Isotopes: principles and applications
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| Previous Title: | Faure, Gunter Principles of isotope geology |
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| Main Authors: | , |
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Hoboken, NJ
Wiley
2005
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| Edition: | 3. ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Publisher description Table of contents Contributor biographical information Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | Rev. ed. of: Principles of isotope geology. 2nd ed. c1986. |
| Physical Description: | XXVII, 897 S. graph. Darst. 25 cm |
| ISBN: | 0471384372 9780471384373 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Isotopes |b principles and applications |c Gunter Faure and Teresa M. Mensing |
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| 500 | |a Rev. ed. of: Principles of isotope geology. 2nd ed. c1986. | ||
| 650 | 7 | |a Geoquímica isotópica |2 larpcal | |
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| 650 | 4 | |a Isotope geology | |
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| 780 | 0 | 0 | |i Früher u. d. T. |a Faure, Gunter |t Principles of isotope geology |
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| adam_text | Titel: Isotopes
Autor: Faure, Gunter
Jahr: 2005
Contents
Preface xxv
Part I Principles of Atomic Physics l
1 Nuclear Systematics 3
1.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 3
1.2 Internal Structure of Atoms 4
1.2a Nuclear Systematics 5
1.2b Atomic Weights of Elements 5
1.2c Binding Energy of Nucleus 7
1.2d Nuclear Stability and Abundance
1.3 Origin of the Elements 12
1.4 Summary 14
References 14
2 Decay Modes of Radionuclides 15
2.1 Beta-Decay 15
2.1a Beta- (Negatron) Decay 15
2.1b Positron Decay 19
2.1c Electron Capture Decay 21
2. Id Branched Beta-Decay 22
2.1e Energy Profiles of Isobaric Sections
2.2 Alpha-Decay 24
2.2a Parent-Daughter Relations 24
2.2b Alpha-Recoil Energy 25
2.2c Decay Scheme Diagrams 25
2.3 Spontaneous and Induced Fission 28
2.3a Spontaneous Fission 29
2.3b Induced Fission 29
Contents
2.3c Nuclear Power Reactors 31
2.3d Nuclear Waste 32
2.4 Summary 33
References 33
3 Radioactive Decay 34
3.1 Law of Radioactivity 34
3.2 Radiation Detectors 37
3.2a Geiger-Muller Counters 37
3.2b Scintillation Counters 38
3.3 Growth of Radioactive Daughters 39
3.3a Decay to an Unstable Daughter 39
3.3b Secular Equilibrium 40
3.4 Units of Radioactivity and Dosage 42
3.5 Medical Effects of Ionizing Radiation 43
3.6 Sources of Environmental Radioactivity 46
3.7 Nuclear Reactions 47
3.8 Neutron Activation Analysis 47
3.9 Summary 53
References 53
4 Geochronometry 55
4.1 Growth of Radiogenic Daughters 55
4.2 Assumptions for Dating 57
4.2a Closed System 57
4.2b Decay Constants 58
4.2c Initial Abundance of Radiogenic Daughters
4.2d Isochrons 59
4.2e Terminology 60
4.3 Fitting of Isochrons 60
4.3a Unweighted Regression 61
4.3b Weighted Regression 61
4.3c Goodness of Fit 62
4.4 Mass Spectrometry and Isotope Dilution 64
4.4a Principles of Mass Spectrometry 64
4.4b Equations of Motion of Ions 66
4.4c Ion Microprobes 67
4.4d Tandem-Accelerator Mass Spectrometers
4.4e Isotope Dilution Analysis 68
4.5 Summary 71
References 71
Part II Radiogenic Isotope Geochronometers 73
5 The Rb-Sr Method 75
5.1 Geochemistry of Rb and Sr 75
5.2 Principles of Dating 76
5.2a Fractionation Correction 78
5.2b Interlaboratory Isotope Standards 78
5.2c Rb-Sr Dates of Minerals 79
5.3 Rb-Sr Isochrons 80
5.3a Mesozoic Granite Plutons of Nigeria 81
5.3b Stony and Iron Meteorites 83
5.3c Martian Meteorites 85
5.3d Lunar Rocks 88
5.4 Dating Metamorphic Rocks 89
5.4a Isotopic Homogenization 89
5.4b Cam Chuinneag Granite, Scotland 93
5.4c Amitsoq Gneiss, Southwest Greenland 94
5.4d La Gorce Formation, Wisconsin Range, Antarctica
5.5 Dating Sedimentary Rocks 95
5.5a Geological Timescale 95
5.5b Glauconite 96
5.5c Authigenic Feldspar 98
5.5d Detrital Minerals 100
5.5e Bentonite and Tuff 101
5.5f Shale 102
5.6 Summary 106
References 107
6 The K-Ar Method 113
6.1 Principles and Methodology 113
6.2 Retention of 40Ar by Minerals 115
6.2a Idaho Springs Gneiss, Colorado 116
6.2b Snowbank Stock, Minnesota 117
6.2c Excess 40Ar 118
6.3 K-Ar Isochrons 120
6.4 Volcanic Rocks of Tertiary Age 121
6.4a Rate of Motion of the Hawaiian Islands 122
6.4b Magnetic Reversal Chronology 123
6.4c Argon from the Mantle 125
6.5 Dating Sedimentary Rocks 126
6.5a Shale 127
X
Contents
6.5b Potassium-Rich Bentonites 128
6.5c Volcanogenic Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks 129
6.5d Metasedimentary Rocks 130
6.6 Metamorphic Veil 132
6.6a Idaho Batholith 132
6.6b Continental Crust 134
6.7 Precambrian Timescales 134
6.8 Summary 138
References 138
7 The 40Ar*/39Ar Method 144
7.1 Principles and Methodology 144
7.2 Incremental Heating Technique 147
7.2a Marble Mountains, California 149
7.2b Diabase Dikes in Liberia, West Africa 150
7.3 Excess 40Ar 151
7.3a Kola Peninsula, Russia 152
7.3b Anorthoclase, Mt. Erebus, Antarctica 152
7.4 Argon Isotope Correlation Diagram 153
7.4a Portage Lake Volcanics, Michigan 153
7.4b Lunar Basalt and Orange Glass 155
7.5 Laser Ablation 157
7.5a Dating Meteorite Impact Craters 158
7.5b Sanidine Crystals, Yellowstone Park, Wyoming 158
7.5c Intercalibrations 159
7.6 Sedimentary Rocks 159
7.6a Loss of 39Ar by Recoil 159
7.6b Glauconite and Illite 160
7.7 Metasedimentary Rocks 162
7.7a Meguma Group, Nova Scotia 162
7.7b Barberton Greenstone Belt, Swaziland 163
7.7c Dating of Low-K Minerals 164
7.8 Metamorphic Rocks: Broken Hill, N.S.W., Australia 166
7.9 Thermochronometry: Haliburton Highlands, Ontario, Canada 168
7.10 Summary 171
