Radiation physics for medical physicists: with 37 tables
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
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Berlin [u.a.]
Springer
2006
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| Series: | Biological and medical physics, biomedical engineering
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXI, 437 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9783540250418 3540250417 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Podgorsak, Ervin B. |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)130392197 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Radiation physics for medical physicists |b with 37 tables |c E. B. Podgoršak |
| 264 | 1 | |a Berlin [u.a.] |b Springer |c 2006 | |
| 300 | |a XXI, 437 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
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| 490 | 0 | |a Biological and medical physics, biomedical engineering | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Radiologie |0 (DE-588)4048213-3 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
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| _version_ | 1804135058640994304 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
1 Introduction to Modern Physics 1
1.1 Fundamental Physical Constants 2
1.2 Derived Physical Constants and Relationships 3
1.3 Milestones in Modern Physics and Medical Physics 4
1.4 Physical Quantities and Units 5
1.5 Classification of Forces in Nature 6
1.6 Classification of Fundamental Particles 6
1.7 Classification of Radiation 7
1.8 Types and Sources of Directly Ionizing Radiation 8
1.8.1 Electrons 8
1.8.2 Positrons 8
1.8.3 Heavy Charged Particles 8
1.8.4 Heavier Charged Particles 9
1.8.5 Pions 9
1.9 Classification of Indirectly Ionizing Photon Radiation 9
1.10 Radiation Quantities and Units 9
1.11 Dose in Water for Various Radiation Beams 10
1.11.1 Dose Distributions for Photon Beams 11
1.11.2 Dose Distributions for Neutron Beams 13
1.11.3 Dose Distributions for Electron Beams 13
1.11.4 Dose Distributions
for Heavy Charged Particle Beams 14
1.12 Basic Definitions for Atomic Structure 14
1.13 Basic Definitions for Nuclear Structure 15
1.14 Nuclear Binding Energies 16
1.15 Nuclear Models 18
1.15.1 Liquid Drop Nuclear Model 18
1.15.2 Shell Structure Nuclear Model 20
1.16 Physics of Small Dimensions and Large Velocities 20
1.17 Planck s Energy Quantization 21
1.18 Quantization of Electromagnetic Radiation 22
1.19 Einstein s Special Theory of Relativity 23
1.20 Important Relativistic Relationships 24
1.20.1 Relativistic Mass m 25
XIV Contents
1.20.2 Relativistic Force F
and Relativistic Acceleration a 25
1.20.3 Relativistic Kinetic Energy EK 27
1.20.4 Total Relativistic E
as a Function of Momentum p 28
1.20.5 Taylor Expansion for Relativistic Kinetic Energy
and Momentum 29
1.20.6 Relativistic Doppler Shift 29
1.21 Particle Wave Duality: Davisson Germer Experiment 30
1.22 Matter Waves 31
1.22.1 Introduction to Wave Mechanics 32
1.22.2 Quantum Mechanical Wave Equation 33
1.22.3 Time Independent Schrodinger Equation 35
1.22.4 Measurable Quantities and Operators 36
1.23 Uncertainty Principle 37
1.24 Complementarity Principle 38
1.25 Tunneling 39
1.25.1 Alpha Decay Tunneling 40
1.25.2 Field Emission Tunneling 40
1.26 Maxwell s Equations 40
2 Rutherford Bohr Atomic Model 43
2.1 Geiger Marsden Experiment 44
2.1.1 Parameters of the Geiger Marsden Experiment .... 44
2.1.2 Thomson s Atomic Model 46
2.2 Rutherford Atom and Rutherford Scattering 47
2.2.1 Rutherford Model of the Atom 48
2.2.2 Kinematics of Rutherford Scattering 48
2.2.3 Differential Cross Section
for Rutherford Scattering 52
2.2.4 Minimum and Maximum Scattering Angles 53
2.2.5 Total Rutherford Scattering Cross Section 54
2.2.6 Mean Square Scattering Angle
for Single Rutherford Scattering 56
2.2.7 Mean Square Scattering Angle
for Multiple Rutherford Scattering 58
2.3 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 59
2.3.1 Radius of the Bohr Atom 60
2.3.2 Velocity of the Bohr Electron 60
2.3.3 Total Energy of the Bohr Electron 61
2.3.4 Transition Frequency and Wave Number 63
2.3.5 Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen 63
2.3.6 Correction for Finite Mass of the Nucleus 64
2.3.7 Positronium 65
2.3.8 Muonic Atom 65
Contents XV
2.3.9 Quantum Numbers 65
2.3.10 Successes and Limitations
of the Bohr Atomic Model 66
2.3.11 Correspondence Principle 66
2.4 Multi electron Atoms 68
