative positioning. 180-182
relativistic propagation error. 172
sample-site scale analyses. 267
satellite and receiver clock errors. 172
satellites. 169
satellites and their geometry. 174-175
satellites location. 182
satellites signal data. 184
signal characteristics. 168-170
soil electrical conductivity. 166
spatial variation of yield. 248
spherical-projected GOS, 341
three-dimensional mapping of soil, 346
and underground drainage tile, 51
and Veris unit. 62-63, 282
Global Satellite Based Augmentation System (GSBAS),
182.183
GLONASS. 186. 194
Golden Software, Inc., 151, 235
Golden Software s Surfer. 149, 151
Golf course green
construction methods, 353-354
drainage system. 347, 349-350, 351
management, 345-346. 353-354
model. 289-290
studies. 50-51. 361
Golzow test site, 296.298
GPR. See Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) methods
GPS. See Global Positioning System (GPS)
GP sentences. 186-187
Gradiometers, 6. 148
Granular fertilizer. 347-348
Gravimetric basis. 32
Gravimetric water content. 66
Gravitational field, 4
Gravity, 3
Griddeddata, 122
Grid locations. 234-235. 236, 257, 347
Ground-coupled antenna, 337, 376
Ground-level measurements, 292-294
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) methods
active methods, 5
and agricultural applications, 47
agricultural drainage pipe, 373
agricultural research techniques, 17
agriculture products and management. 51
amplitude map, 370
antenna center frequency, 366
antenna frequency, 138-139
antennas. 135-137
antenna selection, 347
applications to study plants, 50
attenuation by soils with clay content, 151
cation exchange capacity, 47
compared to TDR, 26
computer-processing procedures, 361
data and analysis, 309-314
data processing, 340-343, 348
depth of penetration, 138
dielectric constant, 12
direct applications, 45-48
direct or indirect applications, 45
display processing, 142
drainage pipe mapping, surveys, 370
dye experiment, 330
electrical properties of soils, 18
electromagnetic radio energy (radar) pulse, 6, 354-355,
364
EM properties/hydrological parameters, 305-306
estimates and root biomass, 50
experimental setup, 325-326
field measurements, 319-321
field procedures, 137-138
filtering and amplification, 139
geophysical methods, 3, 4, 5, 13
golf course green issues, 356
golf course management, 345-346, 353-354
golf course studies. 50-51, 361
golf greens and. 350-351
golf greens selection, 346-347
GPR recording, 132-133
GPR surveys. 306-309
GPR technique, 324-325
indirect applications, 48-50
interpretation, 145
large physical sand tank, 326
lysimeter stand, 326
materials and methods, 354-356, 364-366, 376-378
maximum reflection amplitude, 330-332
measurements, 347-348, 355, 365
methodology, 318-319
near-surface water pathways, 337-338, 343
normalized maximum amplitude analysis (NMRA), 325
polarization. 133-134
propagation and scattering, 130-132
publications and work, 46
radargrams, migration of, 325
recording. 132-133
results and discussion, 343. 348-350, 356-361,
366-372, 378-381
Index
401
sample volume, 319
saturated soil radargram characteristics, 338-339
scattering from surface roughness, 321
signal saturation correction filter, 365
site preparation prior to measurement, 347
soil mapping, 46
soil—plant systems, 35
soil surveying using, 45
soil volumetric water content, 12-13,48, 305
soil water content, 323-324
soil water content changes, seasonal, 328-330
soil water content measurement, 317-318, 333-334
soil water content profiles, 327, 332-333
static corrections, 139
station and trace spacing, 138
subsurface drainage systems, 363-364
subsurface/near-surface use, 345-346
surface reflectivity method, 317, 322
survey protocol, 339-340
surveys, 306-309
system overview, 134-135
technology advances in, 26
temporal/spatial changes, 314
three-dimensional displays, 143-144
three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51-53
time-dependent geophysical technique, 129
time domain reflectometry, 26, 324-325, 365
time-slice amplitude maps, 9,11
transmitter and receiver, 134-135
tree roots, 375-376, 381
two-dimensional displays, 142
uses of, 7
velocity, 134
velocity analysis and two-dimensional filtering,
139-142
water front propagation, 327-328
Ground surface trends, 5
Groundwater detection and GPR, 48
GSBAS. See Global Satellite Based Augmentation System
(GSBAS)
Guidance devices, 13
H
Haake Buchler Instruments, 234
Hazen s empirical formula, 327
HCP. See Horizontal coplanar (HCP)
HCP and PRP arrays, 288-289, 292-294
Hemispherical shell, 92
Herbicides, 237-238, 241-242
Herbicides/field correlations, 243-245
Herbicide-soil binding, 242-243
Herbicide-soil binding variability, 244
Herbicide—soil sorption coefficient, 242
High-frequency antenna, 138, 376
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 235
Hilbert transformation, 377, 378
Horizontal (EMh) dipole, 24, 29
Horizontal coplanar (HCP), 287-292
Horizontal EC, maps, 103-104
Horizontal spatial patterns, 104, 155
HPLC. See High-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC)
Humus, 89
Hydrological investigation, 5
Hydrologie conditions, 368-370
Hydrology, 3
Hydrus-2D package, 327
Hyperspectral imagery, 35
I
ICD-GPS-200, 174
IERS. See International Earth Rotation Service (IERS)
IGDG. See Global Differential GPS (IGDG)
IGS. See International GPS Service (IGS)
Imaging near-surface features, 345-346
Impedance mismatch, 136-137
Incident wave, 132
Index models, 207
Indirect applications. 48-50
Induced current, 111-112
Induced polarization, 3, 13
In-phase component, 115
Input pulse, 136
Insightful Corp., 243
In situ measurement, 20, 25, 60,296
Instrumental biases, 174
Integrated Mapping Systems Inc.. 196
Intelligent vehicle highway system (IVHS). 183
Interelectrode spacing (m), 22
Interference
biases and errors of GPS, 170
distance-dependent biases, 187-188
effects. 120-121
granular fertilizer, 347-348
and jamming, 175
multipath, 172
self-potential, 152-153
thermal noise, 173
International Earth Rotation Service (IERS), 174
International GPS Service (IGS), 173, 187, 189-190
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), 174
Interpretation, 123-124, 145
Inverse computer modeling approach, 102-103
Inverse modeling, 126-127
Investigation depth, 4-5,7-8
Ion mobility influence, 88
Ionosphere and troposphere delays, 170-172
Irrigation and drainage, 48, 345, 346
ITRF. See International Terrestrial Reference Frame
(ITRF)
IVHS. See Intelligent vehicle highway system (IVHS)
J
Jamming, 175
Karst, microanalyses of, 47
Karst environments, 49
402
Index
Kassow test site. 296, 298
Kendall s Tau Correlations, 297, 299
Kinematic soil mapping, 295, 296-299
Kirchoff migration, 377. 378
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, 236
L. See Length (L)
LA AS. See Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)
LADG. See Local Area DGPS (LADGPS)
Lambert conformai conic, 205
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), 206
Landscape-scale agricultural applications, 32
Law of Reflection, 131
Leaching fraction (LF), 34
Least significant difference (LSD), 227
Least-squares inversion, 126-127
Length (L), 86
Lenz, Heinrich Friedrich Emil, 110
Lenz s law, 113
LF. See Leaching fraction (LF)
Light detection and ranging (LiDAR), 183
Lime, 214
LIN. See Low-frequency antenna
Line-of-sight (LOS) system, 168, 175
Lines of force. 111
Link spatial data, 203
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS), 183-184
Local Area DGPS (LADGPS), 183
Local-scale variability, 21
Location-based services (LBS), 166
Locations. 182, 218. 226
Log-log scatterplot, 299
Log-transformed, 219
Loop-loop systems, 118
LOS. See Line-of-sight (LOS) system
Love waves, 156, 160,388
Low-frequency antenna, 138-139, 376
Low induction number (LIN), 288
LSD. See Least significant difference (LSD)
Lysimeters. 107, 325, 328
Lysimeter stand, 326
M
Magellan WAAS receivers, 195
Magnetic compass, 4
Magnetic dipole soil conductivity meters, 274
Magnetic field, 6, 110-111, 147-148, 149-151, 153
Magnetic induction, 111
Magnetic loop, 117
Magnetometers, 4, 148-149
Magnetometry, 3, 5, 149-151
Magnetometry methods, 6
agricultural applications, 151-152
data processing and analysis. 149-151
defined, 388
field principles, 149
introduction, 147-148
locate subsurface drain lines, 9
magnetic susceptibility, 7
types of magnetometers, 148-149
MALA Geoscience, 325
Management-induced spatiotemporal monitoring, 32, 34,
60,77
Management practices, 263, 270-271
Management System Evaluation Area (MSEA), 203, 205
Manure/compost application comparison, 274
Mapping. See also Soil mapping
agricultural geophysics, 200
apparent electrical conductivity, 265-267
ArcView GIS, 227
bulk density, 106
cost-effective technologies, 264
data preparation and processing, 121-123
dipole-dipole array, 95
EM-EC, technique, 222
and EMI, 287
farm field map, 11-12
GIS, 200-203
GIS concepts, 200-203
golf green drainage system, 347, 349-350, 351
GPR amplitude map, 370
ground-level measurements, 292-294
HCP and PRP arrays, 288-289
herbicides, 241-242
inherent soil properties, 214
log-log scatterplot, 299
measurement and soil samples, 242
pesticide partition coefficients, 233-234
potential of herbicide applications, 237—238
productivity zones, 264
projects, 194-196
SAREC, 283
software, 149, 196
soil and yield baseline, 281
soil conductivity, 273
soil drainage classes, 255, 260
soil properties, 33, 226
soil texture, 59
soil volumetric water content, 346
subsurface features, 354
time-slice amplitude maps, 355, 358-361, 365, 371-372
utility of EC,, 71
yield and EC,, 284-286
and yield heterogeneity, 268
Map projection, 204
Map Unit Interpretations Record (MUIR), 206-207
Master control station and errors, 182
Mathematical models, 124, 166
MathWorks, Inc., 343
Maximum reflection amplitude, 330-332
Maxwell, James Clerk, 110, 111
Maxweliian physics, 125-126
Maxwell s equation, 130
Measurement
apparent electrical conductivity, 219, 227
electrical conductivity, 235
GPR method, 347-348
principles, 295
range, 236
resistive load impedance, 27
of soil EC,, 62,63-64
Index
403
soil electrical conductivity, 21
soil salinity, 19-21
soil volumetric water content, 18, 24-26
of water content, 24-26
Wenner array, 62
Measurement error, 295
Metal detectors, 121
Meteorology, 3
Methodology, 318-319
Microbial-scale measures, 267, 269
Microelectronics advances, 26
Microsoft Corp., 341
Mineral, 153
MINITAB, 219, 227
MLR. See Multiple linear regression (MLR)
Mobile measurement equipment, 28-29, 296
Mobilization, 19, 21
Model-based sampling, 30, 69
Modeling software, 321
Mode of sensor transport, 119
Modernization/other satellite systems, 194
Moisture measurement, 60
Molar concentrations of ions, 61
Mollisols and soils with mollic epipedons, 47
Monitoring stations, 167
Morainic soils, 218, 226
Moving-mode arrangement, 137
MSEA. See Management System Evaluation Area (MSEA)
MT. See Telluric, magnetelluric (MT) method
Multielectrode array, 296
Multipath (GPS), 172
Multiple linear regression (MLR), 250, 251
Multisensor systems, 13
N
NASA JPL, 183
National Geodetic Survey (NGS), 174, 187, 205
National Geospatial-lntelligence Agency (NGA), 167, 179
National Golf Foundation, 353
National Golf Foundation and McKinsey Company, 353
National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA),
186-187
National Research Council, 11
Natural EM field, 113
Natural potential, consistent and unidirectional. 153
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), 46, 206
NAVCEN, 184
Near-surface seismic reflection, 17, 151
Near-surface water pathways, 337-338, 343
Nernst potential gradients, 153
Network-based RTK GPS, 187-189
Neutron thermalization, 17, 25-26
Newtonian physics, 125-126
Newton s theory of gravitation, 17
NGS. See National Geodetic Survey (NGS)
Nitrogen loss, 48
NMEA. See National Marine Electronics Association
(NMEA)
NMR. See Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
No-cover, all treatments, 278
Noise, 94. See also Interference
Noncontact measure soil EC, 60
Nongeophysical spatial data, 207
Nonpolarizing electrode, 95
Nonspatial attribute data, 202
Normalized maximum reflection amplitude analysis
(NRMA), 325, 331,332
North Magnetic Pole, 147
NRCS. See Natural Resources Conservation Service
(NRCS)
NRMA. See Normalized maximum reflection amplitude
analysis (NRMA)
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 3, 13, 17
Numerical modeling, 318, 319, 321
Nyquist sampling frequency, 120, 138
o
Ohm (to), 21
OhmMapperTRl, 99-100, 104, 105
Ohm-meters (C2m), 86
Ohm s Law, 21. 86. 92
OLS. See Ordinary least squares regression (OLS)
OM. See Organic matter (OM)
OmniSTAR™, 183
One-dimensional forward modeling approach, 102
On the Examination of Iron Ore Deposits by Magnetic
Methods (Thalén), 4
Open-top chambers (OTC), 380
Operating domain, 115
Operational constellation, 167-168
Optically pumped gradiometer, 151
Optically pumped magnetometers, 148, 149
Optimal offset, 310
Optimized Van-Genuchten parameter values, 332
Orbital errors, 172-173
Ordinary least squares regression (OLS), 249, 251
Oregon State University Research Dairy. 151, 152
Organic and commercial amendments, 276
Organic matter (OM)
correlated with soil texture. 300
of cover crop, 276
determined using standard procedures. 282
GPR to map soils, 46
high water content and, 230
mapping edaphic properties, 28
measurement factors of ECa, 33, 67
mineralization in soil, 273
morainic soils, 218
non-target reflectors, 381
peatlands as fuel, 47
physical and chemical properties of texture, 286
soil amendment, 34
soil-applied herbicides, 241
soil EC, map, 286
soil properties, 18
soil properties affecting EC,, 64, 247, 284
soil resistivity, 89
SP and pb are influenced by, 32, 67
Organic soil materials, 46
OTC. See Open-top chambers (OTC)
Out-of-phase component, 115
404
Index
Paleo-sinkhole. 49
Parallel resistors. 91
Parallel swather, 63
Partition coefficients. 233
Passive methods. 5
Passive microwaves (PM). 17. 18
Passive remote sensing device. 148
Pathways ot radio frequency signals. 18
PDOP. See Position dilution of precision (PDOP)
Pearson s r correlation coefficient, 299
Peatiands as fuel, 47
Permittivity. 27. 130-131. 134. 137, 145
Perpendicular (PRP). 287-292
Pesticide partition coefficients, 233-234
Phase-range, 179
Phase shift. 113-114
Phases of soil. 86-87
Physical oceanography. 3
Physical quality measurement techniques. 3
Physicochemical nature. 30
Plane coordinate system. 204
Plant(s)
corn (Zea mays L.). 50. 265, 274
Escherkhia cnli. 151
fresno cotton (Gossypium hirsuturn L.) field, 74-76
fungi (Armillaria sp.), 379
grain sorghum {Sorghum bicolnr L. Moench). 286
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). 50. 376