References 172
8 The K-Ca Method 180
8.1 Principles and Methodology 180
8.1a Pikes Peak Granite, Colorado 181
8.1b Lunar Granite 182
8.2 Isotope Geochemistry of Calcium 183
8.2a Radiogenic 40Ca in Terrestrial Rocks 184
Contents
xi
8.2b Mass-Dependent Isotope Fractionation 185
8.2c Isotope Anomalies in the Solar Nebula 189
8.3 Summary 190
References 191
9 The Sm-Nd Method 194
9.1 Geochemistry of Sm and Nd 194
9.2 Principles and Methodology 197
9.2a Isotope Fractionation and CHUR 197
9.2b Model Dates Based on CHUR 199
9.2c Isotope Standards 200
9.2d Epsilon Notation 201
9.3 Dating by the Sm-Nd Method 202
9.3a Onverwacht Group, South Africa 202
9.3b Growth of the Continental Crust 204
9.4 Meteorites and Martian Rocks 207
9.5 Lunar Rocks 209
9.6 Summary 211
References 211
10 The U-Pb, Th-Pb, and Pb-Pb Methods 214
10.1 Geochemistry of U and Th 214
10.2 Decay of U and Th Isotopes 215
10.3 Principles and Methodology 218
10.4 U,Th-Pb Dates, Boulder Creek Batholith, Colorado 221
10.5 Wetherill s Concordia 223
10.5a Gain or Loss of U and Pb 225
10.5b Morton Gneiss, Minnesota 226
10.5c U-Th-Pb Concordia Diagrams 226
10.6 Alternative Pb Loss Models 227
10.6a Continuous Diffusion 227
10.6b Dilatancy Model 228
10.6c Chemical Weathering 229
10.6d Cores and Overgrowths 229
10.7 Refinements in Analytical Methods 230
10.7a Purification of Zircon Grains 230
10.7b SHRIMP 231
10.7c LA-ICP-MS 232
10.7d EMP 232
10.8 Dating Detrital Zircon Grains 233
I0.8a Potsdam Sandstone, New York 233
10.8b Pontiac Sandstone, Abitibi Belt, Ontario/Quebec 234
10.9 Tera-Wasserburg Concordia 236
Contents
10.9a Lunar Basalt 14053 238
10.9b Other Applications of Tera-Wasserburg Concordia
10.10 U-Pb, Th-Pb, and Pb-Pb Isochrons
(Granite Mountains, Wyoming) 240
10.10a U,Th-Pb Isochrons 240
10.10b Pb-Pb Isochrons 240
10.11 Pb-Pb Dating of Carbonate Rocks 242
10.11 a Marine Geochemistry of U, Th, and Pb 242
10.1 lb Mushandike Limestone, Zimbabwe 243
10.11c Transvaal Dolomite, South Africa 244
10.12 U-Pb and Th-Pb Isochrons of Carbonate Rocks 245
10.12a Lucas Formation (Middle Devonian), Ontario 24
10.12b Zn-Pb Deposits, Tri-State District, United States
10.12c Speleothems of Quaternary Age 248
10.13 Summary 249
References 250
11 The Common-Lead Method 256
11.1 The Holmes-Houtermans Model 256
11.1a Decay of U to Pb 257
11.1b Decay of Th to Pb 258
11.1c Analytical Methods 258
11. Id Primeval Pb in Meteorites 259
1 l.le The Age of Meteorites and the Earth 259
11.2 Dating Common Lead 261
11.2a The Geochron 261
11.2b Dating Single-Stage Leads 262
11.2c Lead from Cobalt, Ontario 263
11.2d Limitations of the Single-Stage Model 264
ll.2e The Stacey-Kramers Model 265
11.2f Balmat, St Lawrence County, New York 267
11.3 Dating K-Feldspar 268
11.4 Anomalous Leads in Galena 270
11.4a Two-Stage Model Dates 270
11.4b Instantaneous Growth of Radiogenic Pb 271
11.4c Continuous Growth of Radiogenic Pb 271
11.4d Pb-Pb Isochrons 272
11.4e Thorogenic Lead 272
U.4f Unresolved Issues 273
1L5 Lead-Zinc Deposits, Southeastern Missouri 274
ll.5a Lead in the Ore Minerals 275
II.5b Lead in Pyrite 277
11.5c Synthesis 278
Contents xiii
11.6 Multistage Leads 279
11.7 Summary 280
References 281
12 The Lu-Hf Method 284
12.1 Geochemistry of Lu and Hf 284
12.2 Principles and Methodology 286
12.3 CHUR and Epsilon 288
12.4 Model Hf Dates Derived from CHUR 289
12.5 Applications of Lu-Hf Dating 290
12.5a Amitsoq Gneiss, Godth b Area, West Greenland 291
12.5b Detrital Zircons, Mt. Narryer, Western Australia 292
12.6 Summary 294
References 294
13 The Re-Os Method 297
13.1 Rhenium and Osmium in Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Rocks 297
13.2 Principles and Methodology 301
13.3 Molybdenite and I87Re-187Os Isochrons 302
13.3a Molybdenite 303
13.3b I87Re-187Os Isochrons 303
13.3c Chromite 304
13.4 Meteorites and CHUR-Os 305
13.4a Iron Meteorites 305
13.4b Chondrites 307
13.4c CHUR-Os and £(Os) 308
13.4d Model Dates 310
13.5 The Cu-Ni Sulfide Ores, Noril sk, Siberia 310
13.6 Origin of Other Sulfide Ore Deposits 312
13.7 Metallic PGE Minerals 313
13.8 Gold Deposits of the Witwatersrand, South Africa 314
13.8a Osmiridium 315
13.8b Gold 315
13.8c Pyrite 316
13.8d The Solution to the Problem 316
13.9 The Pt-Os Method 316
13.10 Summary 317
References 317
14 The La-Ce Method 322
14.1 Geochemistry of La and Ce 323
14.2 Principles and Methodology 324
xiv
Contents
14.3 La-Ce Isochrons 327
14.3a Bushveld Complex, South Africa 327
14.3b Lewisian Gneiss, Scotland 328
14.4 Meteorites and CHUR-Ce 329
14.5 Volcanic Rocks 331
14.6 Cerium in the Oceans 332
14.6a Ferromanganese Nodules 332
14.6b Chert 334
14.6c Model Dates for Chert 336
14.6d Seawater 336
14.7 Summary 337
References 338
15 The La-Ba Method 340
15.1 Geochemistry of La and Ba 340
15.2 Principles and Methodology 341
15.3 Amitsoq Gneiss, West Greenland 342
15.4 Mustikkamaki Pegmatite, Finland 343
15.5 Summary 343
References 343
Part III Geochemistry of Radiogenic Isotopes 345
16 Mixing Theory 347
16.1 Chemical Compositions of Mixtures 347
16.1a Two-Component Mixtures 347
16.1b Sequential Two-Component Mixtures 348
16.1c Three-Component Mixtures 349
16.2 Isotopic Mixtures of Sr 350
16.3 Isotopic Mixtures of Sr and Nd 352
16.4 Three-Component Isotopic Mixtures 355
16.5 Applications 356
16.5a North Channel, Lake Huron, Canada 356
16.5b Detrital Silicate Sediment, Red Sea 357
16.5c Fictitious Rb-Sr Isochrons 359
16.5d Potassic Lavas, Toro-Ankole, East Africa 360
16.6 Summary 361
References 361
17 Origin of Igneous Rocks 363
17.1 The Plume Theory 363
17.2 Magma Sources in the Mantle 364
17.3 Midocean Ridge Basalt 365
17.3a Plumes of the Azores 366
17.3b Undifferentiated Mantle Reservoir of Sr 367
17.4 Basalt and Rhyolite of Iceland 369
17.4a Iceland and the Reykjanes Ridge 369
17.4b Lead in Iceland Basalt 370
17.4c Origin of Rhyolites 373
17.4d History of the Iceland Plume 374
17.5 The Hawaiian Islands 375
17.5a Isotopic Mixtures of Sr, Nd, and Pb 376
17.5b Hafnium in Basalt of Oahu 377
17.5c Osmium in Hawaiian Basalt 379
17.6 HIMU Magma Sources of Polynesia 380
17.7 Subduction Zones 382
17.7a Mariana Island Arc 383
17.7b Andes of South America 385
17.7c Ignimbrites 387
17.8 Continental Flood Basalt 389
17.8a Columbia River Basalt, United States 389
17.8b Parand Basalt, Brazil 392
17.9 Alkali-Rich Lavas 394
17.9a Central Italy 394
17.9b Leucite Hills, Wyoming, United States 395
17.10 Origin of Granite 399
17.10a Batholiths of California 402
17.10b Genetic Classification of Granites 403
17.11 Summary 405
References 406
Water and Sediment 412
18.1 Strontium in Streams 412
18.1a Rivers, Precambrian Shield, Canada 413
18.1b Groundwater, Precambrian Shield, Canada 416
18.2 Sediment in Streams 419
18.2a Murray River, N.S.W., Australia 419
18.2b Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada 423
18.3 Zaire and Amazon Rivers 426
18.3a Strontium and Neodymium in Water and Sediment
18.3b Confluence at Manaus, Brazil 428
18.3c Model Dates of Sediment, Amazon River 429
18.3d Lead Isotopes, Zaire and Amazon 431
18.3e Implications for Petrogenesis 432
18.4 Summary 433
References 433
xvi
Contents
19 The Oceans 436
19.1 Strontium in the Phanerozoic Oceans 436
19.1a Present-Day Seawater 436
19.1b Phanerozoic Carbonates 438
19.1c Mixing Models 441
19.Id Sr Chronometry (Cenozoic Era) 444
19. le The Cambrian Explosion 446
19.2 Strontium in the Precambrian Oceans 447
19.2a Late Proterozoic Carbonates 448
19.2b Snowball Earth Glaciations 449
19.2c Early Proterozoic and Archean Carbonates 450
19.3 Neodymium in the Oceans 451
19.3a Continental Runoff 451
19.3b Mixing of Nd in the Baltic Sea 453
19.3c Present-Day Seawater 455
19.3d Ferromanganese Nodules and Crusts 457
19.3e Water-Rock Interaction (Ophiolites) 461
19.4 Lead in the Oceans 463
19.4a Sorption of Pb2+ by Oxyhydroxide Particles 464
19.4b Aerosols and Eolian Dust 465
19.4c Seawater and Snow 466
19.4d Ferromanganese Crusts 469
19.5 Osmium in Continental Runoff 470
19.5a Rivers 470
19.5b Soils 472
19.5c Lacustrine Ferromanganese Deposits 473
19.5d Anthropogenic Contamination 474
19.6 Osmium in the Oceans 475
I9.6a Seawater 475
19.6b Meteoritic Dust 477
19.6c Ferromanganese Deposits 477
19.6d Isotopic Evolution during Cenozoic Era 478
19.7 Hafnium in the Oceans 480
19.7a Terrestrial Hf-Nd Array 480
19.7b Rivers and Seawater 481
19.7c Recent Ferromanganese Nodules
19.7d Secular Variations 484
19.8 Summary 486
References 487
Part IV Short-Lived Radionuclides
20 Uranium/Thorium-Series Disequilibria
20.1 238U/234U-230Th-Series Geochronometers
482
495
497
498
20.1 a The 230Th/232Th Method 499
20.1b Sedimentation Rate in the Oceans 501
20.1c The 234U-230Th Method 502
20.Id 238U/234U Disequilibrium 504
20. le 230Th with 234U/238U Disequilibrium 5(
20.If Coral Terraces on Barbados 506
20.2 Radium 508
20.2a The 226Ra-Ba Method 509
20.2b The 228Ra-228Th Method 510
20.2c The 228Ra/226Ra Method 511
20.2d Isotope Geochemistry of Radium 512
20.3 Protactinium 516
20.3a The 230Th-231Pa Method 517
20.3b Rosholt s 230Th-23iPa Geochronometer
20.3c Carbonates 520
20.3d 23,Pa-230Th Concordia 521
20.4 Lead-210 521
20.4a Sorption by Soil 523
20.4b Seawater 523
20.4c Lake Rockwell, Ohio 524
20.4d Snow in Antarctica 525
20.5 Archeology and Anthropology 527
20.5a Homo erectus 527
20.5b The Mojokerto Child 528
20.5c Neandertals and Homo sapiens 529
20.5d Speleothems and Travertines 530
20.6 Volcanic Rocks 531
20.6a Dating with 230Th 532
20.6b Age of the Olby-Laschamp Event 534
20.6c Dating with 231 Pa 534
20.7 Magma Formation 535
20.7a MORBs and OIBs 536
20.7b Oceanic and Continental Andesites 536
20.7c Carbonatites 537
20.7d Applications to Petrogenesis 538
20.8 Summary 539
References 540
Helium and TVitium 546
21.1 U-Th/He Method of Dating 546
21.1a Geochronometry Equation 547
21.1b Diffusion of He in Minerals 549
21.2 Thermochronometry 551
xviii
Contents
21.2a Otway Basin, South Australia 552
21.2b Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains 553
21.3 He Dating of Iron-Ore Deposits 554
21.4 Tritium-3He Dating 555
21.4a Production and Decay of Tritium 555
21.4b Thermonuclear Tritium 556
21.4c Dating Water (Cosmogenic Tritium) 558
21.4d Travel Time of Water in Confined Aquifers 558
21.4e Tritiogenic Helium 559
21.4f Kirkwood-Cohansey Aquifer, New Jersey 560
21.5 Meteorites and Oceanic Basalt 560
21.5a Cosmogenic 3He 561
21.5b Meteorites 561
21.5c Oceanic Basalt 562
21.6 Continental Crust 566
21.6a Ultramafic Inclusions and Basalt 566
2l.6b Diamonds 567
21.6c Effect of Tectonic Age on He in Groundwater 568
21.6d Geothermal Systems 568
21.6e Geothermal He, New Zealand 570
21.7 Summary 571
References 572
22 Radiation-Damage Methods 577
22.1 Alpha-Decay 577
22.1a Pleochroic Haloes 577
22.1b Alpha-Recoil Tracks 579
22.2 Fission Tracks 580
22.2a Methodology 581
22.2b Assumptions 583
22.2c Geochronometry 583
22.2d Track Fading and Closure Temperatures 586
22.2e Plateau Dates 591
22.3 Applications of Fission-Track Dates 592
22.3a The Catskill Delta of New York 592
22.3b Damara Orogen, Namibia 594
22.4 Thermoluminescence 595
22.4a Principles 598
22.4b Geochronometry 599
22.4c Procedures for TL Dating 600
22.4d TL Dating of Sediment 601
22.4e Applications 603
Contents xix
22.5 Electron-Spin Resonance 603
22.5a Principles 603
22.5b Assumptions 605
22.5c Methodology 606
22.6 Summary 606
References 608
23 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 613
23.1 Carbon-14 (Radiocarbon) 614
23.1a Principles 615