oak (Quercus sp.). 376
oak trees (Quercus petraea (Mattusch.) Liebl), 50
peach orchards (Primus persica). 379
proso millet (Panicutn militweum L.), 265
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), 211. 286
soybean (Glycine max L). 211
study using GPR. 50
vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal ( VAM) fungi. 267
winter wheat (Secale céréale L.). 274
winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), 74. 211, 264
Plot-scale blocking. 269-270. 271
Plot-scale experiments. 263
PM. See Passive microwaves (PM)
Point (absolute) positioning, 180
Point vs. relative positioning. 180-182
Polarization. 133-134. 137. 309
Polarization ellipsoid. 114
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 151
Porous-matrix salinity sensors. 20
Positional data, 274
Position dilution of precision (PDOP), 175,176, 191
Positioning accuracy. 166, 170, 191-192, 205-206
Positioning with GPS, 179-180
Position vectors. 179
Postcollection processing. 377
Potential electrodes. 93
Potential energy. 86
PPP. See Precise point positioning (PPP)
PPS. See Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
Precise point positioning (PPP). 189-190, 191
Precise Positioning Service (PPS). 170. 189-190
Precision agriculture. 11, 247, 286
Preferential-flow pathways, 337. 339. 343
Principles of induction, 111-112
PRN. See Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN) code
Probe impedance (12). 27
Process models, 207-208
Productivity zones
apparent electrical conductivity. 269-270
crop yield, 263-264, 268-269
management practices. 270-271
mapping, 267
materials and methods, 264-267
microbial-scale measurements, 269
soil edaphic properties. 267-268
soil spatial variability, 32
SSCM, 34. 35
SSMUs. 268
Propagating wave. 130
Propagation and scattering, 130-132
Propagation velocity of GPR, 324
Proton precession magnetometers, 148
PRP. See Perpendicular (PRP)
PRP and HCP arrays, 288-289, 292-294
Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN) code, 168, 174, 176-177
Pseudorange
broadcasting corrections, 185-186
carrier modulation, 168-169
and carrier phase observables, 176-179
data processing, 187
defined, 387
GPS receiver performance, 173
GPS receiver task, 193
Local Area Augmentation Systems. 183
master control station and errors, 182
multipath. 172
point positioning procedure, 174
positioning accuracy, 191-192
positioning with GPS, 179-180
precise point positioning. 189
signal speed. 170
true observations and underlying parameters, 181-182
Pseudo-section. 140
Pure solution (aw), 60
PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
P-waves. 156, 157-160
Quadrature component, 115
R. See Resistance (R)
Radar amplitudes, 9
Radar energy, 9
Radar events used, 309
Radargram. 325. 337-339, 377-378, 379
Radar reflection coefficient, 370
Radar scatterometry, 17
Radar signal velocity, 6
Radioactivity, 3. 25-26
Radio-frequency (RF), 173, 193
Radio frequency signals, 18, 168, 174
Radio signals, 168
Index
405
Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services
(RTCM), 184-186
Raster data format, 202
Rayleigh waves, 156, 160
RDOP. See Relative DOP (RDOP)
Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS, 13, 35, 166. 186
Real time tracking, 340
Real-time users, 194
Real time vs. postprocessing GPS, 190-191
Receiver clock, 172, 180, 189
Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX), 184,
186
Receiver noise and biases, 173-174
Recommended Standards for Differential Navstar GPS
Service (RTCM), 184
Reference station error, 174
Reflection hyperbola, 366-367, 370-371, 372
Reflection times, 328
Regression models, 69, 207
Relational database model, 206
Relative DOP (RDOP), 175
Relative permittivity (er), 12, 134
Relative positioning, 180-182
Relative values. 236
Relativistic propagation error, 172
Remotely sensed imagery, 35,48
RES2DINV, 105, 297, 299
Research conducted/investigations, 12, 59
Residual mean square (RSS), 212
Resistance (R), 21
Resistive load impedance, 27
Resistivity data collection, 100-101
Resistivity methods
agriculture applications, 106-107
capacitively coupled resistivity. 98-100
computer-controlled multielectrode systems, 95-96
conventional equipment, 95
current flow and potential, 91-93
data analysis products, 101-105
electrical current, 5, 85
electric current, 96
electrode arrays, 93-95
field data collection modes, 100-101
galvanic contact resistivity, 96-98
geophysical methods, 3, 4, 5, 13
geophysical techniques, 85
Ohm s Law, 86
soil gravimetric water content, 12
and soil materials, 86-91
soil properties, 21
soil salinity assessment, 10
uses of, 85
Resistivity surveys, 96,153-154
Resolution of measurement, 288-289
Resonant scattering, 131-132
Response-surface approach, 30, 69-70
RF. See Radio-frequency (RF)
Richards equation, 327
Ricker wavelet, 321
RINEX. See Receiver Independent Exchange Format
(RINEX)
RMS. See Root mean square (RMS)
Rock stratigraphy. 48
Root mass, 376, 378-380
Root mean square (RMS), 173
Root zone. 23, 24, 106
RSS. See Residual mean square (RSS)
RTCM. See Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
Services (RTCM)
RTK. See Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS
SA. See Selective Availability (SA)
Saline-sodic soil, 33
Salinity mapping and assessment, 59. 106
Salinity measurements, 74
Sample-site scale analyses, 267
Sample volume, 319
Sampling-site scale analyses, 267
Sampling-site scale properties, 268, 269
Sandy/silty soil, 88, 89
San Joaquin Valley. California, 32
SAR. See Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
SAREC. See Sustainable Agriculture Research and
Extension Center (SAREC)
Satellite and receiver clock errors, 172
Satellite imagery, 207
Satellite magnetometry, 148
Satellites and their geometry, 174-175
Satellite signal, intentional degradation of, 175-176
Satellite systems, modernization/other. 194
Saturated soil radargram characteristics. 338-339
Saturation percentage (SP). 32, 66, 67, 74, 249
SBSF. See Spatial Background Subtraction Filter (SBSF)
Scaling problems and defects, 149-151
Scan display, 142.143
Scattering, 131
Scattering electromagnetic energy principle, 130
Scattering from surface roughness, 321
Scattering reflections, 145
Scatter plots, 251,252
Schlumberger, Conrad, 21. 85
Schlumberger, Marcel. 85
Schlumberger array, 94, 100, 102
Schlumberger Limited, 85
Schlumberger Wireline and Testing. 90
Scrub ecosystem, 380-381
SDSS design, 33
Seismic methods, 6—7
active methods, 5
data collection. 160-161
defined, 390
geophysical methods, 3,4, 5. 195
introduction, 155-156
migration of radargrams, 325
wave propagation, 157-160
wave types, 156-157
Seismic reflection method, 130
Seismic refraction. 160
Seismic trace analyses, 324
Seismic waves
frequency, 161
propagation, aspects of, 157-160
406
Index
seismic methods. 6-7. 155-156
types. 156-157
Seismology, 3
Seismoscope, 4
Selective Availability (SA). I75-176
Sell-potential methods. 6
agricultural applications. 155
agricultural geophysics. 195
consistent and unidirectional natural potential. 153
defined. 390
equipment. 153-154
field procedures. 154-155
geophysical methods. 3. 4, 5, 13. 14
introduction. 152-153
Passive methods. 5
Sensitivity analysis simulations. 74
Sensors. 20-21
Sensors Software Inc.. 320. 355-356. 365
Sensor techniques, 217-218
Sensor transport mode, 119
Shaded-relief map, 151. 152
Shaly (clayey) sand value. 90
Shielding, 137
SH-waves. 156, 158-160
Sigma Scan Pro Image Analysis software (Systat). 377
Signal characteristics, 168-170
Signal data. 184
Signal Saturation Correction Filter (SSCF)
compute processing procedure. 355. 361
GPR profiles. 356. 365
time-slice amplitude map. 358. 359
Signal trace
AGCF equalizing amplitudes. 358
measurement points. 365
radar wave amplitude. 6, 355. 364
spatial background substraction. 355-356
time-slice amplitude maps. 359
Signal Trace Enveloping (STE), 355, 358, 361
Signal velocity and attenuation, 18
Signal voltage. 26
Simple statistical correlation. 72. 73
Sinkholes. 48
Sites
apparent electrical conductivity. 242
data collection and analysis, 300-301
geoelectric instruments, 296
GPR methods. 347
soil conductivity. 274
Site-specific crop management (SSCM)
correlation between crop yield and EC,, 249-250
crop yield, 64, 73. 247-248
crop yield response model development, 251-252
delineated SSMUs, 252-254
delineation of, 60
EC, survey data, 248-249
exploratory statistical analyses, 250-251
productivity zones. 34. 35
spatial information required, 35-36
spatial measurements of soil EC,, 74
spatial variability, 33
statistical and spatial analyses, 249
study site. 248
yield monitoring and EC, survey, 248
Site-specific management (SSM), 247
Site-specific management units (SSMUs)
crop yield. 73
crop yield integration, 34
delineated. 252-254
geo-referenced yield data, 35
productivity zones, 268
spatial analysis, 249
spatial variability, 32
spatial variability of edaphic, 248
Site-specific nutrient management, 270
Snell slaw, 131. 158-159
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), 33, 390
Soil. See also Soil mapping; Soil properties; Soil salinity;
Soil sampling; Soil surveys
agricultural products and management, 47
conditions, monitoring changes, 7
depth sensitivity, 301
drainage classes, 256
electrical properties of, 18
and field properties, 234
and karst, microanalyses of, 47
management practices, 263
measurement principles, 295
mollisols and soils with mollic epipedons, 47
organic matter, 34
phases of, 86-87
and resistivity methods, 86
and topographical data, 256-257
water application, 253
watershed characteristics, 234
water tables, 46
and yield baseline, 281
Soil-applied herbicides, 241
Soil conductivity. See also Soil electrical conductivity
ECa maps and plots, 275-276
electromagnetic impulse, 338
electromagnetic induction sensors, 273
EM-EC, device, 227
equipment, 274-275
field measurements of ECa, 278-279
field operations, 274
intermediate-depth investigations, 116
mapping, 273
site description, 274
statistical analysis, 277-278
sub-sand fluctuatons in native, 290
Soil Conservation Services. See Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS)
Soil cores analyzed, 274-275
Soil drainage
anaerobic conditions, 345
classes, 255, 260
discriminant analysis/geostatistical procedures,
257-258
results and discussion, 258-260
soil and topographical data, 256—257
soil electrical conductivity, 255
topography, 255-256
Soil EC, map, 286. See also Apparent electrical
conductivity (ECJ
Soil edaphic and biological variability, 269
Soil electrical conductivity
Index
407
antenna frequency/factor influencing, 364
background, 60-64
cation exchange capacity, 7
clay content correlation, 258
data collection, 256-257
ECa and mapping, 234
and GPS, 166
measurement of, 21
relative values, 236
soil drainage, 255
soil sampling, 61
Soil Electrical Conductivity in Precision Agriculture
Symposium, 28
Soil equivalent resistance model, 66
Soil factors, means and ranges of, 75
Soil gravimetric water content, 12
Soil heterogeneity, 263-264, 267, 269, 270
Soil-landscape modeling, 46
Soil mapping
bedrock depth in glaciated landscape, 47
EM-ECa technique, 225-226
and GPR, 46
precision agriculture, 286
and rock stratigraphy, 48
Soil materials, 86-91
Soil microvariability, 46
Soil moisture measurement, 4
Soil organic matter (SOM), 227, 228, 230
Soil pathways, 222, 230
Soil permittivity, 325. See also Permittivity
Soil phases, 61
Soil physical and chemical properties
cation exchange capacity, 286
electrical conductance pathway, 32
EM-ECa technique, 217-218, 225
soil ECa map, 286
soil sample analysis, 249
spatial variability, 30, 33
Soil physicochemical measurement, 59
Soil-plant systems, 35
Soil profile, 8
Soil properties
apparent electrical conductivity, 65-66, 71-74, 247,
268
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 106
cation exchange capacity, 60
characterize and assess soil condition, 33
clay content, 60,91, 212
correlation coefficient, 227-228
Correlation Coefficients, 73
correlation matrix of, 76
correlations between EMI and, 76
ECa-directed soil sampling, 253-254
ECa measurements, 64-65,77, 220-222
ECa survey, 72
electrical conductivity in bulk soil, 18
EM-EC, technique, 230
exploratory statistical analyses, 250-251
field-applied pesticides, 233
field observations vs., 67
and herbicides, 241
inherent, 211
mapping, 33,226
moisture measurement, 60
morainic soils, 218, 226
nitrogen loss, 48
parameters related to measurable, 66-67
precision agriculture role, 247
resistivity, 21
soil surveys, 227-229
spatially characterize, 34
spatial pattern, 212, 214
STATSGO, 46-47
within-field spatial variability, 30
Soil quality assessment, 60
Soil radar signal velocity, 12
Soil reclamation, 34
Soil resistivity, 60, 89,90, 91
Soil salinity
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 61-62
denned, 60
dominates ECa measurements, 72
electrical conductance pathway, 32
electrical conductivity, 20
EMI for measuring, 23
and ER, 21
field scales methods, 19
measurement of EC, 20
measurement of ECa, 234
resistivity methods, 10
sensors, 20—21
vertical profiting, 23-24
Soil sampling
ECa-directed, 28-30
EC, measurements, 219,227, 235, 282
ECa survey data, 248-249
geospatial EC, measurements, 28
herbicides, 242
herbicides/field correlations, 243—245
soil and topographical data, 256
soil EC, 61
statistical methods, 214
statistical sample design, 29-30
Soil science, 72
Soil solution, 89-90, 107. See also Soil volumetric water
content (8)
Soil-solution extractor, 20-21
Soil spatial variability, 32
Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) database, 206
Soil surveys. See also Surveys
EC, survey, 69
quality and efficiency increase, 46
regression model, 69
response-surface approach, 69-70
soil properties, 227-229
statistical test 230
using GPR methods, 45
Soil texture, 59,300
Soil type, 59
Soil volumetric water content (6)
and amplitude, 313-314, 319
box plots, 334
dielectric constant dependent on, 365
EC, measurements, 234
and electrical conductivity, 368
GPR methods, 12-13,48,305,323-324,328-330
408
Index
influencing measured EC,. 230
mapping. 346
measurement. 317-318. 333-334
measurement of, 24-26
profiles, 327. 332-333
radar events used. 309
research investigations, 12
salinity measurements. 74
and sandy/silty soil. 89
soil EC, map. 286
and soil materials. 87
spatial variability. 330
TDR point source technique for. 26-27
time domain reHectometry. 317. 320. 323
Solar Cycle. 171
Solar energy. 167
Solid-liquid phase pathway. 67
SOM. See Soil organic matter (SOM)
South Magnetic Pole. 147
SP. See Saturation percentage (SP)
Space Seamen!. 167
Spatial analysis. 249
Spatial and biological scales, 267
Spatial Background Subtraction Filter (SBSF), 355-356.