23.1b Assumptions 615
23.1c Radiocarbon Dates 617
23.Id Secular Variations 618
23.le Isotope Fractionation 619
23.If Methodology 620
23. lg Water and Carbonates 622
23. lh Applications 623
23.2 BerylIium-10 and Aluminum-26 (Atmospheric) 625
23.2a Principles 626
23.2b Deep-Sea Sediment 629
23.2c Ferromanganese Nodules 630
23.2d Continental Ice Sheets 632
23.3 Exposure Dating (10Be and 26Al) 633
23.3a Beryllium-10 and Aluminum-26 in Quartz 634
23.3b Erosion Rates 636
23.3c The Crux of the Problem 638
23.4 Cosmogenic and Thermonuclear 36C1 639
23.4a Water and Ice 639
23.4b Exposure Dating 640
23.5 Meteorites 641
23.5a Irradiation Ages 642
23.5b Terrestrial Ages 643
23.6 Other Long-Lived Cosmogenic Radionuclides 646
23.7 Summary 646
References 647
24 Extinct Radionuclides 654
24.1 The Pd-Ag Chronometer
24.2 The Al-Mg Chronometer
24.3 The Hf-W Chronometer
24.4 FUN in the Solar Nebula
655
657
659
662
Contents
24.5 Summary 663
References 664
25 Thermonuclear Radionuclides 667
25.1 Fission Products and Transuranium Elements 667
25.1a Fission Products 667
25.1b Transuranium Elements 668
25.1c Disposal of Radwaste (Yucca Mountain, Nevada)
25.Id Reactor Accidents: Chernobyl, Ukraine 671
25.2 Strontium-90 in the Environment 672
25.2a Global Distribution (^Sr) 673
25.2b Oceans 674
25.2c Human Diet 677
25.3 Cesium-137 in the Environment 678
25.3a Human Diet 679
25.3b Soil and Plants 679
25.3c Lake Sediment 681
25.4 Arctic Ocean: wSr/137Cs, 239-240pu, and 241 Am 682
25.5 Summary 686
References 687
Part V Fractionation of Stable Isotopes 691
26 Hydrogen and Oxygen 693
26.1 Atomic Properties 693
26.2 Mathematical Relations 695
26.3 Meteoric Precipitation 697
26.3a Temperature Dependence of Fractionation 691
26.3b The Rayleigh Equations 699
26.3c Meteoric-Water Line 700
26.3d Climate Records in Ice Cores 701
26.4 Paleothermometry (Carbonates) 704
26.4a Principles 704
26.4b Assumptions 706
26.4c Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy 708
26.5 Silicate Minerals and Rocks 709
26.5a Basalt and the Mantle 710
26.5b Thermometry of Silicates and Oxides 711
26.6 Water-Rock Interactions (Rocks) 714
26.6a Fossil Hydrothermal Systems 714
26.6b Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 716
26.7 Water-Rock Interactions (Water) 718
26.7 a Hotsprings and Geysers 718
26.7b Mixing of Water 720
26.7c Oilfield Brines, United States and Canada
26.7d Saline Minewaters 724
26.8 Clay Minerals 725
26.9 Marine Carbonates 727
26.10 Marine Phosphates 730
26.10a Paleothermometry 730
26.10b Fishbones 732
26.10c Mammalian Bones 732
26.10d Phosphorites 733
26.11 Biogenic Silica and Hydroxides of Fe and A1 735
26.12 Chert (Phanerozoic and Precambrian) 736
26.13 Extraterrestrial Rocks 738
26.13a Meteorites 739
26.13b Martian Rocks 741
26.13c Moon 742
26.13d Nucleosynthesis of O Isotopes 742
26.14 Summary 743
References 744
Carbon 753
27.1 Biosphere 754
27.1a Carbon Dioxide 754
27.1b Green Plants 754
27.1c Life in Extreme Environments 755
27.2 Life in the Precambrian Oceans 757
27.2a Carbon Isotopes in Precambrian Kerogen 7
27.2b Hydrogen Isotopes in Thermophilic Organisms
27.2c Signs of Life 760
27.3 Fossil Fuel 761
27.3a Bituminous Coal 761
27.3b Petroleum and Natural Gas 762
27.4 Carbon-Isotope Stratigraphy (Phanerozoic) 763
27.4a Isotope Fractionation 764
27.4b Carbonate Rocks 764
27.4c Frasnian-Famennian 767
27.4d Neoproterozoic-Early Cambrian 767
27.5 Precambrian Carbonates 768
27.5a Carbon-Isotope Excursions 769
27.5b Snowball Earth 771
27.6 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 774
27.6a Volcanic Gases 774
27.6b Volcanic Rocks 776
27.6c Graphite and Calcite 778
27.6d Greek Marbles 781
xxii
Contents
27.6e Diamonds 781
27.6f Carbonatites 784
27.7 Extraterrestrial Carbon 785
27.7a Stony Meteorites 786
27.7b Iron Meteorites 787
27.7c Lunar Carbon 788
27.8 Search for Life on Mars 790
27.8a Martian Meteorites 791
27.8b ALH 84001 792
27.9 Summary 792
References 793
28 Nitrogen 803
28.1 Geochemistry 803
28.2 Isotope Fractionation 805
28.3 Nitrogen on the Surface of the Earth 806
28.3a POM in the Oceans 807
28.3b Lacustrine Sediment and the Food Chain 808
28.4 Fossil Fuels 808
28.5 Igneous Rocks and the Mantle 811
28.6 Ultramafic Xenoliths 812
28.7 Diamonds 813
28.8 Meteorites 815
28.9 Moon 817
28.10 Mars 818
28.11 Summary 820
References 820
29 Sulfur 824
29.1 Isotope Geochemistry 824
29.2 Biogenic Isotope Fractionation 825
29.3 Sulfur in Recent Sediment 827
29.4 Fossil Fuels 828
29.4a Petroleum 828
29.4b Coal 829
29.5 Native Sulfur Deposits 830
29.6 Sedimentary Rocks of Precambrian Age 831
29.7 Isotopic Evolution of Marine Sulfate 833
29.8 Igneous Rocks 835
29.8a Contamination 836
29.8b Alteration by Seawater 836
29.8c Outgassing of S02 836
29.9 Sulfide Ore Deposits 840
Contents
xxiii
29.9a Isotope Fractionation among Sulfide Minerals 841
29.9b Isotope Fractionation in Ore-Forming Fluids 842
29.10 Sulfur in the Environment 843
29.11 Mass-Independent Isotope Fractionation 846
29.12 Summary 847
References 849
30 Boron and Other Elements 854
30.1 Boron 855
30.1a Geochemistry 855
30.1b Isotopic Composition
30.1c Meteorites 858
30.Id Summary 859
30.2 Lithium 859
30.2a Geochemistry 860
30.2b Isotope Composition
30,2c Summary 862
30.3 Silicon 863
30.3a Geochemistry 863
30.3b Isotope Composition
30.3c Terrestrial Rocks 864
30.3d Marine Diatoms 865
30.3e Aqueous Isotope Geochemistry 865
30,3f Extraterrestrial Rocks 866
30.3g Summary 868
30.4 Chlorine 868
30.4a Geochemistry 868
30.4b Isotope Geochemistry 869
30.4c Summary 870
30.5 Postscript 870
References 870
Index 875
International Geological Hmescale (2002) 897
The author index and the end~of~chapter problems are available on the
worldwide web at www.wiley.com/college/faure .
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| adam_txt |
Titel: Isotopes
Autor: Faure, Gunter
Jahr: 2005
Contents
Preface xxv
Part I Principles of Atomic Physics l
1 Nuclear Systematics 3
1.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 3
1.2 Internal Structure of Atoms 4
1.2a Nuclear Systematics 5
1.2b Atomic Weights of Elements 5
1.2c Binding Energy of Nucleus 7
1.2d Nuclear Stability and Abundance
1.3 Origin of the Elements 12
1.4 Summary 14
References 14
2 Decay Modes of Radionuclides 15
2.1 Beta-Decay 15
2.1a Beta- (Negatron) Decay 15
2.1b Positron Decay 19
2.1c Electron Capture Decay 21
2. Id Branched Beta-Decay 22
2.1e Energy Profiles of Isobaric Sections
2.2 Alpha-Decay 24
2.2a Parent-Daughter Relations 24
2.2b Alpha-Recoil Energy 25
2.2c Decay Scheme Diagrams 25
2.3 Spontaneous and Induced Fission 28
2.3a Spontaneous Fission 29
2.3b Induced Fission 29
Contents
2.3c Nuclear Power Reactors 31
2.3d Nuclear Waste 32
2.4 Summary 33
References 33
3 Radioactive Decay 34
3.1 Law of Radioactivity 34
3.2 Radiation Detectors 37
3.2a Geiger-Muller Counters 37
3.2b Scintillation Counters 38
3.3 Growth of Radioactive Daughters 39
3.3a Decay to an Unstable Daughter 39
3.3b Secular Equilibrium 40
3.4 Units of Radioactivity and Dosage 42
3.5 Medical Effects of Ionizing Radiation 43
3.6 Sources of Environmental Radioactivity 46
3.7 Nuclear Reactions 47
3.8 Neutron Activation Analysis 47
3.9 Summary 53
References 53
4 Geochronometry 55
4.1 Growth of Radiogenic Daughters 55
4.2 Assumptions for Dating 57
4.2a Closed System 57
4.2b Decay Constants 58
4.2c Initial Abundance of Radiogenic Daughters
4.2d Isochrons 59
4.2e Terminology 60
4.3 Fitting of Isochrons 60
4.3a Unweighted Regression 61
4.3b Weighted Regression 61
4.3c Goodness of Fit 62
4.4 Mass Spectrometry and Isotope Dilution 64
4.4a Principles of Mass Spectrometry 64
4.4b Equations of Motion of Ions 66
4.4c Ion Microprobes 67
4.4d Tandem-Accelerator Mass Spectrometers
4.4e Isotope Dilution Analysis 68
4.5 Summary 71
References 71
Part II Radiogenic Isotope Geochronometers 73
5 The Rb-Sr Method 75
5.1 Geochemistry of Rb and Sr 75
5.2 Principles of Dating 76
5.2a Fractionation Correction 78
5.2b Interlaboratory Isotope Standards 78
5.2c Rb-Sr Dates of Minerals 79
5.3 Rb-Sr Isochrons 80
5.3a Mesozoic Granite Plutons of Nigeria 81
5.3b Stony and Iron Meteorites 83
5.3c Martian Meteorites 85
5.3d Lunar Rocks 88
5.4 Dating Metamorphic Rocks 89
5.4a Isotopic Homogenization 89
5.4b Cam Chuinneag Granite, Scotland 93
5.4c Amitsoq Gneiss, Southwest Greenland 94
5.4d La Gorce Formation, Wisconsin Range, Antarctica
5.5 Dating Sedimentary Rocks 95
5.5a Geological Timescale 95
5.5b Glauconite 96
5.5c Authigenic Feldspar 98
5.5d Detrital Minerals 100
5.5e Bentonite and Tuff 101
5.5f Shale 102
5.6 Summary 106
References 107
6 The K-Ar Method 113
6.1 Principles and Methodology 113
6.2 Retention of 40Ar by Minerals 115
6.2a Idaho Springs Gneiss, Colorado 116
6.2b Snowbank Stock, Minnesota 117
6.2c Excess 40Ar 118
6.3 K-Ar Isochrons 120
6.4 Volcanic Rocks of Tertiary Age 121
6.4a Rate of Motion of the Hawaiian Islands 122
6.4b Magnetic Reversal Chronology 123
6.4c Argon from the Mantle 125
6.5 Dating Sedimentary Rocks 126
6.5a Shale 127
X
Contents
6.5b Potassium-Rich Bentonites 128
6.5c Volcanogenic Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks 129
6.5d Metasedimentary Rocks 130
6.6 Metamorphic Veil 132
6.6a Idaho Batholith 132
6.6b Continental Crust 134
6.7 Precambrian Timescales 134
6.8 Summary 138
References 138
7 The 40Ar*/39Ar Method 144
7.1 Principles and Methodology 144
7.2 Incremental Heating Technique 147
7.2a Marble Mountains, California 149
7.2b Diabase Dikes in Liberia, West Africa 150
7.3 Excess 40Ar 151
7.3a Kola Peninsula, Russia 152
7.3b Anorthoclase, Mt. Erebus, Antarctica 152
7.4 Argon Isotope Correlation Diagram 153
7.4a Portage Lake Volcanics, Michigan 153
7.4b Lunar Basalt and Orange Glass 155
7.5 Laser Ablation 157
7.5a Dating Meteorite Impact Craters 158
7.5b Sanidine Crystals, Yellowstone Park, Wyoming 158
7.5c Intercalibrations 159
7.6 Sedimentary Rocks 159
7.6a Loss of 39Ar by Recoil 159
7.6b Glauconite and Illite 160
7.7 Metasedimentary Rocks 162
7.7a Meguma Group, Nova Scotia 162
7.7b Barberton Greenstone Belt, Swaziland 163
7.7c Dating of Low-K Minerals 164
7.8 Metamorphic Rocks: Broken Hill, N.S.W., Australia 166
7.9 Thermochronometry: Haliburton Highlands, Ontario, Canada 168
7.10 Summary 171
References 172
8 The K-Ca Method 180
8.1 Principles and Methodology 180
8.1a Pikes Peak Granite, Colorado 181
8.1b Lunar Granite 182
8.2 Isotope Geochemistry of Calcium 183
8.2a Radiogenic 40Ca in Terrestrial Rocks 184
Contents
xi
8.2b Mass-Dependent Isotope Fractionation 185
8.2c Isotope Anomalies in the Solar Nebula 189
8.3 Summary 190
References 191
9 The Sm-Nd Method 194
9.1 Geochemistry of Sm and Nd 194
9.2 Principles and Methodology 197
9.2a Isotope Fractionation and CHUR 197
9.2b Model Dates Based on CHUR 199
9.2c Isotope Standards 200
9.2d Epsilon Notation 201
9.3 Dating by the Sm-Nd Method 202
9.3a Onverwacht Group, South Africa 202
9.3b Growth of the Continental Crust 204
9.4 Meteorites and Martian Rocks 207
9.5 Lunar Rocks 209
9.6 Summary 211
References 211
10 The U-Pb, Th-Pb, and Pb-Pb Methods 214
10.1 Geochemistry of U and Th 214
10.2 Decay of U and Th Isotopes 215
10.3 Principles and Methodology 218
10.4 U,Th-Pb Dates, Boulder Creek Batholith, Colorado 221
10.5 Wetherill's Concordia 223
10.5a Gain or Loss of U and Pb 225
10.5b Morton Gneiss, Minnesota 226
10.5c U-Th-Pb Concordia Diagrams 226
10.6 Alternative Pb Loss Models 227
10.6a Continuous Diffusion 227
10.6b Dilatancy Model 228
10.6c Chemical Weathering 229
10.6d Cores and Overgrowths 229
10.7 Refinements in Analytical Methods 230
10.7a Purification of Zircon Grains 230
10.7b SHRIMP 231
10.7c LA-ICP-MS 232
10.7d EMP 232
10.8 Dating Detrital Zircon Grains 233
I0.8a Potsdam Sandstone, New York 233
10.8b Pontiac Sandstone, Abitibi Belt, Ontario/Quebec 234