358
Spatial databases. 206-207
Spatial decorrelation. 183
Spatial distribution. 237-238, 380-381
Spatial EC4 patterns. 104
Spatial information required for SSCM, 35-36
Spatially referenced regression models, 71
Spatial measurements of soil EC. 59
Spatial measurements of soil EC,, 74
Spatial patterns. 212, 214, 270
Spatial response surface sampling (SRSS). 30
Spatial sampling error, 337
Spatial variability
apparent electrical conductivity, 18, 30-32
characterizing. 214. 233-234
crop patterns, 33
dielectric properties in subsurface. 324
ECa-directed soil sampling, 68, 69
ECa map use, 62. 104
ofedaphic, 247. 248
field- and landscape-scale issues, 34-35
inherent soil properties, 211
parameters correlated w/drainage class, 236
plot-scale experiments. 263
site-specific crop management. 33
site-specific management units, 32
soil physical and chemical properties, 30,33
and soil resistivity, 91
soil water content measurement, 330
spatial measurements of soil EC, 59
surface water content. 48. 53
yield and irrigated fields, 283
Spatial variation of yield, 248
Spherical-projected GOS. 341
Spiral plot, 340
Split-plot design. 274. 275, 277
SPS. See Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
SPSS Inc.. 243
SRSS. See Spatial response surface sampling (SRSS)
SSCF. See Signal Saturation Correction Filter (SSCF)
SSCM. See Site-specific crop management (SSCM)
SSM. See Site-specific management (SSM)
SSMUs. See Site-specific management units (SSMUs)
SSURGO. See Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO)
database
Stacking. 8
Standard Positioning Service (SPS), 170, 175, 191
StarFire™. 183
State Plane coordinate (SPC) system, 204, 205, 341
State Soil Geographic (STATSGO), 46-47
Static corrections, 139. 141
Static factors, 32. 68
Station and trace spacing, 138
Station interval, 8
Station spacing, 119-120
Statistical analysis, 249, 267, 277-278, 324, 377
Statistical and spatial analyses, 249
Statistical methods, 214
Statistical sample design, 29-30
Statistical test, 230
Statistics and data analyses, 227
STATSGO. See State Soil Geographic (STATSGO)
Stepwise discriminant procedure (STEPDISC), 257, 258
Stochastic models, 71
Stolt migration algorithm, 325
Stream tubes, 32-33
Subsurface
antenna frequency, 368
artificial energy, 157
and electromagnetic energy travel, 130
features and GPR, 345, 361
mapping. 354
spatial variability, 324
Subsurface drainage systems, 363-364
Subsurface drain lines, locate, 9
Subsurface electrical permittivity, 120
Subsurface flow pathways, 48-50, 51
Suction lysimeters, 107
Surface-based measurements, 3
Surface methods with raw data, 299
Surface modeling, 124-125
Surface reflectivity method, 319, 322
Surface water content, 48, 53
Surface waves, 156
Surveys
ECB data, 248-249
EMI effectiveness, 290-292
Geophysical measurement, 118-119
GPR drainage pipe mapping, 370
GPR golf course green issues, 356
GPS planning process, 195
grid GPS, 257
magnetometry data processing and analysis, 149-151
mapping, 275-276
near-surface water pathways protocol, 343
protocol, 339-340
seismic refraction, 160
soil cores analyzed, 274-275
surface reflectivity method, 319
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension Center
(SAREC), 281, 283, 284
Index
409
SV-waves, 156, 158-160
S-waves, 156, 158
Taylor series expansion, 178-179
TDR. See Time domain reflectometry (TDR)
TEC. See True Electron Content (TEC)
Technology advances in GPR methods, 26
Tectonophysics, 3
Telluric, magnetelluric (MT) method, 113
Temperature, 32, 88, 90
Temperature conversion factor, 20, 61
Temporal and spatial high-resolution measurements, 314,
325
Temporal variations, 148
Tesla, 148
Thalén, Robert, 4
Thalén-Tiberg magnetometers, 4
Thermal noise, 173
Thermocouple temperature probes, 274
Thomson-Thalén magnetometers, 4
Three-dimensional (3D) position, 166, 194
Three-dimensional displays, 143-144
Three-dimensional mapping of soil, 346
Three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51-53
Time and frequency domain, 115-116
Time-dependent geophysical technique, 129
Time-distance cross section, 140, 141
Time domain reflectometry (TDR), 26-27
agricultural research techniques, 17-18
calibration curves developed for, 328, 330
defined,391
field-scale soil salinity assessment, 27
and geospatial measurement of EC, 59
GPR compared to, 48, 53
GPR profiles, 365
vs. GPR technique, 324-325
measurement of soil ECa, 62, 63-64
point source technique, 26—27
soil water content measurement, 317, 320, 323
Time-domain system, 113
Time-domain wave, 130
Time-of-measurement dependent, 65
Time-slice amplitude maps
GPR methods, 9, 11
mapping, 355, 358-361, 365, 371-372
Time-varying EM energy, 112
TM. See Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)
Tomographic procedures, 14, 323
Topcon receivers, 195
Topographical variables, 258
Topography, 255-256
Topp s equation, 309, 313, 324, 333
Torsion balance gravity measurements, 4
Trace, 139
Transects, 8, 9
Transmission frequency, 99
Transmit and receive antennas, 137
Transmit antenna, 135—136
Transmitted electrolytically through soil, 90
Transmitter and receiver, 113. 116-118. 134-135
Transverse Mercator projection, 205
Travel direction, 158-160
Travel time, 134
Tree root mass, 375-376, 381
Triangulation in space, 166, 179
Trimble AgGPS series, 195
Trimble Navigation Ltd., 63, 212
Trimble PRO-XR GPS, 274
Trimble VRS™, 188-189
True Electron Content (TEC), 170
2-D Migration (2DM), 356, 358, 361
Two-dimensional (2D) position, 166
Two-dimensional displays, 142
u
UBC Geophysical Inversion Facility Web site, 126
UERE. See User Equivalent Range Error (UERE)
Ultrahigh frequency (UHF), 168, 182
Underground drainage tile, 51
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system, 204, 205.
341
University of Wyoming, 281
U.S. Coast Guard Maritime DGPS, 184
USDA. See U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
USDA-ARS. See U.S. Department of Agriculture-
Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS)
USDA Economic Research Service, 363
USDA Handbook 60 (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff). 20,
61
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 46, 60, 256,
363-364
U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research
Service (USDA-ARS), 28. 59, 214. 281
U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research
Service-Soil Drainage Research Unit (USDA-
ARS-SDRU), 294
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), 166. 170. 175
U.S. Department of Energy, 305-306
User Equivalent Range Error (UERE), 175
User Segment, 168,169
USGA (U.S. Golf Association) Method, 353-354, 355.
356,359
USGA Green Section Record, 347
U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (USMARC), 274
U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO), 168
U.S. Salinity Laboratory, 59
U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff. 20, 21, 60. 61
UTM. See Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system
V. See Voltage (V)
Vadose zone. 32, 48. 51
van Genuchten-Mualem soil hydraulic functions, 327
van Genuchten parameter values, optimized, 332
Variance inflation factors (VIF). 219
VDB. See VHF data broadcast (VDB) transmitter
Vector, 113. 114, 133
Vector data format, 201-202
Vector line, 131
410
Index
Vehicle-based monitoring, 27
Vehicle-mounted GPR, 318
Velocity. 134
dielectric constant, 6, 323-324
electromagnetic wave, 27, 323, 333, 350
GPR methods, 134, 139-142
GPS technology, 167, 184
of material, 141-142
permittivity, 132, 137
propagating wave, 130
P-wave or S-wave, 160
radar signal propagation, 348
reflection hyperbolas, 145
refraction, 131
sampling depth, 319
seismic wave, 7, 156, 157, 159
Velocity of propagation, 18, 64
Veris 3100 Soil EC Mapping System, 97
Veris Soil EC Mapping System, 62,97, 104,107, 242
Veris Technologies, 28-29,62,97, 242, 265, 270, 282, 299
Veris unit, 62-63, 282
Vertical (EM.) dipole, 24, 29
Vertical electric sounding, 100, 101
Vertical profiting, 23-24, 25
Very low frequency (VLF), 113, 182
VHF data broadcast (VDB) transmitter, 184
Virtual reference station (VRS), 188-189
Visual crop observation, 19
Visual interpretation, 124
VLF. See Very low frequency (VLF)
Vollath, U., 187
Voltage (V), 21, 85,93, 98, 155
Volume of measurement, 22-23
Volume of spatial data, 72-73
Volumetric water estimate, 48
Vortex currents, 109
VRS. See Virtual reference station (VRS)
w
WAAS. See Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
WADGPS. See Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS)
Water application, 253
Water content, 32
Water-filled pore space (WFPS), 275, 278
Water front propagation, 327-328
Water molecules, 90
Watershed characteristics, 234
Water tables, 46
Wave equation, 112,120, 130
Wavelet analysis, 72
Wave propagation, 157-160
Wave s amplitude, 310
Wave types, 156-157
Wenner, Frank, 21, 60
Wenner array
apparent electrical conductivity, 22
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 100
areal resistivity mapping, 94
Earth Resistivity Meter, 299
electrode configuration switched, 296
electrodes at soil surface, 22
galvanic contact resistivity, 97-98
measure of ECa, 62
volume of measurement, 22-23
WFPS. See Water-filled pore space (WFPS)
WGS84. See World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), 183, 184
Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS), 182-183
Wide-offset reflection (WOR) data, 307-309, 310
Wide-offset surveys, 310-314
Wiggle trace (scan), 142
Within-field spatial variability, 30
Within-field variation, 33, 77
WOR. See Wide-offset reflection (WOR) data
WOR GPR, 311-313
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84), 168, 179, 180
Yield and ECa, 284-286
Yield and irrigated fields, 283
Yield and precipitation relationships, 270
Yield data integrated by ECa, 269
Yield monitoring and ECa survey, 248
Yield relationships, 270
Zeeman-effect, 148
Zero crossings, 114
Zone sampling, 270
Zones of productivity, 60
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
Preface.xiii
Editors.xv
Contributors.xvii
List of Important Agricultural and Geophysical Quantities.xxi
SECTION I Agricultural Geophysics Overview
Chapter 1 General Considerations for Geophysical Methods Applied to Agriculture.3
Barry J, Allred, M. Reza Ehsani, and Jeffrey J. Daniels
Chapter 2 Past, Present, and Future Trends of Soil Electrical Conductivity Measurement
Using Geophysical Methods.17
Dennis L. Corwin
Chapter 3 History of Ground-Penetrating Radar Applications in Agriculture.45
M. E. Collins
SECTION II Agricultural Geophysics Measurements
and Methods
Chapter 4 Theoretical Insight on the Measurement of Soil Electrical Conductivity.59
Dennis L. Corwin, Scott M. Lesch, and Hamid J. Farahani
Chapters Resistivity Methods.85
Barry J. Allred, Douglas Groom, M. Reza Ehsani, and Jeffrey J. Daniels
Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Induction Methods.109
Jeffrey J. Daniels, Mark Vendl, M. Reza Ehsani, and Barry J. Allred
Chapter 7 Ground-Penetrating Radar Methods (GPR).129
Jeffrey Daniels, M. Reza Ehsani, and Barry J. Allred
Chapter 8 Magnetometry, Self-Potential, and Seismic: Additional Geophysical Methods
Having Potentially Significant Future Use in Agriculture.147
Barry J. Allred, Michael Rogers, M. Reza Ehsani, and Jeffrey J. Daniels
IX
x Contents
SECTION III The Global Positioning System and Geographic
Information Systems
Chapter 9 Integration of the Global Positioning System (GPS) into Agricultural
Geophysics.165
Dorota A. Grejner-Brzezinska
Chapter 10 Integration of Geographic Information Systems (GISs) with Agricultural
Geophysics.199
Carolyn J. Merry
SECTION IV Resistivity and Electromagnetic Induction
Case Histories
Chapter 11 Apparent Electrical Conductivity for Delineating Spatial Variability in Soil
Properties.211
Brian J. Wienhold and John W. Doran
Chapter 12 Dependence of Soil Apparent Electrical Conductivity (ECa) upon Soil Texture
and Ignition Loss at Various Depths in Two Morainic Loam Soils in Southeast
Norway.217
Audun Korsaeth
Chapter 13 Relations between a Commercial Soil Survey Map Based on Soil Apparent
Electrical Conductivity (ECa) and Measured Soil Properties on a Morainic Soil
in Southeast Norway.225
Audun Korsaeth, Hugh Riley, Sigrun H. Kvœrn0, and Live S. Vestgarden
Chapter 14 Mapping Pesticide Partition Coefficients By Electromagnetic Induction.233
Dan B. Jaynes
Chapter 15 Can Apparent Soil Electrical Conductivity Be Used to Map Soil-Herbicide
Partition Coefficients? A Case Study in Three Colorado Fields.241
Dale L. Shaner, Hamid J. Farahani, Gerald W. Buchleiter, and Mary K. Brodahl
Chapter 16 Delineating Site-Specific Management Units Using Geospatial ECa
Measurements.247
Dennis L. Corwin, Scott M. Lesch, Peter J. Shouse, Richard Soppe, and
James E. Ayars
Contents xi
Chapter 17 Mapping of Soil Drainage Classes Using Topographical Data and Soil
Electrical Conductivity.255
A. N. Kravchenko
Chapter 18 Productivity Zones Based on Bulk Soil Electrical Conductivity: Applications
for Dryland Agriculture and Research.263
Cinthia K. Johnson, Rhae A. Drijber, Brian J. Wienhold, and John W. Doran
Chapter 19 Four-Year Summary of the Use of Soil Conductivity as a Measure of Soil and
Crop Status.273
Roger A. Eigenberg, John A. Nienaber, Bryan L. Woodbury, and Richard B.