10.9 Tera-Wasserburg Concordia 236
Contents
10.9a Lunar Basalt 14053 238
10.9b Other Applications of Tera-Wasserburg Concordia
10.10 U-Pb, Th-Pb, and Pb-Pb Isochrons
(Granite Mountains, Wyoming) 240
10.10a U,Th-Pb Isochrons 240
10.10b Pb-Pb Isochrons 240
10.11 Pb-Pb Dating of Carbonate Rocks 242
10.11 a Marine Geochemistry of U, Th, and Pb 242
10.1 lb Mushandike Limestone, Zimbabwe 243
10.11c Transvaal Dolomite, South Africa 244
10.12 U-Pb and Th-Pb Isochrons of Carbonate Rocks 245
10.12a Lucas Formation (Middle Devonian), Ontario 24
10.12b Zn-Pb Deposits, Tri-State District, United States
10.12c Speleothems of Quaternary Age 248
10.13 Summary 249
References 250
11 The Common-Lead Method 256
11.1 The Holmes-Houtermans Model 256
11.1a Decay of U to Pb 257
11.1b Decay of Th to Pb 258
11.1c Analytical Methods 258
11. Id Primeval Pb in Meteorites 259
1 l.le The Age of Meteorites and the Earth 259
11.2 Dating Common Lead 261
11.2a The Geochron 261
11.2b Dating Single-Stage Leads 262
11.2c Lead from Cobalt, Ontario 263
11.2d Limitations of the Single-Stage Model 264
ll.2e The Stacey-Kramers Model 265
11.2f Balmat, St Lawrence County, New York 267
11.3 Dating K-Feldspar 268
11.4 Anomalous Leads in Galena 270
11.4a Two-Stage Model Dates 270
11.4b Instantaneous Growth of Radiogenic Pb 271
11.4c Continuous Growth of Radiogenic Pb 271
11.4d Pb-Pb Isochrons 272
11.4e Thorogenic Lead 272
U.4f Unresolved Issues 273
1L5 Lead-Zinc Deposits, Southeastern Missouri 274
ll.5a Lead in the Ore Minerals 275
II.5b Lead in Pyrite 277
11.5c Synthesis 278
Contents xiii
11.6 Multistage Leads 279
11.7 Summary 280
References 281
12 The Lu-Hf Method 284
12.1 Geochemistry of Lu and Hf 284
12.2 Principles and Methodology 286
12.3 CHUR and Epsilon 288
12.4 Model Hf Dates Derived from CHUR 289
12.5 Applications of Lu-Hf Dating 290
12.5a Amitsoq Gneiss, Godth b Area, West Greenland 291
12.5b Detrital Zircons, Mt. Narryer, Western Australia 292
12.6 Summary 294
References 294
13 The Re-Os Method 297
13.1 Rhenium and Osmium in Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Rocks 297
13.2 Principles and Methodology 301
13.3 Molybdenite and I87Re-187Os Isochrons 302
13.3a Molybdenite 303
13.3b I87Re-187Os Isochrons 303
13.3c Chromite 304
13.4 Meteorites and CHUR-Os 305
13.4a Iron Meteorites 305
13.4b Chondrites 307
13.4c CHUR-Os and £(Os) 308
13.4d Model Dates 310
13.5 The Cu-Ni Sulfide Ores, Noril'sk, Siberia 310
13.6 Origin of Other Sulfide Ore Deposits 312
13.7 Metallic PGE Minerals 313
13.8 Gold Deposits of the Witwatersrand, South Africa 314
13.8a Osmiridium 315
13.8b Gold 315
13.8c Pyrite 316
13.8d The Solution to the Problem 316
13.9 The Pt-Os Method 316
13.10 Summary 317
References 317
14 The La-Ce Method 322
14.1 Geochemistry of La and Ce 323
14.2 Principles and Methodology 324
xiv
Contents
14.3 La-Ce Isochrons 327
14.3a Bushveld Complex, South Africa 327
14.3b Lewisian Gneiss, Scotland 328
14.4 Meteorites and CHUR-Ce 329
14.5 Volcanic Rocks 331
14.6 Cerium in the Oceans 332
14.6a Ferromanganese Nodules 332
14.6b Chert 334
14.6c Model Dates for Chert 336
14.6d Seawater 336
14.7 Summary 337
References 338
15 The La-Ba Method 340
15.1 Geochemistry of La and Ba 340
15.2 Principles and Methodology 341
15.3 Amitsoq Gneiss, West Greenland 342
15.4 Mustikkamaki Pegmatite, Finland 343
15.5 Summary 343
References 343
Part III Geochemistry of Radiogenic Isotopes 345
16 Mixing Theory 347
16.1 Chemical Compositions of Mixtures 347
16.1a Two-Component Mixtures 347
16.1b Sequential Two-Component Mixtures 348
16.1c Three-Component Mixtures 349
16.2 Isotopic Mixtures of Sr 350
16.3 Isotopic Mixtures of Sr and Nd 352
16.4 Three-Component Isotopic Mixtures 355
16.5 Applications 356
16.5a North Channel, Lake Huron, Canada 356
16.5b Detrital Silicate Sediment, Red Sea 357
16.5c Fictitious Rb-Sr Isochrons 359
16.5d Potassic Lavas, Toro-Ankole, East Africa 360
16.6 Summary 361
References 361
17 Origin of Igneous Rocks 363
17.1 The Plume Theory 363
17.2 Magma Sources in the Mantle 364
17.3 Midocean Ridge Basalt 365
17.3a Plumes of the Azores 366
17.3b Undifferentiated Mantle Reservoir of Sr 367
17.4 Basalt and Rhyolite of Iceland 369
17.4a Iceland and the Reykjanes Ridge 369
17.4b Lead in Iceland Basalt 370
17.4c Origin of Rhyolites 373
17.4d History of the Iceland Plume 374
17.5 The Hawaiian Islands 375
17.5a Isotopic Mixtures of Sr, Nd, and Pb 376
17.5b Hafnium in Basalt of Oahu 377
17.5c Osmium in Hawaiian Basalt 379
17.6 HIMU Magma Sources of Polynesia 380
17.7 Subduction Zones 382
17.7a Mariana Island Arc 383
17.7b Andes of South America 385
17.7c Ignimbrites 387
17.8 Continental Flood Basalt 389
17.8a Columbia River Basalt, United States 389
17.8b Parand Basalt, Brazil 392
17.9 Alkali-Rich Lavas 394
17.9a Central Italy 394
17.9b Leucite Hills, Wyoming, United States 395
17.10 Origin of Granite 399
17.10a Batholiths of California 402
17.10b Genetic Classification of Granites 403
17.11 Summary 405
References 406
Water and Sediment 412
18.1 Strontium in Streams 412
18.1a Rivers, Precambrian Shield, Canada 413
18.1b Groundwater, Precambrian Shield, Canada 416
18.2 Sediment in Streams 419
18.2a Murray River, N.S.W., Australia 419
18.2b Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada 423
18.3 Zaire and Amazon Rivers 426
18.3a Strontium and Neodymium in Water and Sediment
18.3b Confluence at Manaus, Brazil 428
18.3c Model Dates of Sediment, Amazon River 429
18.3d Lead Isotopes, Zaire and Amazon 431
18.3e Implications for Petrogenesis 432
18.4 Summary 433
References 433
xvi
Contents
19 The Oceans 436
19.1 Strontium in the Phanerozoic Oceans 436
19.1a Present-Day Seawater 436
19.1b Phanerozoic Carbonates 438
19.1c Mixing Models 441
19.Id Sr Chronometry (Cenozoic Era) 444
19. le The Cambrian "Explosion" 446
19.2 Strontium in the Precambrian Oceans 447
19.2a Late Proterozoic Carbonates 448
19.2b Snowball Earth Glaciations 449
19.2c Early Proterozoic and Archean Carbonates 450
19.3 Neodymium in the Oceans 451
19.3a Continental Runoff 451
19.3b Mixing of Nd in the Baltic Sea 453
19.3c Present-Day Seawater 455
19.3d Ferromanganese Nodules and Crusts 457
19.3e Water-Rock Interaction (Ophiolites) 461
19.4 Lead in the Oceans 463
19.4a Sorption of Pb2+ by Oxyhydroxide Particles 464
19.4b Aerosols and Eolian Dust 465
19.4c Seawater and Snow 466
19.4d Ferromanganese Crusts 469
19.5 Osmium in Continental Runoff 470
19.5a Rivers 470
19.5b Soils 472
19.5c Lacustrine Ferromanganese Deposits 473
19.5d Anthropogenic Contamination 474
19.6 Osmium in the Oceans 475
I9.6a Seawater 475
19.6b Meteoritic Dust 477
19.6c Ferromanganese Deposits 477
19.6d Isotopic Evolution during Cenozoic Era 478
19.7 Hafnium in the Oceans 480
19.7a Terrestrial Hf-Nd Array 480
19.7b Rivers and Seawater 481
19.7c Recent Ferromanganese Nodules
19.7d Secular Variations 484
19.8 Summary 486
References 487
Part IV Short-Lived Radionuclides
20 Uranium/Thorium-Series Disequilibria
20.1 238U/234U-230Th-Series Geochronometers
482
495
497
498
20.1 a The 230Th/232Th Method 499
20.1b Sedimentation Rate in the Oceans 501
20.1c The 234U-230Th Method 502
20.Id 238U/234U Disequilibrium 504
20. le 230Th with 234U/238U Disequilibrium 5(
20.If Coral Terraces on Barbados 506
20.2 Radium 508
20.2a The 226Ra-Ba Method 509
20.2b The 228Ra-228Th Method 510
20.2c The 228Ra/226Ra Method 511
20.2d Isotope Geochemistry of Radium 512
20.3 Protactinium 516
20.3a The 230Th-231Pa Method 517
20.3b Rosholt's 230Th-23iPa Geochronometer
20.3c Carbonates 520
20.3d 23,Pa-230Th Concordia 521
20.4 Lead-210 521
20.4a Sorption by Soil 523
20.4b Seawater 523
20.4c Lake Rockwell, Ohio 524
20.4d Snow in Antarctica 525
20.5 Archeology and Anthropology 527
20.5a Homo erectus 527
20.5b The Mojokerto Child 528
20.5c Neandertals and Homo sapiens 529
20.5d Speleothems and Travertines 530
20.6 Volcanic Rocks 531
20.6a Dating with 230Th 532
20.6b Age of the Olby-Laschamp Event 534
20.6c Dating with 231 Pa 534
20.7 Magma Formation 535
20.7a MORBs and OIBs 536
20.7b Oceanic and Continental Andesites 536
20.7c Carbonatites 537
20.7d Applications to Petrogenesis 538
20.8 Summary 539
References 540
Helium and TVitium 546
21.1 U-Th/He Method of Dating 546
21.1a Geochronometry Equation 547
21.1b Diffusion of He in Minerals 549
21.2 Thermochronometry 551
xviii
Contents
21.2a Otway Basin, South Australia 552
21.2b Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains 553
21.3 He Dating of Iron-Ore Deposits 554
21.4 Tritium-3He Dating 555
21.4a Production and Decay of Tritium 555
21.4b Thermonuclear Tritium 556
21.4c Dating Water (Cosmogenic Tritium) 558
21.4d Travel Time of Water in Confined Aquifers 558
21.4e Tritiogenic Helium 559
21.4f Kirkwood-Cohansey Aquifer, New Jersey 560
21.5 Meteorites and Oceanic Basalt 560
21.5a Cosmogenic 3He 561
21.5b Meteorites 561
21.5c Oceanic Basalt 562
21.6 Continental Crust 566
21.6a Ultramafic Inclusions and Basalt 566
2l.6b Diamonds 567
21.6c Effect of Tectonic Age on He in Groundwater 568
21.6d Geothermal Systems 568
21.6e Geothermal He, New Zealand 570
21.7 Summary 571
References 572
22 Radiation-Damage Methods 577
22.1 Alpha-Decay 577
22.1a Pleochroic Haloes 577
22.1b Alpha-Recoil Tracks 579
22.2 Fission Tracks 580
22.2a Methodology 581
22.2b Assumptions 583
22.2c Geochronometry 583
22.2d Track Fading and Closure Temperatures 586
22.2e Plateau Dates 591
22.3 Applications of Fission-Track Dates 592
22.3a The Catskill Delta of New York 592
22.3b Damara Orogen, Namibia 594
22.4 Thermoluminescence 595
22.4a Principles 598
22.4b Geochronometry 599
22.4c Procedures for TL Dating 600
22.4d TL Dating of Sediment 601
22.4e Applications 603
Contents xix
22.5 Electron-Spin Resonance 603
22.5a Principles 603
22.5b Assumptions 605
22.5c Methodology 606
22.6 Summary 606
References 608
23 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 613
23.1 Carbon-14 (Radiocarbon) 614
23.1a Principles 615
23.1b Assumptions 615
23.1c Radiocarbon Dates 617
23.Id Secular Variations 618
23.le Isotope Fractionation 619
23.If Methodology 620
23. lg Water and Carbonates 622
23. lh Applications 623
23.2 BerylIium-10 and Aluminum-26 (Atmospheric) 625
23.2a Principles 626
23.2b Deep-Sea Sediment 629
23.2c Ferromanganese Nodules 630
23.2d Continental Ice Sheets 632
23.3 Exposure Dating (10Be and 26Al) 633
23.3a Beryllium-10 and Aluminum-26 in Quartz 634
23.3b Erosion Rates 636
23.3c The Crux of the Problem 638
23.4 Cosmogenic and Thermonuclear 36C1 639
23.4a Water and Ice 639
23.4b Exposure Dating 640
23.5 Meteorites 641
23.5a Irradiation Ages 642
23.5b Terrestrial Ages 643
23.6 Other Long-Lived Cosmogenic Radionuclides 646
23.7 Summary 646
References 647
24 Extinct Radionuclides 654
24.1 The Pd-Ag Chronometer
24.2 The Al-Mg Chronometer
24.3 The Hf-W Chronometer
24.4 FUN in the Solar Nebula
655
657
659
662
Contents
24.5 Summary 663
References 664
25 Thermonuclear Radionuclides 667
25.1 Fission Products and Transuranium Elements 667
25.1a Fission Products 667
25.1b Transuranium Elements 668
25.1c Disposal of Radwaste (Yucca Mountain, Nevada)
25.Id Reactor Accidents: Chernobyl, Ukraine 671
25.2 Strontium-90 in the Environment 672
25.2a Global Distribution (^Sr) 673
25.2b Oceans 674
25.2c Human Diet 677
25.3 Cesium-137 in the Environment 678
25.3a Human Diet 679
25.3b Soil and Plants 679
25.3c Lake Sediment 681
25.4 Arctic Ocean: wSr/137Cs, 239-240pu, and 241 Am 682
25.5 Summary 686
References 687
Part V Fractionation of Stable Isotopes 691
26 Hydrogen and Oxygen 693
26.1 Atomic Properties 693
26.2 Mathematical Relations 695
26.3 Meteoric Precipitation 697
26.3a Temperature Dependence of Fractionation 691
26.3b The Rayleigh Equations 699
26.3c Meteoric-Water Line 700
26.3d Climate Records in Ice Cores 701
26.4 Paleothermometry (Carbonates) 704
26.4a Principles 704
26.4b Assumptions 706
26.4c Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy 708
26.5 Silicate Minerals and Rocks 709
26.5a Basalt and the Mantle 710
26.5b Thermometry of Silicates and Oxides 711
26.6 Water-Rock Interactions (Rocks) 714
26.6a Fossil Hydrothermal Systems 714