Ferguson
Chapter 20 Soil ECa Mapping Helps Establish Research Plots at a New Research and
Extension Center.281
Hamid J. Farahani, David A. Claypool, R. P. Kelli Belden, Larry C. Munn,
and Robert A. Flynn
Chapter 21 Mapping Golf-Course Features with Electromagnetic Induction, with
Examples from Dublin, Ohio.287
Richard S. Taylor
Chapter 22 Comparison of Geoelectrical Instruments in Different Soilscapes.295
Robin Gebbers and Erika Liick
SECTION V Ground-Penetrating Radar Case Histories
Chapter 23 GPR Surveys across a Prototype Surface Barrier to Determine Temporal and
Spatial Variations in Soil Moisture Content.305
William P. Clement and Andy L. Ward
Chapter 24 Soil Water Content Measurement Using the Ground-Penetrating Radar Surface
Reflectivity Method.317
J. David Redman
Chapter 25 Assessing Spatial and Temporal Soil Water Content Variation with GPR.323
Bernd Lennartz, Britta Schmalz, Derk Wachsmuth, and Heiner Stoffregen
Chapter 26 Ground-Penetrating Radar Mapping of Near-Surface Preferential Flow.337
Robert S. Freeland
xii Contents
Chapter 27 An Application of Ground-Penetrating Radar in Golf Course Management.345
R. Boniak, S.-K. Chong, S. J. Indorante, andJ. A. Doolittle
Chapter 28 Ground-Penetrating Radar Investigation of a Golf Course Green: Computer
Processing and Field Survey Setup Considerations.353
Barry J. Allred, Edward L. McCoy, and J. David Redman
Chapter 29 Agricultural Drainage Pipe Detection Using Ground-Penetrating Radar.363
Barry J. Allred and Jeffrey J. Daniels
Chapter 30 Using Ground-Penetrating Radar to Estimate Tree Root Mass: Comparing
Results from Two Florida Surveys.375
John R. Butnor, Daniel B. Stover, Brian E. Roth, Kurt H. Johnsen,
Frank P. Day, and Daniel Mclnnis
Glossary.383
Index.393
Index
Note: Page numbers in bold refer to figures or tables.
AC. See Alternating electric current (AC)
Accuracy of Global Positioning System, 191-192
Acoustic waves, 161
Active methods, 5
Active microwaves (AM), 17, 18
Adobe Systems, Inc., 342
AEM. See Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) systems
Aerial photogrammetry, 207
AGCF. See Automatic Gain Control Function (AGCF)
AgGPS Parallel Swathing Option, 63
Agricultural applications
contamination transport and GPR, 346
cover crop, 276, 277-278
directed soil sampling, 32-34
electrical conductivity, 273
electromagnetic induction, 19
environmental and hydrological disciplines, 107
and GPR, 47
loop-loop systems, 118
magnetometry methods, 151-152
no-cover, all treatments, 278
organic and commercial amendments, 276
resistivity methods, 106-107
self-potential methods, 155
soil spatial variability, 32
use of lime, 214
Agricultural drainage pipe, 363, 373
Agricultural geophysics
applications of, 9,10
computer software/systems, 14
defined, 383
and GPS, 166, 194-196
ground surface trends, 5
mapping concepts, 200
outlook, 13-14
studies conducted by McCorkle, 12
use of GIS, 9
Agricultural research activity/techniques
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 281-282
gamma ray attenuation, 17, 24-25
manure/compost application comparison, 274
soil heterogeneity, 263-264
soil moisture measurement, 4
time domain reflectometry, 17-18
tree root mass, 375-376
Agricultural Research Service, 46
Agricultural test plots, 104-105
Agriculture, 5, 199
Agriculture products and management. 47, 51
Agrigeophysics, 14
Agronomic research, 263-264, 270, 273-274
Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) systems, 4, 19, 23
Airborne magnetometers, 4, 148
Alber's equal area projection, 206
Almanac data, 168, 169, 184, 193
Alternating electric current (AC), 95, 98, 112, 153
AM. See Active microwaves (AM)
American Golf Foundation, 345
American Wire Gauge (AWG), 154
Ampere, André-Marie, 110
Ampere's law, 110-111, 112
Amplitude, 115, 313-314, 319
Amplitude filtering. 122
Amp meter, 111
AMT. See Audio magnetotelluric (AMT) method
Anaerobic conditions, 345
Analogous regression performed, 236-237
Analysis of variance (ANOV). 227. 267
Anisotropy paradox, 103
Anomalies, 6, 7
ANOV. See Analysis of variance (ANOV)
Antenna frequency, 138-139, 364. 365-366, 368
Antenna phase center location, 174
Antenna Reference Point (ARP), 174
Antenna ringing. 136-137
Antennas, 135-137, 347
Anthropogenic properties, 28,48
Anti-Spoofing (AS), 170, 177, 194
Apparent conductivity by EMI, 287-288
Apparent electrical conductivity (ECa)
agricultural research techniques, 281-282
analogous regression performed, 236-237
basic principles and theory. 66-68
bulk density, 18
bulk volume of soil, 10
case studies, 74-77
cation exchange capacity, 32. 227, 234
clay content, 268-269
contour map. 235
correlation coefficient. 11. 72-73, 220. 221
crop yield. 248, 268-269
data analysis, 101-102, 103.219
defined. 383
differential GPS, 219. 227
-directed soil sampling. 28-30, 32-34, 68, 69-71, 70,
249-250, 253-254
electrical resistivity, 21-23
electric potential. 93
electromagnetic induction, 23-24. 217. 225
electromagnetic methods, 242
EM-EC, device. 218-219. 227
farm field map, 11-12
field measurements, 64. 278-279
field observations vs. soil properties, 67
herbicides, 241-242
herbicide-soil binding, 242-243
historial perspective, 18-19
393
394
Index
integrates multiple soil properties, 268
locations, 218,226
mapping, 214, 234, 264, 265-267
maps and plots, 62, 104, 242, 275-276
measured with EMI, 106, 211, 234
measurement and soil samples, 242
measurement of water content, 24-26
measurement range. 236
measurements, 219, 227
methods, 211-212, 282-283
vs. microbial-scale measurements, 269
misconceptions surrounding, 64-66
mobile measurement equipment, 28-29, 296
mobilization of, 19
observed associations to, 27-28
organic matter, 67
physicochemical nature, 30
productivity zones, 267, 269-270
results and discussion, 212-214, 220-222, 227-230,
243-245, 284-286
sampling-site scale, 267, 268
Schlumberger array, 94
sensor techniques, 217-218
signal velocity and attenuation use, 18
sites. 242
site-specific nutrient management, 270
soil and field properties, 234
vs. soil edaphic properties, 267-268
soil properties. 64-66, 71-74, 77, 106, 220-222, 247
soil salinity, 19-21, 61-62. 72, 234
soil sampling, 219, 227, 235. 282
soil volumetric water content, 234
spatial variability, 18, 30-32
statistics and data analyses, 227
surveys, 69, 72-73, 248-249, 275-276
time domain reflectometry, 26-27
Wenner array, 22, 100
yield and precipitation relationships, 270
Applied signal voltage, 26
Archie's law, 87
ArcView GIS, 227
Areal resistivity mapping, 94
Argillic and spodic horizons, 46
Argillic horizon, 49,51
ARP. See Antenna Reference Point (ARP)
Arrays. 287
Artificial energy, 157
Artificial source methods, 113
AS. See Anti-Spoofing (AS)
Atmosphere, 50
Atmospheric delays. 170-172
Atomic clock, 172
Atrazine sorption, 235, 237
Attenuation
applied signal voltage, 26
effect of permittivity on, 134
electrical conductivity in bulk soil, 18
and rnagnetometry, 151
seismic waves, 157, 161
wave's amplitude, 310
Attenuation constant. 120
Audio magnetotelluric (AMT) method, 113
Automatic Gain Control Function (AGCF), 355, 358
AWG. See American Wire Gauge (AWG)
Azimuthal orientation, 115
Azimuthal rotation data collection, 101
Azimuthal rotation resistivity surveys, 103, 105
B
BA. See Bottom of Antenna Mount (BA)
Backscattered reflection, 141
Basin- and landscape-scale assessments, 19
Beckum test site, 296, 298
Biases and errors of GPS, 170
Binary models, 207
Biot, Jean Baptiste, 110
Body waves, 156
Borehole magnetometry, 148
Borehole methods, 296, 317
Bornim test site, 296,298
Bottom of Antenna Mount (BA), 174
Box plots, 334
Broadcast ephemeris errors, 172-173, 175, 182
Broadcasting corrections, 185-186
Broadview Water District, California, 34, 74, 76, 248
Bulk density, 18, 32, 66, 106, 249
Bulk soil solution, 91
Bulk solid electrical resistivity value, 5
Bulk volume of soil, 10
C/A. See Coarse-acquisition (C/A) code
Calibration curves developed for TDR, 328, 330
Calibration of EMI equipment, 24
California Method, 353-354, 355
Capacitance probes (CPs), 17, 18, 26
Capacitively coupled resistivity, 98-100, 295
Carrier phase, 178, 180,181-182, 185
Cartesian geocentric coordinates, 179, 201
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
correlated with SOM, 230
defined, 384
and ECa, 32, 227, 234
GPR and low, 47
physical and chemical properties of texture, 286
sodium adsorption ratio, 390
soil-applied herbicides, 241
soil EC, map, 286
soil electrical conductivity impact, 7
soil properties, 60
and soil solution, 89-90
soil texture, 300
solid-liquid phase pathway, 67
CGF. See Constant Gain Function (CGF)
Chang Hêng, 4
Choke ring antennas, 172
Clay content
and EC,, 268-269
electrical conductivity, 234,258
and OM influence, 67
soil properties, 60,91, 212
Claypans, 60,64, 234
Cleveland Museum of Natural History, 161
Index
395
Clock estimation procedure, 174
CMP. See Common midpoint (CMP) method
Coachella Valley, 74, 76
Coarse-acquisition (C/A) code, 168,169, 170, 192
Coefficient of variation (CV), 284, 286
Cokriging models, 71
Collection methods, 282-283
Common coordinate systems, 204-206
Common midpoint (CMP) method, 306, 310
Computer-controlled multielectrode systems, 95-96,
100-101
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture (Corwin), 28
Computer software/systems
agricultural geophysics, 14
computer-controlled multielectrode systems, 95-96
data input devices, 199
data processing, 340-343, 348
descriptive statistics and regression, 235-236
EKKO Mapper software, 358
ESAP software package, 30, 71, 212, 248-249
geostatistical software package, 258
GIS software, 200, 204, 207, 249
GPR computer-processing procedures, 361
GPS software, 174
Hydrus-2D package, 327
interpretation, 145
mapping software, 149, 196
mathematical models, 124
MINITAB, 219, 227
modeling software, 321
one-dimensional forward modeling approach, 102
postcollection processing, 377
RES2DINV, 105, 297, 299
SAS software, 249
Sensors Software Inc., 355-356
Sigma Scan Pro Image Analysis software, 377
three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51
Conductive/metallic objects, 109
Conductive/semiconductive materials, 127-128
Conductivity data modeling, 71-72
Conductivity value, 5
Constant Gain Function (CGF), 355, 356, 361
Constant separation traversing resistivity survey, 100,101,
106, 107
Contamination transport and GPR, 346
Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS), 187,
189-190
Continuous measurement systems, 96—100
Contour maps, 121-122, 124,235
Control Segment, 167, 172-173, 174
Conventional equipment, 95
Correlation coefficient (r)
between ECa and soil properties, 72-73,220,221
between ECa and soybean yield, 11
EC, map use, 242
between GPR estimates and root biomass, 50
soil properties, 73, 227-228
spatial EC, patterns, 104
Correlation matrix of soil properties, 76
Corrugated plastic tubing (CPT), 363, 366,368
CORS. See Continuously Operating Reference Stations
(CORS)
Cost-effective technologies, 264
Cover crop, 276, 277-278
CPs. See Capacitance probes (CPs)
CPT. See Corrugated plastic tubing (CPT)
Crop patterns, 33
Crop yield
apparent electrical conductivity, 268-269
defined, 384
directed soil sampling, 249-250
ECa measurements, 248
factors influencing, 247
field-scale measure, 268
mapping and yield heterogeneity, 268
monitoring data, 73
productivity zones, 263-264
response model development, 251-252
SSCM, 64, 73, 247-248, 249-250
SSMUs, 34, 73
studies relating ECa to, 72, 253,264
Cross-validation, 257, 258-259
Current electrodes, 93
Current flow pathways, 30-32, 66,91-93
Curve matching, 126
CV. See Coefficient of variation (CV)
D
D'Agostino-Pearson test, 236
Data analysis, 101-105,219, 309-314
Database management system, 199-200
Data collection and analysis
collection methods, 282-283
common coordinate systems, 204-206
database management system, 199-200
discriminant analysis, 259-260
field measurements, 319-321
field operations, 8-9
finding the optimal offset, 310
geophysical data analysis, 9
geophysical method selection, 7
geostatistical procedures, 257-258
GIS models and modeling, 207-208
GPR measurements, 355, 365
investigation depth/feature resolution issues, 7-
link spatial data, 203
mobile instruments, 296
root mass and GPR data, 378-380
seismic methods, 160-161
site conditions influence correlations, 300—301
soil electrical conductivity, 256-257
spatial and biological scales, 267
spatial databases, 206-207
surface methods with raw data, 299
survey protocol, 339—340
wide-offset surveys, 310-314
Data input devices, 199
Data processing, 121-123, 149-151, 340-343.348
Data types, 205-206
DC. See Direct electric current (DC)
DCBs. See Differential code biases (DCBs)
Delineation, 60,252-254
Delta process, 175
DEM. See Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
396
Index
Dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPI.), 145
Department of Transportation (DOT). 187
DepoMtional sand, 60
Depth-distance cross section. 140
Depth of penetration. 22. 120, 138
Depth sections, 104-105
Depth sensitivity. 301
Depth-weighed effect. 225
Depth-weighted nonlinear response of EMI. 24
Design-based sampling, 30
Deterministic conversion model. 72
DGPS. See Differential GPS (DGPS)
Dielectric constant (e)
discontinuity. 364-365
electromagnetic wave. 130. 323-324
GPR method. 12
material to polari/e. 309
radar reflection coefficient. 370
radar signal velocity. 6
relative. 330
soil volumetric water content. 365
TDR technique. 27
velocity of GPR electromagnetic waves. 324-325
velocity of propagation. 18. 64
WOR GPR. 311-313
Dielectric permittivity, 18. 64
Difference radargrams. 327-328
Differential code biases (DCBs). 174
Differential GPS (DGPS)
defined. 387
EC, measurements. 219. 227
geo-referenced data. 299
GPS positioning modes. 190
mathematical models. 166
message format. 184-187
positioning accuracy. 191-192
precise point positioning, 189
real time tracking. 340
relative positioning. 180-182
relativistic propagation error. 172
services. 182-184
Diffraction scattering. 131
Diffusion potential gradients, 153
Digital Elevation Model (DEM). 206
Dipole-dipole array. 94. 95,98-99. 100. 105
Dipole mode. 24
Direct applications, 45-48
Direct contact method. 63
Direct electric current (DC). 95. 112
Direct or indirect applications. 45
Direct soil sampling. 30
Discriminant analysis/geostatistical procedures, 257-258.
259-260
DISCRIM procedure. 257
Dispersion. 157
Dissolved ion mobility. 87. 88. 89
Distance, 8
Distance-dependent biases, 187-188
Division of Geoprobe® Systems. 256
DNAPL. See Dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL)
DOD. See U.S. Department of Defense (DOD)
Doppler. 169. 178
DOT. See Department of Transportation (DOT)
Drainage classes. 236, 256, 257, 258
Drainage pipe detection, 364
Drainage tiles, 346-347. 349. 350
Drainage water management, 106
Dryland system research. 264
Dualem. Inc. 19
DUALE.M-2. 19.24,274
Dye experiment, 330
Dynamic factors, 32. 68
Earth
borehole magnetometry, 148
electric potential gradients, 6
geographic coordinate system. 204
geophysics studies. 3
GPS receiver clock, 172
GPS satellites, 166-167
gravitational field, 4
magnetic field, 6, 147-148, 149
natural EM field, 113
operational constellation, 167-168
seismic waves. 155-156, 157
surface can be modeled. 124-125
Zeeman-effect, 148
Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed (ECEF), 168
Earthquakes. 4, 155, 161
Earth Resistivity Meter (ERM), 299-300
ECa. See Apparent electrical conductivity (ECU)
EC. See Electrical conductivity (resistivity) (ECe)
ECEF. See Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed (ECEF)
Edaphic/anthropogenic, 34. 35
Edaphic mapping, 28, 33
Eddy currents, 109
EKKO Mapper software, 358
Elastic (seismic) waves. 6, 161
Electrical conductance, 20, 32,61
Electrical conductivity (EC). See also Ohm"s Law; Soil
electrical conductivity
agricultural uses, 273
amplitude decay signals, 115
bulk density, 249
clay content, 234
data analysis products, 103
depth of penetration, 120
depth sections. 104-105
depth-weighed effect, 225
drainage classes, 258
electrical current. 86
field-scale, 255
log-transformed. 219
measurements, 235
and molar concentrations of ions, 61
pure solution, 60
saturation percentage, 249
soil pathways, 222, 230
soil salinity measurement, 20
soil volumetric water content, 368
standard soil physicochemical measurement, 59
Electrical conductivity (resistivity) (ECe), 5-6, 7, 10, 18
Electrical current (/')
Index
397
depth of penetration, 22
electrical conductivity, 86
electrical resistivity, 21, 62
EM methods, 110
four-electrode contact methods, 60
polarization, 133
resistivity method, 5, 85
thermal noise, 173
Electrical resistivity (ER)
agricultural research techniques, 17
apparent electrical conductivity, 21-23, 69
electrical current, 62
vs. EMI, 63
and geospatial measurement of EC, 59
Electric current (/)
antennas, 136
capacitively coupled systems, 98, 99
defined, 86, 385
dissolved ions and, 87, 89
electrode array, 100
electrokinetic, 153
field resistivity surveys, 95
four-electrode array, 93
hemispherical shell, 92
and magnetic field, 110—111
noise, 94
parallel resistors, 91
resistivity, 96
sandy/silty soil capacity, 88
self-potential methods, 6
soil material transfers, 86
transmitted electrolytically through soil, 90
Veris 3100 Soil EC Mapping System, 97
Electric dipole, 117
Electric potential, 92-93, 95, 152. 153, 160, 385
Electric potential gradients, 6
Electrochemical, 153
Electrode arrays, 93-95, 100-101
Electrode configuration, 296
Electrodes at soil surface, 22
Electrokinetic, 153, 155
Electrolytic conductivity, 61
Electromagnetic (EM) methods
arrays used, 287
basic principles, 110-113
data preparation and processing, 121-123
depth of penetration, 120
ECa measurements, 242
vs. EMI, 23
field procedures, 118-119
forward modeling, 124—126
geophysical technique, 45
geophysical techniques, 113-118
and GPR comparison, 47
GPR surface reflectivity, 317
incorporates HCP and PRP arrays, 292-294
interference effects, 120-121
interpretation, 123-124
inverse modeling, 126-127
locate conductive/semiconductive materials, 127-128
locating conductive/metallic objects, 109
measurements profile, 122-123
mode of sensor transport, 119
properties/hydrological parameters, 305-306
rely on EM source, 17-18
station spacing, 119-120
theory and laws, 112-113
velocity, 309. 311-312, 314
visual interpretation, 124
Electromagnetic energy travel, 130
Electromagnetic field (primary field), 5-6, 109. 113
Electromagnetic induction (EMI)
active methods, 5
agricultural applications, 19
agricultural research techniques, 17
agronomic effectiveness/environmental consequences,
273-274
apparent conductivity by EMI, 287-288
apparent electrical conductivity, 23-24, 106. 217. 225.
234
bulk soil volumetric water content. 12
conductivity meter, 29
defined, 385
electrical resistivity, 63
EM methods, 23
employs lower-frequency signals, 18
galvanic contact resistivity, 301
geoelectric instruments, 295
geophysical methods, 3, 4, 5, 13
and geospatial measurement of EC, 59
golf-course green model, 289-290
incorporates HCP and PRP arrays. 292-294
mapping, 287
measurement of soil ECa, 62.63
mobile measurement equipment, 28-29
mobilization of. 21
noncontact measure soil EC. 60
resolution of measurement, 288-289
sensors, 273
soil-plant systems. 35
soil salinity, 10, 23
survey examples, 290-292
surveys for ECa, 69
technique for mapping ECa, 287
vs. GCR methods, 301
Electromagnetic radio energy (radar) pulse, 6, 354-355.
364, 366
Electromagnetic wave
dielectric constant, 130, 323-324
free electrons, 170
GPR amd TDR principles, 26
permittivity, 130-131
polarization, 133
propagation velocity of GPR, 324
reflection times, 328
scattering electromagnetic energy. 130
TDR technique, 27
tomographic procedures. 323
transmit antenna, 135-136
and travel time, 134
ELF. See Extremely low frequency (ELF)
Ellipsoid of revolution, 115
EM. See Electromagnetic (EM) methods
EM-ECS device, 218-219, 227
EM-EC, technique, 217-218, 222, 225-226, 230
EM energy (flux). 113
398
Index
EM field (secondary field)
amplitude and orientation, 115
current Row direction, 109
transmitting and receiving. 116-118
vector. 113, 114
EMI. See Electromagnetic induction (EMI)
Energy
input pulse, 136
signal trace, 355. 364
time-varying EM energy, 112
trace, 139
transmitted into soil, 325
Engineering applications, 189
Environmental and hydrological disciplines, 107
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., 257
Eôtvos, Roland von. 4
Ephemeris data, 168. 169. 184
Epsilon process. 175
Equipment
calibration of EMI equipment, 24
EM-EC, device, 218-219, 227
EMI measurement instruments, 274
EM methods, 113-118
fixed-array electrical resistivity. 248
fluxgate and optically pumped magnetometers, 148
gas chromatograph w/mass spectrophotometer, 242
geophysical instruments, 47, 123-124
GPS instrumentation. 192-194
gradiometers. 6, 148
kinematic soil mapping, 295, 296-299
magnetometer, 6
passive remote sensing device, 148
seismic, 160-161
seismoscope, 4
self-potential methods, 153-154
setup, 7-8, 96-100. 153
soil conductivity, 274-275
surveying instruments, 207
thermocouple temperature probes, 274
vehicle-mounted GPR, 318
ER. See Electrical resistivity (ER)
ERDAS, 267
ERM. See Earth Resistivity Meter (ERM)
Error sources. 166, 170, 183, 189, 269
ESAP software package, 30, 71. 212, 248-249
ESP. See Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
ESRI ArcGIS 9.0,283
ESRI ArcMap 9, 343
ESRI ArcView3.3, 249
Evapotranspiration-associated losses, 87
Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), 33
Experimental setup. 325-326
Experiments. 4
Exploratory statistical analyses, 250-251
Extremely low frequency (ELF), 113
Farm equipment technology, 10-11
Farm management, 270-271
Farm-Scale Intensive Cropping Study (FICS), 264-265,
267, 269-270
FDTD. See Finite difference time domain (FDTD)
Feature resolution (detection), 8
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 183, 184
FICS. See Farm-Scale Intensive Cropping Study (FICS)
Field- and landscape-scale issues, 34-35
Field and landscape scales, 59
Field-applied pesticides, 233
Field data collection modes, 100-101
Field measurements
apparent electrical conductivity, 64, 68, 278-279
data collection and analysis, 319-321
geospatial measurements of ECa, 64
ground-penetrating radar methods, 319-321
Field operations, 8-9, 274
Field principles, 149
Field procedures
EM methods, 118-119
geophysical surveys, 137-138
GPR methods, 137-138
self-potential methods, 154-155
Field resistivity surveys, 95
Field-scale
agronomic research, 263-264
crop yield, 268
ECa-directed soil sampling, 69—71
electrical conductivity, 255
soil salinity, 19, 27
volumetric water estimate, 48
yield data integrated by ECa, 269
Field sensor measurements, 119
Field zones, 11-12
Filtering and amplification, 139
Final orbits, 173
Finite difference time domain (FDTD), 321
Finite impulse response filter (FIR) method, 377
FIR. See Finite impulse response filter (FIR) method
Fisher's least significant difference (LSD), 227
Fixed-array electrical resistivity, 248
Fixed-mode antenna arrangement, 137
Fixed offset (FO) method, 325
Florida Cooperative Soil Survey Program, 45,46
Flux-density, 111
Fluxgate magnetometers, 148, 149
FO. See Fixed offset (FO) method
Forward modeling, 124-126
Four-electrode array, 85, 93, 101
Four-electrode contact methods, 60
Fourier Transform, 115
Fox, Robert, 4
Free electrons, 170
Frequency, 161, 313
Frequency domain system, 113, 116
Fresnel, Augustin Jean, 131
FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Fan-pattern seismic refraction surveys, 4
Faraday, Michael, 110,111
Faraday's law, 112
G. See Geometric factor (G)
Galileo, 186, 194
Index
399
Galvanic contact resistivity (GCR), 96-98, 295, 301
Galvanic contact systems, 99, 104
Gamma ray attenuation, 17, 24-25
Garmin WAAS products, 195-196
Gas chromatograph w/mass spectrophotometer, 242
GCR. See Galvanic contact resistivity (GCR)
GE HealthCare, 341
Generalized universal kriging models, 71
Geo-aligned data layers, 267
Geocarta SA, 98, 299
Geodetic surveys, 206
Geoelectric instruments, 295, 296-299, 299-301
Geographic coordinate system, 204
Geographic data, 201
Geographic information system (GIS)
common coordinate systems, 204—206
components of, 199-200
computer software/systems, 200, 204, 207, 249
denned,386
farm equipment technology, 10-11
geo-aligned data layers, 267
geophysical data analysis, 9
and GPS, 166
introduction, 199
mapping concepts, 200-203
models and modeling, 207-208
nongeophysical spatial data, 207
sampling strategies, 35
spatial analysis, 249
spatial databases, 206-207
three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51
GeoLog, 296
Geometric factor (G), 93
Geometries, Inc., 99
Geometry, 174-175
Geonics EM38, 19, 24, 217, 218,222
Geonics Limited, Inc., 19, 120, 212, 235, 274, 296-298,
300
Geophones, 7, 160, 386
Geophysical data, 9,13-14, 126-127
Geophysical measurement, 8,9, 118-119, 124-126, 207
Geophysical methods
and agriculture, 5, 199
data collection and analysis, 7
electromagnetic induction, 3,4, 5, 13
and GPS, 195
gravity, 3
ground-penetrating radar, 3,4,5, 13
induced polarization, 3,13
magnetometry, 3,5
nuclear magnetic resonance, 3,13
passive vs. active, 5
potential agricultural uses, 9-13
radioactivity, 3
resistivity, 3,4, 5, 13
seismic, 3,4, 5
self-potential, 3,4, 5
Geophysical surveys
depth of penetration, 120, 138
field procedures, 137-138
hydrological investigation, 5
interference effects, 120-121
and investigation depth of interest. 4-5
multisensor systems, 13
near-surface seismic reflection, 151
planning stages, 7
precision agriculture role, 11
station interval, 8
station spacing, 119-120
Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc., 343, 347, 348, 376
Geophysical techniques
agricultural research techniques, 24
compilation of literature measuring ECa, 65
current status of, 28
EM method and equipment, 45, 113-118
future trends and needs, 34-36
geospatial measurement of EC, 59
GPR subsurface/near-surface use, 345-346
GPS mapping projects, 194, 195
hyperspectral imagery, 35
karst environments, 49
measurement of soil ECa, 62
resistivity method, 85
types of, 45
used in agricultural research, 17-18
Geophysics, 3,4, 17, 386
Geo-referenced data, 35, 299
Geoscan's Geoplot, 149
Geosoft's Oasis Montaj, 149
Geospatial applications, 195
Geospatial ECa measurements, 28
Geospatially interpolated, 343
Geospatial measurements of EC,
characterize within-field variability, 247
field measurements, 64
geophysical techniques, 59
geo-referenced yield data, 35
identify edaphic/anthropogenic properties, 34
impact of, 18
positive benefit, 32, 33
Geostatistical analysis, 13-14, 257-258
Geostatistical models, 71
Geostatistical software package, 258
Geotomo software, 299
Gf Instruments, 298
GGN. See Global GPS Network (GGN)
Gilbert's discovery, 17
GIS. See Geographic information system (GIS)
Global Differential GPS (IGDG). 183
Global GPS Network (GGN), 183
Global Positioning System (GPS)
accuracy of, 191-192
agricultural geophysics, 166
antenna phase center location, 174
defined, 386
DGPS, 182-187
EC,-directed soil sampling, 28-29
ECa measured using EMI and, 211
Error Sources and Approximated Magnitudes, 173
farm equipment technology, 10-11
galvanic contact resistivity, 97
geographic information system, 166
geophysical methods, 195
geo-referenced measurements, 299
guidance devices, 13
how GPS works, 166-167
400
Index
instrumentation, 192-194
integration with geophysical equipment, 9
intentional degradation of satellite signal. 175-176
interference and jamming. 175
introduction. 166
ionosphere and troposphere delays. 170-172
main components of. 167-168
mapping projects, 194-196
mode of sensor transport. 119
moderni/ation/other satellite systems, 194
multiputh. 172
network-based RTK GPS. 187-189
nongeophysical spatial data. 207
obtain positional data, 274
orbital errors, 172-173
point (absolute) positioning, 180
point vs. relative positioning. 180-182
positioning modes. 190
positioning with GPS. 179-180
precise point positioning. 189-190
processing strategies. 191
pseudorange/carrier phase observables. I76-179
real time vs. postprocessing. 190-191
receiver noise and biases. 173-174
receivers. 195-196
reference station error. 174
relative positioning. 180-182
relativistic propagation error. 172
sample-site scale analyses. 267
satellite and receiver clock errors. 172
satellites. 169
satellites and their geometry. 174-175
satellites location. 182
satellites signal data. 184
signal characteristics. 168-170
soil electrical conductivity. 166
spatial variation of yield. 248
spherical-projected GOS, 341
three-dimensional mapping of soil, 346
and underground drainage tile, 51
and Veris unit. 62-63, 282
Global Satellite Based Augmentation System (GSBAS),