26.6b Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 716
26.7 Water-Rock Interactions (Water) 718
26.7 a Hotsprings and Geysers 718
26.7b Mixing of Water 720
26.7c Oilfield Brines, United States and Canada
26.7d Saline Minewaters 724
26.8 Clay Minerals 725
26.9 Marine Carbonates 727
26.10 Marine Phosphates 730
26.10a Paleothermometry 730
26.10b Fishbones 732
26.10c Mammalian Bones 732
26.10d Phosphorites 733
26.11 Biogenic Silica and Hydroxides of Fe and A1 735
26.12 Chert (Phanerozoic and Precambrian) 736
26.13 Extraterrestrial Rocks 738
26.13a Meteorites 739
26.13b Martian Rocks 741
26.13c Moon 742
26.13d Nucleosynthesis of O Isotopes 742
26.14 Summary 743
References 744
Carbon 753
27.1 Biosphere 754
27.1a Carbon Dioxide 754
27.1b Green Plants 754
27.1c Life in Extreme Environments 755
27.2 Life in the Precambrian Oceans 757
27.2a Carbon Isotopes in Precambrian Kerogen 7
27.2b Hydrogen Isotopes in Thermophilic Organisms
27.2c Signs of Life 760
27.3 Fossil Fuel 761
27.3a Bituminous Coal 761
27.3b Petroleum and Natural Gas 762
27.4 Carbon-Isotope Stratigraphy (Phanerozoic) 763
27.4a Isotope Fractionation 764
27.4b Carbonate Rocks 764
27.4c Frasnian-Famennian 767
27.4d Neoproterozoic-Early Cambrian 767
27.5 Precambrian Carbonates 768
27.5a Carbon-Isotope Excursions 769
27.5b Snowball Earth 771
27.6 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 774
27.6a Volcanic Gases 774
27.6b Volcanic Rocks 776
27.6c Graphite and Calcite 778
27.6d Greek Marbles 781
xxii
Contents
27.6e Diamonds 781
27.6f Carbonatites 784
27.7 Extraterrestrial Carbon 785
27.7a Stony Meteorites 786
27.7b Iron Meteorites 787
27.7c Lunar Carbon 788
27.8 Search for Life on Mars 790
27.8a Martian Meteorites 791
27.8b ALH 84001 792
27.9 Summary 792
References 793
28 Nitrogen 803
28.1 Geochemistry 803
28.2 Isotope Fractionation 805
28.3 Nitrogen on the Surface of the Earth 806
28.3a POM in the Oceans 807
28.3b Lacustrine Sediment and the Food Chain 808
28.4 Fossil Fuels 808
28.5 Igneous Rocks and the Mantle 811
28.6 Ultramafic Xenoliths 812
28.7 Diamonds 813
28.8 Meteorites 815
28.9 Moon 817
28.10 Mars 818
28.11 Summary 820
References 820
29 Sulfur 824
29.1 Isotope Geochemistry 824
29.2 Biogenic Isotope Fractionation 825
29.3 Sulfur in Recent Sediment 827
29.4 Fossil Fuels 828
29.4a Petroleum 828
29.4b Coal 829
29.5 Native Sulfur Deposits 830
29.6 Sedimentary Rocks of Precambrian Age 831
29.7 Isotopic Evolution of Marine Sulfate 833
29.8 Igneous Rocks 835
29.8a Contamination 836
29.8b Alteration by Seawater 836
29.8c Outgassing of S02 836
29.9 Sulfide Ore Deposits 840
Contents
xxiii
29.9a Isotope Fractionation among Sulfide Minerals 841
29.9b Isotope Fractionation in Ore-Forming Fluids 842
29.10 Sulfur in the Environment 843
29.11 Mass-Independent Isotope Fractionation 846
29.12 Summary 847
References 849
30 Boron and Other Elements 854
30.1 Boron 855
30.1a Geochemistry 855
30.1b Isotopic Composition
30.1c Meteorites 858
30.Id Summary 859
30.2 Lithium 859
30.2a Geochemistry 860
30.2b Isotope Composition
30,2c Summary 862
30.3 Silicon 863
30.3a Geochemistry 863
30.3b Isotope Composition
30.3c Terrestrial Rocks 864
30.3d Marine Diatoms 865
30.3e Aqueous Isotope Geochemistry 865
30,3f Extraterrestrial Rocks 866
30.3g Summary 868
30.4 Chlorine 868
30.4a Geochemistry 868
30.4b Isotope Geochemistry 869
30.4c Summary 870
30.5 Postscript 870
References 870
Index 875
International Geological Hmescale (2002) 897
The author index and the end~of~chapter problems are available on the
worldwide web at www.wiley.com/college/faure .
856
860
863 |
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| index_date | 2024-07-02T14:52:12Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:39:58Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0471384372 9780471384373 |
| language | English |
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| spelling | Faure, Gunter Verfasser aut Isotopes principles and applications Gunter Faure and Teresa M. Mensing 3. ed. Hoboken, NJ Wiley 2005 XXVII, 897 S. graph. Darst. 25 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Rev. ed. of: Principles of isotope geology. 2nd ed. c1986. Geoquímica isotópica larpcal İzotop jeolojisi Isotope geology Isotopengeologie (DE-588)4162579-1 gnd rswk-swf Isotopengeologie (DE-588)4162579-1 s DE-604 Mensing, Teresa M. Verfasser aut Früher u. d. T. Faure, Gunter Principles of isotope geology http://www.loc.gov/catdir/description/wiley042/2003022089.html Publisher description http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip049/2003022089.html Table of contents http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0614/2003022089-b.html Contributor biographical information HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014831073&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Faure, Gunter Mensing, Teresa M. Isotopes principles and applications Geoquímica isotópica larpcal İzotop jeolojisi Isotope geology Isotopengeologie (DE-588)4162579-1 gnd |
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| title | Isotopes principles and applications |
| title_auth | Isotopes principles and applications |
| title_exact_search | Isotopes principles and applications |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Isotopes principles and applications |
| title_full | Isotopes principles and applications Gunter Faure and Teresa M. Mensing |
| title_fullStr | Isotopes principles and applications Gunter Faure and Teresa M. Mensing |
| title_full_unstemmed | Isotopes principles and applications Gunter Faure and Teresa M. Mensing |
| title_old | Faure, Gunter Principles of isotope geology |
| title_short | Isotopes |
| title_sort | isotopes principles and applications |
| title_sub | principles and applications |
| topic | Geoquímica isotópica larpcal İzotop jeolojisi Isotope geology Isotopengeologie (DE-588)4162579-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Geoquímica isotópica İzotop jeolojisi Isotope geology Isotopengeologie |
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