182.183
GLONASS. 186. 194
Golden Software, Inc., 151, 235
Golden Software's Surfer. 149, 151
Golf course green
construction methods, 353-354
drainage system. 347, 349-350, 351
management, 345-346. 353-354
model. 289-290
studies. 50-51. 361
Golzow test site, 296.298
GPR. See Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) methods
GPS. See Global Positioning System (GPS)
GP sentences. 186-187
Gradiometers, 6. 148
Granular fertilizer. 347-348
Gravimetric basis. 32
Gravimetric water content. 66
Gravitational field, 4
Gravity, 3
Griddeddata, 122
Grid locations. 234-235. 236, 257, 347
Ground-coupled antenna, 337, 376
Ground-level measurements, 292-294
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) methods
active methods, 5
and agricultural applications, 47
agricultural drainage pipe, 373
agricultural research techniques, 17
agriculture products and management. 51
amplitude map, 370
antenna center frequency, 366
antenna frequency, 138-139
antennas. 135-137
antenna selection, 347
applications to study plants, 50
attenuation by soils with clay content, 151
cation exchange capacity, 47
compared to TDR, 26
computer-processing procedures, 361
data and analysis, 309-314
data processing, 340-343, 348
depth of penetration, 138
dielectric constant, 12
direct applications, 45-48
direct or indirect applications, 45
display processing, 142
drainage pipe mapping, surveys, 370
dye experiment, 330
electrical properties of soils, 18
electromagnetic radio energy (radar) pulse, 6, 354-355,
364
EM properties/hydrological parameters, 305-306
estimates and root biomass, 50
experimental setup, 325-326
field measurements, 319-321
field procedures, 137-138
filtering and amplification, 139
geophysical methods, 3, 4, 5, 13
golf course green issues, 356
golf course management, 345-346, 353-354
golf course studies. 50-51, 361
golf greens and. 350-351
golf greens selection, 346-347
GPR recording, 132-133
GPR surveys. 306-309
GPR technique, 324-325
indirect applications, 48-50
interpretation, 145
large physical sand tank, 326
lysimeter stand, 326
materials and methods, 354-356, 364-366, 376-378
maximum reflection amplitude, 330-332
measurements, 347-348, 355, 365
methodology, 318-319
near-surface water pathways, 337-338, 343
normalized maximum amplitude analysis (NMRA), 325
polarization. 133-134
propagation and scattering, 130-132
publications and work, 46
radargrams, migration of, 325
recording. 132-133
results and discussion, 343. 348-350, 356-361,
366-372, 378-381
Index
401
sample volume, 319
saturated soil radargram characteristics, 338-339
scattering from surface roughness, 321
signal saturation correction filter, 365
site preparation prior to measurement, 347
soil mapping, 46
soil—plant systems, 35
soil surveying using, 45
soil volumetric water content, 12-13,48, 305
soil water content, 323-324
soil water content changes, seasonal, 328-330
soil water content measurement, 317-318, 333-334
soil water content profiles, 327, 332-333
static corrections, 139
station and trace spacing, 138
subsurface drainage systems, 363-364
subsurface/near-surface use, 345-346
surface reflectivity method, 317, 322
survey protocol, 339-340
surveys, 306-309
system overview, 134-135
technology advances in, 26
temporal/spatial changes, 314
three-dimensional displays, 143-144
three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51-53
time-dependent geophysical technique, 129
time domain reflectometry, 26, 324-325, 365
time-slice amplitude maps, 9,11
transmitter and receiver, 134-135
tree roots, 375-376, 381
two-dimensional displays, 142
uses of, 7
velocity, 134
velocity analysis and two-dimensional filtering,
139-142
water front propagation, 327-328
Ground surface trends, 5
Groundwater detection and GPR, 48
GSBAS. See Global Satellite Based Augmentation System
(GSBAS)
Guidance devices, 13
H
Haake Buchler Instruments, 234
Hazen's empirical formula, 327
HCP. See Horizontal coplanar (HCP)
HCP and PRP arrays, 288-289, 292-294
Hemispherical shell, 92
Herbicides, 237-238, 241-242
Herbicides/field correlations, 243-245
Herbicide-soil binding, 242-243
Herbicide-soil binding variability, 244
Herbicide—soil sorption coefficient, 242
High-frequency antenna, 138, 376
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 235
Hilbert transformation, 377, 378
Horizontal (EMh) dipole, 24, 29
Horizontal coplanar (HCP), 287-292
Horizontal EC, maps, 103-104
Horizontal spatial patterns, 104, 155
HPLC. See High-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC)
Humus, 89
Hydrological investigation, 5
Hydrologie conditions, 368-370
Hydrology, 3
Hydrus-2D package, 327
Hyperspectral imagery, 35
I
ICD-GPS-200, 174
IERS. See International Earth Rotation Service (IERS)
IGDG. See Global Differential GPS (IGDG)
IGS. See International GPS Service (IGS)
Imaging near-surface features, 345-346
Impedance mismatch, 136-137
Incident wave, 132
Index models, 207
Indirect applications. 48-50
Induced current, 111-112
Induced polarization, 3, 13
In-phase component, 115
Input pulse, 136
Insightful Corp., 243
In situ measurement, 20, 25, 60,296
Instrumental biases, 174
Integrated Mapping Systems Inc. 196
Intelligent vehicle highway system (IVHS). 183
Interelectrode spacing (m), 22
Interference
biases and errors of GPS, 170
distance-dependent biases, 187-188
effects. 120-121
granular fertilizer, 347-348
and jamming, 175
multipath, 172
self-potential, 152-153
thermal noise, 173
International Earth Rotation Service (IERS), 174
International GPS Service (IGS), 173, 187, 189-190
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), 174
Interpretation, 123-124, 145
Inverse computer modeling approach, 102-103
Inverse modeling, 126-127
Investigation depth, 4-5,7-8
Ion mobility influence, 88
Ionosphere and troposphere delays, 170-172
Irrigation and drainage, 48, 345, 346
ITRF. See International Terrestrial Reference Frame
(ITRF)
IVHS. See Intelligent vehicle highway system (IVHS)
J
Jamming, 175
Karst, microanalyses of, 47
Karst environments, 49
402
Index
Kassow test site. 296, 298
Kendall's Tau Correlations, 297, 299
Kinematic soil mapping, 295, 296-299
Kirchoff migration, 377. 378
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, 236
L. See Length (L)
LA AS. See Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)
LADG. See Local Area DGPS (LADGPS)
Lambert conformai conic, 205
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), 206
Landscape-scale agricultural applications, 32
Law of Reflection, 131
Leaching fraction (LF), 34
Least significant difference (LSD), 227
Least-squares inversion, 126-127
Length (L), 86
Lenz, Heinrich Friedrich Emil, 110
Lenz's law, 113
LF. See Leaching fraction (LF)
Light detection and ranging (LiDAR), 183
Lime, 214
LIN. See Low-frequency antenna
Line-of-sight (LOS) system, 168, 175
Lines of force. 111
Link spatial data, 203
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS), 183-184
Local Area DGPS (LADGPS), 183
Local-scale variability, 21
Location-based services (LBS), 166
Locations. 182, 218. 226
Log-log scatterplot, 299
Log-transformed, 219
Loop-loop systems, 118
LOS. See Line-of-sight (LOS) system
Love waves, 156, 160,388
Low-frequency antenna, 138-139, 376
Low induction number (LIN), 288
LSD. See Least significant difference (LSD)
Lysimeters. 107, 325, 328
Lysimeter stand, 326
M
Magellan WAAS receivers, 195
Magnetic compass, 4
Magnetic dipole soil conductivity meters, 274
Magnetic field, 6, 110-111, 147-148, 149-151, 153
Magnetic induction, 111
Magnetic loop, 117
Magnetometers, 4, 148-149
Magnetometry, 3, 5, 149-151
Magnetometry methods, 6
agricultural applications, 151-152
data processing and analysis. 149-151
defined, 388
field principles, 149
introduction, 147-148
locate subsurface drain lines, 9
magnetic susceptibility, 7
types of magnetometers, 148-149
MALA Geoscience, 325
Management-induced spatiotemporal monitoring, 32, 34,
60,77
Management practices, 263, 270-271
Management System Evaluation Area (MSEA), 203, 205
Manure/compost application comparison, 274
Mapping. See also Soil mapping
agricultural geophysics, 200
apparent electrical conductivity, 265-267
ArcView GIS, 227
bulk density, 106
cost-effective technologies, 264
data preparation and processing, 121-123
dipole-dipole array, 95
EM-EC, technique, 222
and EMI, 287
farm field map, 11-12
GIS, 200-203
GIS concepts, 200-203
golf green drainage system, 347, 349-350, 351
GPR amplitude map, 370
ground-level measurements, 292-294
HCP and PRP arrays, 288-289
herbicides, 241-242
inherent soil properties, 214
log-log scatterplot, 299
measurement and soil samples, 242
pesticide partition coefficients, 233-234
potential of herbicide applications, 237—238
productivity zones, 264
projects, 194-196
SAREC, 283
software, 149, 196
soil and yield baseline, 281
soil conductivity, 273
soil drainage classes, 255, 260
soil properties, 33, 226
soil texture, 59
soil volumetric water content, 346
subsurface features, 354
time-slice amplitude maps, 355, 358-361, 365, 371-372
utility of EC,, 71
yield and EC,, 284-286
and yield heterogeneity, 268
Map projection, 204
Map Unit Interpretations Record (MUIR), 206-207
Master control station and errors, 182
Mathematical models, 124, 166
MathWorks, Inc., 343
Maximum reflection amplitude, 330-332
Maxwell, James Clerk, 110, 111
Maxweliian physics, 125-126
Maxwell's equation, 130
Measurement
apparent electrical conductivity, 219, 227
electrical conductivity, 235
GPR method, 347-348
principles, 295
range, 236
resistive load impedance, 27
of soil EC,, 62,63-64
Index
403
soil electrical conductivity, 21
soil salinity, 19-21
soil volumetric water content, 18, 24-26
of water content, 24-26
Wenner array, 62
Measurement error, 295
Metal detectors, 121
Meteorology, 3
Methodology, 318-319
Microbial-scale measures, 267, 269
Microelectronics advances, 26
Microsoft Corp., 341
Mineral, 153
MINITAB, 219, 227
MLR. See Multiple linear regression (MLR)
Mobile measurement equipment, 28-29, 296
Mobilization, 19, 21
Model-based sampling, 30, 69
Modeling software, 321
Mode of sensor transport, 119
Modernization/other satellite systems, 194
Moisture measurement, 60
Molar concentrations of ions, 61
Mollisols and soils with mollic epipedons, 47
Monitoring stations, 167
Morainic soils, 218, 226
Moving-mode arrangement, 137
MSEA. See Management System Evaluation Area (MSEA)
MT. See Telluric, magnetelluric (MT) method
Multielectrode array, 296
Multipath (GPS), 172
Multiple linear regression (MLR), 250, 251
Multisensor systems, 13
N
NASA JPL, 183
National Geodetic Survey (NGS), 174, 187, 205
National Geospatial-lntelligence Agency (NGA), 167, 179
National Golf Foundation, 353
National Golf Foundation and McKinsey Company, 353
National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA),
186-187
National Research Council, 11
Natural EM field, 113
Natural potential, consistent and unidirectional. 153
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), 46, 206
NAVCEN, 184
Near-surface seismic reflection, 17, 151
Near-surface water pathways, 337-338, 343
Nernst potential gradients, 153
Network-based RTK GPS, 187-189
Neutron thermalization, 17, 25-26
Newtonian physics, 125-126
Newton's theory of gravitation, 17
NGS. See National Geodetic Survey (NGS)
Nitrogen loss, 48
NMEA. See National Marine Electronics Association
(NMEA)
NMR. See Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
No-cover, all treatments, 278
Noise, 94. See also Interference
Noncontact measure soil EC, 60
Nongeophysical spatial data, 207
Nonpolarizing electrode, 95
Nonspatial attribute data, 202
Normalized maximum reflection amplitude analysis
(NRMA), 325, 331,332
North Magnetic Pole, 147
NRCS. See Natural Resources Conservation Service
(NRCS)
NRMA. See Normalized maximum reflection amplitude
analysis (NRMA)
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 3, 13, 17
Numerical modeling, 318, 319, 321
Nyquist sampling frequency, 120, 138
o
Ohm (to), 21
OhmMapperTRl, 99-100, 104, 105
Ohm-meters (C2m), 86
Ohm's Law, 21. 86. 92
OLS. See Ordinary least squares regression (OLS)
OM. See Organic matter (OM)
OmniSTAR™, 183
One-dimensional forward modeling approach, 102
On the Examination of Iron Ore Deposits by Magnetic
Methods (Thalén), 4
Open-top chambers (OTC), 380
Operating domain, 115
Operational constellation, 167-168
Optically pumped gradiometer, 151
Optically pumped magnetometers, 148, 149
Optimal offset, 310
Optimized Van-Genuchten parameter values, 332
Orbital errors, 172-173
Ordinary least squares regression (OLS), 249, 251
Oregon State University Research Dairy. 151, 152
Organic and commercial amendments, 276
Organic matter (OM)
correlated with soil texture. 300
of cover crop, 276
determined using standard procedures. 282
GPR to map soils, 46
high water content and, 230
mapping edaphic properties, 28
measurement factors of ECa, 33, 67
mineralization in soil, 273
morainic soils, 218
non-target reflectors, 381
peatlands as fuel, 47
physical and chemical properties of texture, 286
soil amendment, 34
soil-applied herbicides, 241
soil EC, map, 286
soil properties, 18
soil properties affecting EC,, 64, 247, 284
soil resistivity, 89
SP and pb are influenced by, 32, 67
Organic soil materials, 46
OTC. See Open-top chambers (OTC)
Out-of-phase component, 115
404
Index
Paleo-sinkhole. 49
Parallel resistors. 91
Parallel swather, 63
Partition coefficients. 233
Passive methods. 5
Passive microwaves (PM). 17. 18
Passive remote sensing device. 148
Pathways ot radio frequency signals. 18
PDOP. See Position dilution of precision (PDOP)
Pearson's r correlation coefficient, 299
Peatiands as fuel, 47
Permittivity. 27. 130-131. 134. 137, 145
Perpendicular (PRP). 287-292
Pesticide partition coefficients, 233-234
Phase-range, 179
Phase shift. 113-114
Phases of soil. 86-87
Physical oceanography. 3
Physical quality measurement techniques. 3
Physicochemical nature. 30
Plane coordinate system. 204
Plant(s)
corn (Zea mays L.). 50. 265, 274
Escherkhia cnli. 151
fresno cotton (Gossypium hirsuturn L.) field, 74-76
fungi (Armillaria sp.), 379
grain sorghum {Sorghum bicolnr L. Moench). 286
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). 50. 376
oak (Quercus sp.). 376
oak trees (Quercus petraea (Mattusch.) Liebl), 50
peach orchards (Primus persica). 379
proso millet (Panicutn militweum L.), 265
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), 211. 286
soybean (Glycine max L). 211
study using GPR. 50
vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal ( VAM) fungi. 267
winter wheat (Secale céréale L.). 274
winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), 74. 211, 264
Plot-scale blocking. 269-270. 271
Plot-scale experiments. 263
PM. See Passive microwaves (PM)
Point (absolute) positioning, 180
Point vs. relative positioning. 180-182
Polarization. 133-134. 137. 309
Polarization ellipsoid. 114
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 151
Porous-matrix salinity sensors. 20
Positional data, 274
Position dilution of precision (PDOP), 175,176, 191
Positioning accuracy. 166, 170, 191-192, 205-206
Positioning with GPS, 179-180
Position vectors. 179
Postcollection processing. 377
Potential electrodes. 93
Potential energy. 86
PPP. See Precise point positioning (PPP)
PPS. See Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
Precise point positioning (PPP). 189-190, 191
Precise Positioning Service (PPS). 170. 189-190
Precision agriculture. 11, 247, 286
Preferential-flow pathways, 337. 339. 343
Principles of induction, 111-112
PRN. See Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN) code
Probe impedance (12). 27
Process models, 207-208
Productivity zones
apparent electrical conductivity. 269-270
crop yield, 263-264, 268-269
management practices. 270-271
mapping, 267
materials and methods, 264-267
microbial-scale measurements, 269
soil edaphic properties. 267-268
soil spatial variability, 32
SSCM, 34. 35
SSMUs. 268
Propagating wave. 130
Propagation and scattering, 130-132
Propagation velocity of GPR, 324
Proton precession magnetometers, 148
PRP. See Perpendicular (PRP)
PRP and HCP arrays, 288-289, 292-294
Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN) code, 168, 174, 176-177
Pseudorange
broadcasting corrections, 185-186
carrier modulation, 168-169
and carrier phase observables, 176-179
data processing, 187
defined, 387
GPS receiver performance, 173
GPS receiver task, 193
Local Area Augmentation Systems. 183
master control station and errors, 182
multipath. 172
point positioning procedure, 174
positioning accuracy, 191-192
positioning with GPS, 179-180
precise point positioning. 189
signal speed. 170
true observations and underlying parameters, 181-182
Pseudo-section. 140
Pure solution (aw), 60
PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
P-waves. 156, 157-160
Quadrature component, 115
R. See Resistance (R)
Radar amplitudes, 9
Radar energy, 9
Radar events used, 309
Radargram. 325. 337-339, 377-378, 379
Radar reflection coefficient, 370
Radar scatterometry, 17
Radar signal velocity, 6
Radioactivity, 3. 25-26
Radio-frequency (RF), 173, 193
Radio frequency signals, 18, 168, 174
Radio signals, 168
Index
405
Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services
(RTCM), 184-186
Raster data format, 202
Rayleigh waves, 156, 160
RDOP. See Relative DOP (RDOP)
Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS, 13, 35, 166. 186
Real time tracking, 340
Real-time users, 194
Real time vs. postprocessing GPS, 190-191
Receiver clock, 172, 180, 189
Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX), 184,
186
Receiver noise and biases, 173-174
"Recommended Standards for Differential Navstar GPS
Service" (RTCM), 184
Reference station error, 174
Reflection hyperbola, 366-367, 370-371, 372
Reflection times, 328
Regression models, 69, 207
Relational database model, 206
Relative DOP (RDOP), 175
Relative permittivity (er), 12, 134
Relative positioning, 180-182
Relative values. 236
Relativistic propagation error, 172
Remotely sensed imagery, 35,48
RES2DINV, 105, 297, 299
Research conducted/investigations, 12, 59
Residual mean square (RSS), 212
Resistance (R), 21
Resistive load impedance, 27
Resistivity data collection, 100-101
Resistivity methods
agriculture applications, 106-107
capacitively coupled resistivity. 98-100
computer-controlled multielectrode systems, 95-96
conventional equipment, 95
current flow and potential, 91-93
data analysis products, 101-105
electrical current, 5, 85
electric current, 96
electrode arrays, 93-95
field data collection modes, 100-101
galvanic contact resistivity, 96-98
geophysical methods, 3, 4, 5, 13
geophysical techniques, 85
Ohm's Law, 86
soil gravimetric water content, 12
and soil materials, 86-91
soil properties, 21
soil salinity assessment, 10
uses of, 85
Resistivity surveys, 96,153-154
Resolution of measurement, 288-289
Resonant scattering, 131-132
Response-surface approach, 30, 69-70
RF. See Radio-frequency (RF)
Richards equation, 327
Ricker wavelet, 321
RINEX. See Receiver Independent Exchange Format
(RINEX)
RMS. See Root mean square (RMS)
Rock stratigraphy. 48
Root mass, 376, 378-380
Root mean square (RMS), 173
Root zone. 23, 24, 106
RSS. See Residual mean square (RSS)
RTCM. See Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
Services (RTCM)
RTK. See Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS
SA. See Selective Availability (SA)
Saline-sodic soil, 33
Salinity mapping and assessment, 59. 106
Salinity measurements, 74
Sample-site scale analyses, 267
Sample volume, 319
Sampling-site scale analyses, 267
Sampling-site scale properties, 268, 269
Sandy/silty soil, 88, 89
San Joaquin Valley. California, 32
SAR. See Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
SAREC. See Sustainable Agriculture Research and
Extension Center (SAREC)
Satellite and receiver clock errors, 172
Satellite imagery, 207
Satellite magnetometry, 148
Satellites and their geometry, 174-175
Satellite signal, intentional degradation of, 175-176
Satellite systems, modernization/other. 194
Saturated soil radargram characteristics. 338-339
Saturation percentage (SP). 32, 66, 67, 74, 249
SBSF. See Spatial Background Subtraction Filter (SBSF)
Scaling problems and defects, 149-151
Scan display, 142.143
Scattering, 131
Scattering electromagnetic energy principle, 130
Scattering from surface roughness, 321
Scattering reflections, 145
Scatter plots, 251,252
Schlumberger, Conrad, 21. 85
Schlumberger, Marcel. 85
Schlumberger array, 94, 100, 102
Schlumberger Limited, 85
Schlumberger Wireline and Testing. 90
Scrub ecosystem, 380-381
SDSS design, 33
Seismic methods, 6—7
active methods, 5
data collection. 160-161
defined, 390
geophysical methods, 3,4, 5. 195
introduction, 155-156
migration of radargrams, 325
wave propagation, 157-160
wave types, 156-157
Seismic reflection method, 130
Seismic refraction. 160
Seismic trace analyses, 324
Seismic waves
frequency, 161
propagation, aspects of, 157-160
406
Index
seismic methods. 6-7. 155-156
types. 156-157
Seismology, 3
Seismoscope, 4
Selective Availability (SA). I75-176
Sell-potential methods. 6
agricultural applications. 155
agricultural geophysics. 195
consistent and unidirectional natural potential. 153
defined. 390
equipment. 153-154
field procedures. 154-155
geophysical methods. 3. 4, 5, 13. 14
introduction. 152-153
Passive methods. 5
Sensitivity analysis simulations. 74
Sensors. 20-21
Sensors Software Inc. 320. 355-356. 365
Sensor techniques, 217-218
Sensor transport mode, 119
Shaded-relief map, 151. 152
Shaly (clayey) sand value. 90
Shielding, 137
SH-waves. 156, 158-160
Sigma Scan Pro Image Analysis software (Systat). 377
Signal characteristics, 168-170
Signal data. 184
Signal Saturation Correction Filter (SSCF)
compute processing procedure. 355. 361
GPR profiles. 356. 365
time-slice amplitude map. 358. 359
Signal trace
AGCF equalizing amplitudes. 358
measurement points. 365
radar wave amplitude. 6, 355. 364
spatial background substraction. 355-356
time-slice amplitude maps. 359
Signal Trace Enveloping (STE), 355, 358, 361
Signal velocity and attenuation, 18
Signal voltage. 26
Simple statistical correlation. 72. 73
Sinkholes. 48
Sites
apparent electrical conductivity. 242
data collection and analysis, 300-301
geoelectric instruments, 296
GPR methods. 347
soil conductivity. 274
Site-specific crop management (SSCM)
correlation between crop yield and EC,, 249-250
crop yield, 64, 73. 247-248
crop yield response model development, 251-252
delineated SSMUs, 252-254
delineation of, 60
EC, survey data, 248-249
exploratory statistical analyses, 250-251
productivity zones. 34. 35
spatial information required, 35-36
spatial measurements of soil EC,, 74
spatial variability, 33
statistical and spatial analyses, 249
study site. 248
yield monitoring and EC, survey, 248
Site-specific management (SSM), 247
Site-specific management units (SSMUs)
crop yield. 73
crop yield integration, 34
delineated. 252-254
geo-referenced yield data, 35
productivity zones, 268
spatial analysis, 249
spatial variability, 32
spatial variability of edaphic, 248
Site-specific nutrient management, 270
Snell'slaw, 131. 158-159
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), 33, 390
Soil. See also Soil mapping; Soil properties; Soil salinity;
Soil sampling; Soil surveys
agricultural products and management, 47
conditions, monitoring changes, 7
depth sensitivity, 301
drainage classes, 256
electrical properties of, 18
and field properties, 234
and karst, microanalyses of, 47
management practices, 263
measurement principles, 295
mollisols and soils with mollic epipedons, 47
organic matter, 34
phases of, 86-87
and resistivity methods, 86
and topographical data, 256-257
water application, 253
watershed characteristics, 234
water tables, 46
and yield baseline, 281
Soil-applied herbicides, 241
Soil conductivity. See also Soil electrical conductivity
ECa maps and plots, 275-276
electromagnetic impulse, 338
electromagnetic induction sensors, 273
EM-EC, device, 227
equipment, 274-275
field measurements of ECa, 278-279
field operations, 274
intermediate-depth investigations, 116
mapping, 273
site description, 274
statistical analysis, 277-278
sub-sand fluctuatons in native, 290
Soil Conservation Services. See Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS)
Soil cores analyzed, 274-275
Soil drainage
anaerobic conditions, 345
classes, 255, 260
discriminant analysis/geostatistical procedures,
257-258
results and discussion, 258-260
soil and topographical data, 256—257
soil electrical conductivity, 255
topography, 255-256
Soil EC, map, 286. See also Apparent electrical
conductivity (ECJ
Soil edaphic and biological variability, 269
Soil electrical conductivity
Index
407
antenna frequency/factor influencing, 364
background, 60-64
cation exchange capacity, 7
clay content correlation, 258
data collection, 256-257
ECa and mapping, 234
and GPS, 166
measurement of, 21
relative values, 236
soil drainage, 255
soil sampling, 61
Soil Electrical Conductivity in Precision Agriculture
Symposium, 28
Soil equivalent resistance model, 66
Soil factors, means and ranges of, 75
Soil gravimetric water content, 12
Soil heterogeneity, 263-264, 267, 269, 270
Soil-landscape modeling, 46
Soil mapping
bedrock depth in glaciated landscape, 47
EM-ECa technique, 225-226
and GPR, 46
precision agriculture, 286
and rock stratigraphy, 48
Soil materials, 86-91
Soil microvariability, 46
Soil moisture measurement, 4
Soil organic matter (SOM), 227, 228, 230
Soil pathways, 222, 230
Soil permittivity, 325. See also Permittivity
Soil phases, 61
Soil physical and chemical properties
cation exchange capacity, 286
electrical conductance pathway, 32
EM-ECa technique, 217-218, 225
soil ECa map, 286
soil sample analysis, 249
spatial variability, 30, 33
Soil physicochemical measurement, 59
Soil-plant systems, 35
Soil profile, 8
Soil properties
apparent electrical conductivity, 65-66, 71-74, 247,
268
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 106
cation exchange capacity, 60
characterize and assess soil condition, 33
clay content, 60,91, 212
correlation coefficient, 227-228
Correlation Coefficients, 73
correlation matrix of, 76
correlations between EMI and, 76
ECa-directed soil sampling, 253-254
ECa measurements, 64-65,77, 220-222
ECa survey, 72
electrical conductivity in bulk soil, 18
EM-EC, technique, 230
exploratory statistical analyses, 250-251
field-applied pesticides, 233
field observations vs., 67
and herbicides, 241
inherent, 211
mapping, 33,226
moisture measurement, 60
morainic soils, 218, 226
nitrogen loss, 48
parameters related to measurable, 66-67
precision agriculture role, 247
resistivity, 21
soil surveys, 227-229
spatially characterize, 34
spatial pattern, 212, 214
STATSGO, 46-47
within-field spatial variability, 30
Soil quality assessment, 60
Soil radar signal velocity, 12
Soil reclamation, 34
Soil resistivity, 60, 89,90, 91
Soil salinity
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 61-62
denned, 60
dominates ECa measurements, 72
electrical conductance pathway, 32
electrical conductivity, 20
EMI for measuring, 23
and ER, 21
field scales methods, 19
measurement of EC, 20
measurement of ECa, 234
resistivity methods, 10
sensors, 20—21
vertical profiting, 23-24
Soil sampling
ECa-directed, 28-30
EC, measurements, 219,227, 235, 282
ECa survey data, 248-249
geospatial EC, measurements, 28
herbicides, 242
herbicides/field correlations, 243—245
soil and topographical data, 256
soil EC, 61
statistical methods, 214
statistical sample design, 29-30
Soil science, 72
Soil solution, 89-90, 107. See also Soil volumetric water
content (8)
Soil-solution extractor, 20-21
Soil spatial variability, 32
Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) database, 206
Soil surveys. See also Surveys
EC, survey, 69
quality and efficiency increase, 46
regression model, 69
response-surface approach, 69-70
soil properties, 227-229
statistical test 230
using GPR methods, 45
Soil texture, 59,300
Soil type, 59
Soil volumetric water content (6)
and amplitude, 313-314, 319
box plots, 334
dielectric constant dependent on, 365
EC, measurements, 234
and electrical conductivity, 368
GPR methods, 12-13,48,305,323-324,328-330
408
Index
influencing measured EC,. 230
mapping. 346
measurement. 317-318. 333-334
measurement of, 24-26
profiles, 327. 332-333
radar events used. 309
research investigations, 12
salinity measurements. 74
and sandy/silty soil. 89
soil EC, map. 286
and soil materials. 87
spatial variability. 330
TDR point source technique for. 26-27
time domain reHectometry. 317. 320. 323
Solar Cycle. 171
Solar energy. 167
Solid-liquid phase pathway. 67
SOM. See Soil organic matter (SOM)
South Magnetic Pole. 147
SP. See Saturation percentage (SP)
Space Seamen!. 167
Spatial analysis. 249
Spatial and biological scales, 267
Spatial Background Subtraction Filter (SBSF), 355-356.
358
Spatial databases. 206-207
Spatial decorrelation. 183
Spatial distribution. 237-238, 380-381
Spatial EC4 patterns. 104
Spatial information required for SSCM, 35-36
Spatially referenced regression models, 71
Spatial measurements of soil EC. 59
Spatial measurements of soil EC,, 74
Spatial patterns. 212, 214, 270
Spatial response surface sampling (SRSS). 30
Spatial sampling error, 337
Spatial variability
apparent electrical conductivity, 18, 30-32
characterizing. 214. 233-234
crop patterns, 33
dielectric properties in subsurface. 324
ECa-directed soil sampling, 68, 69
ECa map use, 62. 104
ofedaphic, 247. 248
field- and landscape-scale issues, 34-35
inherent soil properties, 211
parameters correlated w/drainage class, 236
plot-scale experiments. 263
site-specific crop management. 33
site-specific management units, 32
soil physical and chemical properties, 30,33
and soil resistivity, 91
soil water content measurement, 330
spatial measurements of soil EC, 59
surface water content. 48. 53
yield and irrigated fields, 283
Spatial variation of yield, 248
Spherical-projected GOS. 341
Spiral plot, 340
Split-plot design. 274. 275, 277
SPS. See Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
SPSS Inc. 243
SRSS. See Spatial response surface sampling (SRSS)
SSCF. See Signal Saturation Correction Filter (SSCF)
SSCM. See Site-specific crop management (SSCM)
SSM. See Site-specific management (SSM)
SSMUs. See Site-specific management units (SSMUs)
SSURGO. See Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO)
database
Stacking. 8
Standard Positioning Service (SPS), 170, 175, 191
StarFire™. 183
State Plane coordinate (SPC) system, 204, 205, 341
State Soil Geographic (STATSGO), 46-47
Static corrections, 139. 141
Static factors, 32. 68
Station and trace spacing, 138
Station interval, 8
Station spacing, 119-120
Statistical analysis, 249, 267, 277-278, 324, 377
Statistical and spatial analyses, 249
Statistical methods, 214
Statistical sample design, 29-30
Statistical test, 230
Statistics and data analyses, 227
STATSGO. See State Soil Geographic (STATSGO)
Stepwise discriminant procedure (STEPDISC), 257, 258
Stochastic models, 71
Stolt migration algorithm, 325
Stream tubes, 32-33
Subsurface
antenna frequency, 368
artificial energy, 157
and electromagnetic energy travel, 130
features and GPR, 345, 361
mapping. 354
spatial variability, 324
Subsurface drainage systems, 363-364
Subsurface drain lines, locate, 9
Subsurface electrical permittivity, 120
Subsurface flow pathways, 48-50, 51
Suction lysimeters, 107
Surface-based measurements, 3
Surface methods with raw data, 299
Surface modeling, 124-125
Surface reflectivity method, 319, 322
Surface water content, 48, 53
Surface waves, 156
Surveys
ECB data, 248-249
EMI effectiveness, 290-292
Geophysical measurement, 118-119
GPR drainage pipe mapping, 370
GPR golf course green issues, 356
GPS planning process, 195
grid GPS, 257
magnetometry data processing and analysis, 149-151
mapping, 275-276
near-surface water pathways protocol, 343
protocol, 339-340
seismic refraction, 160
soil cores analyzed, 274-275
surface reflectivity method, 319
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension Center
(SAREC), 281, 283, 284
Index
409
SV-waves, 156, 158-160
S-waves, 156, 158
Taylor series expansion, 178-179
TDR. See Time domain reflectometry (TDR)
TEC. See True Electron Content (TEC)
Technology advances in GPR methods, 26
Tectonophysics, 3
Telluric, magnetelluric (MT) method, 113
Temperature, 32, 88, 90
Temperature conversion factor, 20, 61
Temporal and spatial high-resolution measurements, 314,
325
Temporal variations, 148
Tesla, 148
Thalén, Robert, 4
Thalén-Tiberg magnetometers, 4
Thermal noise, 173
Thermocouple temperature probes, 274
Thomson-Thalén magnetometers, 4
Three-dimensional (3D) position, 166, 194
Three-dimensional displays, 143-144
Three-dimensional mapping of soil, 346
Three-dimensional modeling of radar, 51-53
Time and frequency domain, 115-116
Time-dependent geophysical technique, 129
Time-distance cross section, 140, 141
Time domain reflectometry (TDR), 26-27
agricultural research techniques, 17-18
calibration curves developed for, 328, 330
defined,391
field-scale soil salinity assessment, 27
and geospatial measurement of EC, 59
GPR compared to, 48, 53
GPR profiles, 365
vs. GPR technique, 324-325
measurement of soil ECa, 62, 63-64
point source technique, 26—27
soil water content measurement, 317, 320, 323
Time-domain system, 113
Time-domain wave, 130
Time-of-measurement dependent, 65
Time-slice amplitude maps
GPR methods, 9, 11
mapping, 355, 358-361, 365, 371-372
Time-varying EM energy, 112
TM. See Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)
Tomographic procedures, 14, 323
Topcon receivers, 195
Topographical variables, 258
Topography, 255-256
Topp's equation, 309, 313, 324, 333
Torsion balance gravity measurements, 4
Trace, 139
Transects, 8, 9
Transmission frequency, 99
Transmit and receive antennas, 137
Transmit antenna, 135—136
Transmitted electrolytically through soil, 90
Transmitter and receiver, 113. 116-118. 134-135
Transverse Mercator projection, 205
Travel direction, 158-160
Travel time, 134
Tree root mass, 375-376, 381
Triangulation in space, 166, 179
Trimble AgGPS series, 195
Trimble Navigation Ltd., 63, 212
Trimble PRO-XR GPS, 274
Trimble VRS™, 188-189
True Electron Content (TEC), 170
2-D Migration (2DM), 356, 358, 361
Two-dimensional (2D) position, 166
Two-dimensional displays, 142
u
UBC Geophysical Inversion Facility Web site, 126
UERE. See User Equivalent Range Error (UERE)
Ultrahigh frequency (UHF), 168, 182
Underground drainage tile, 51
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system, 204, 205.
341
University of Wyoming, 281
U.S. Coast Guard Maritime DGPS, 184
USDA. See U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
USDA-ARS. See U.S. Department of Agriculture-
Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS)
USDA Economic Research Service, 363
USDA Handbook 60 (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff). 20,
61
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 46, 60, 256,
363-364
U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research
Service (USDA-ARS), 28. 59, 214. 281
U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research
Service-Soil Drainage Research Unit (USDA-
ARS-SDRU), 294
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), 166. 170. 175
U.S. Department of Energy, 305-306
User Equivalent Range Error (UERE), 175
User Segment, 168,169
USGA (U.S. Golf Association) Method, 353-354, 355.
356,359
USGA Green Section Record, 347
U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (USMARC), 274
U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO), 168
U.S. Salinity Laboratory, 59
U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff. 20, 21, 60. 61
UTM. See Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system
V. See Voltage (V)
Vadose zone. 32, 48. 51
van Genuchten-Mualem soil hydraulic functions, 327
van Genuchten parameter values, optimized, 332
Variance inflation factors (VIF). 219
VDB. See VHF data broadcast (VDB) transmitter
Vector, 113. 114, 133
Vector data format, 201-202
Vector line, 131
410
Index
Vehicle-based monitoring, 27
Vehicle-mounted GPR, 318
Velocity. 134
dielectric constant, 6, 323-324
electromagnetic wave, 27, 323, 333, 350
GPR methods, 134, 139-142
GPS technology, 167, 184
of material, 141-142
permittivity, 132, 137
propagating wave, 130
P-wave or S-wave, 160
radar signal propagation, 348
reflection hyperbolas, 145
refraction, 131
sampling depth, 319
seismic wave, 7, 156, 157, 159
Velocity of propagation, 18, 64
Veris 3100 Soil EC Mapping System, 97
Veris Soil EC Mapping System, 62,97, 104,107, 242
Veris Technologies, 28-29,62,97, 242, 265, 270, 282, 299
Veris unit, 62-63, 282
Vertical (EM.) dipole, 24, 29
Vertical electric sounding, 100, 101
Vertical profiting, 23-24, 25
Very low frequency (VLF), 113, 182
VHF data broadcast (VDB) transmitter, 184
Virtual reference station (VRS), 188-189
Visual crop observation, 19
Visual interpretation, 124
VLF. See Very low frequency (VLF)
Vollath, U., 187
Voltage (V), 21, 85,93, 98, 155
Volume of measurement, 22-23
Volume of spatial data, 72-73
Volumetric water estimate, 48
Vortex currents, 109
VRS. See Virtual reference station (VRS)
w
WAAS. See Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
WADGPS. See Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS)
Water application, 253
Water content, 32
Water-filled pore space (WFPS), 275, 278
Water front propagation, 327-328
Water molecules, 90
Watershed characteristics, 234
Water tables, 46
Wave equation, 112,120, 130
Wavelet analysis, 72
Wave propagation, 157-160
Wave's amplitude, 310
Wave types, 156-157
Wenner, Frank, 21, 60
Wenner array
apparent electrical conductivity, 22
apparent soil electrical conductivity, 100
areal resistivity mapping, 94
Earth Resistivity Meter, 299
electrode configuration switched, 296
electrodes at soil surface, 22
galvanic contact resistivity, 97-98
measure of ECa, 62
volume of measurement, 22-23
WFPS. See Water-filled pore space (WFPS)
WGS84. See World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), 183, 184
Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS), 182-183
Wide-offset reflection (WOR) data, 307-309, 310
Wide-offset surveys, 310-314
Wiggle trace (scan), 142
Within-field spatial variability, 30
Within-field variation, 33, 77
WOR. See Wide-offset reflection (WOR) data
WOR GPR, 311-313
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84), 168, 179, 180
Yield and ECa, 284-286
Yield and irrigated fields, 283
Yield and precipitation relationships, 270
Yield data integrated by ECa, 269
Yield monitoring and ECa survey, 248
Yield relationships, 270
Zeeman-effect, 148
Zero crossings, 114
Zone sampling, 270
Zones of productivity, 60 |
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| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T15:58:18Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:45:43Z |
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| language | English |
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| publisher | CRC Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Handbook of agricultural geophysics ed. by Barry J. Allred ... Boca Raton [u.a.] CRC Press 2008 XXII, 410 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Agriculture - Innovations Agriculture - Innovations - Guides, manuels, etc ram Géophysique Géophysique - Guides, manuels, etc ram Landwirtschaft Landwirtschaft (DE-588)4034402-2 gnd rswk-swf Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 gnd rswk-swf Umweltgeophysik (DE-588)4299577-2 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content Landwirtschaft (DE-588)4034402-2 s Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 s DE-604 Umweltgeophysik (DE-588)4299577-2 s b DE-604 Allred, Barry J. Sonstige oth HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015046533&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Handbook of agricultural geophysics Agriculture - Innovations Agriculture - Innovations - Guides, manuels, etc ram Géophysique Géophysique - Guides, manuels, etc ram Landwirtschaft Landwirtschaft (DE-588)4034402-2 gnd Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 gnd Umweltgeophysik (DE-588)4299577-2 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4034402-2 (DE-588)4020252-5 (DE-588)4299577-2 (DE-588)4143413-4 |
| title | Handbook of agricultural geophysics |
| title_auth | Handbook of agricultural geophysics |
| title_exact_search | Handbook of agricultural geophysics |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Handbook of agricultural geophysics |
| title_full | Handbook of agricultural geophysics ed. by Barry J. Allred ... |
| title_fullStr | Handbook of agricultural geophysics ed. by Barry J. Allred ... |
| title_full_unstemmed | Handbook of agricultural geophysics ed. by Barry J. Allred ... |
| title_short | Handbook of agricultural geophysics |
| title_sort | handbook of agricultural geophysics |
| topic | Agriculture - Innovations Agriculture - Innovations - Guides, manuels, etc ram Géophysique Géophysique - Guides, manuels, etc ram Landwirtschaft Landwirtschaft (DE-588)4034402-2 gnd Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 gnd Umweltgeophysik (DE-588)4299577-2 gnd |
| topic_facet | Agriculture - Innovations Agriculture - Innovations - Guides, manuels, etc Géophysique Géophysique - Guides, manuels, etc Landwirtschaft Geophysik Umweltgeophysik Aufsatzsammlung |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015046533&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT allredbarryj handbookofagriculturalgeophysics |