2.4.1 Exclusion Principle 68
2.4.2 Hartree s Approximation
for Multi electron Atoms 70
2.4.3 Periodic Table of Elements 72
2.4.4 Ionization Potential of Atoms 74
2.5 Experimental Confirmation of the Bohr Atomic Model 74
2.5.1 Emission and Absorption Spectra
of Mono Atomic Gases 76
2.5.2 Moseley s Experiment 77
2.5.3 Franck Hertz Experiment 78
2.6 Schrodinger Equation for the Ground State of Hydrogen ... 79
3 Production of X Rays 87
3.1 X Ray Line Spectra (Characteristic Radiation) 88
3.1.1 Characteristic Radiation 88
3.1.2 Auger Effect and Fluorescent Yield 90
3.2 Emission of Radiation by Accelerated Charged Particle
(Bremsstrahlung Production) 92
3.2.1 Velocity of Charged Particles 92
3.2.2 Electric and Magnetic Fields
Produced by Accelerated Charged Particles 94
3.2.3 Energy Density of the Radiation
Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particle 95
3.2.4 Intensity of the Radiation
Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particle 95
3.2.5 Power Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particle
Through Electromagnetic Radiation
(Classical Larmor Relationship) 96
3.2.6 Relativistic Larmor Relationship 98
3.2.7 Relativistic Electric Field
Produced by Accelerated Charged Particle 98
3.2.8 Characteristic Angle #max 99
3.3 Synchrotron Radiation 102
3.4 Cerenkov Radiation 103
3.5 Practical Considerations in Production of Radiation 105
3.6 Particle Accelerators 107
3.6.1 Betatron 107
3.6.2 Cyclotron 108
3.6.3 Microtron 109
3.7 Linear Accelerator 110
XVI Contents
3.7.1 Linac Generations 110
3.7.2 Components of Modern Linacs Ill
3.7.3 Linac Treatment Head 113
3.7.4 Configuration of Modern Linacs 114
4 Two Particle Collisions 117
4.1 Collisions of Two Particles: General Aspects 118
4.2 Nuclear Reactions 121
4.2.1 Conservation of Momentum in Nuclear Reactions .. . 122
4.2.2 Conservation of Energy in Nuclear Reactions 122
4.2.3 Threshold Energy £thr for Nuclear Reactions 123
4.3 Two Particle Elastic Scattering: Energy Transfer 124
4.3.1 General Energy Transfer from Projectile mi
to Target mi in Elastic Scattering 125
4.3.2 Energy Transfer in a Two Particle Elastic
Head On Collision 126
4.4 Cross Sections for Elastic Scattering of Charged Particles . . 130
4.4.1 Differential Scattering Cross Section
for a Single Scattering Event 131
4.4.2 Effective Characteristic Distance 131
4.4.3 Minimum and Maximum Scattering Angles 133
4.4.4 Total Cross Section for a Single Scattering Event . . . 134
4.4.5 Mean Square Angle for a Single Scattering Event .. . 135
4.4.6 Mean Square Angle for Multiple Scattering 135
4.5 Mass Angular Scattering Power for Electrons 137
5 Interactions of Charged Particles with Matter 141
5.1 General Aspects of Stopping Power 142
5.2 Radiative Stopping Power 143
5.3 Collision Stopping Power for Heavy Charged Particles 144
5.3.1 Momentum Transfer from Heavy Charged Particle
to Orbital Electron 145
5.3.2 Linear Collision Stopping Power 147
5.3.3 Minimum Energy Transfer
and Mean Ionization Excitation Potential 149
5.3.4 Maximum Energy Transfer 149
5.4 Mass Collision Stopping Power 150
5.5 Collision Stopping Power for Light Charged Particles 154
5.6 Total Mass Stopping Power 156
5.7 Bremsstrahlung (Radiation) Yield 156
5.8 Range of Charged Particles 159
5.9 Mean Stopping Power 160
5.10 Restricted Collision Stopping Power 161
5.11 Bremsstrahlung Targets 162
5.11.1 Thin X ray Targets 164
Contents XVII
5.11.2 Thick X ray Targets 164
5.11.3 Practical Aspects of Megavoltage X ray Targets .... 165
6 Interactions of Neutrons with Matter 169
6.1 General Aspects of Neutron Interactions with Absorbers . . . 170
6.2 Neutron Interactions with Nuclei of the Absorber 171
6.2.1 Elastic Scattering 171
6.2.2 Inelastic Scattering 172
6.2.3 Neutron Capture 172
6.2.4 Spallation 172
6.2.5 Fission Induced by Neutron Bombardment 173
6.3 Neutron Kerma 174
6.4 Neutron Kerma Factor 175
6.5 Neutron Dose Deposition in Tissue 176
6.5.1 Thermal Neutron Interactions in Tissue 177
6.5.2 Interactions of Intermediate and Fast Neutrons
with Tissue 179
6.6 Neutron Beams in Medicine 180
6.6.1 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) 180
6.6.2 Radiotherapy with Fast Neutron Beams 182
6.6.3 Machines for Production
of Clinical Fast Neutron Beams 182
6.6.4 Californium 252 Neutron Source 184
6.7 Neutron Radiography 184
7 Interactions of Photons with Matter 187
7.1 General Aspects of Photon Interactions with Absorbers .... 188
7.2 Thomson Scattering 189
7.3 Compton Scattering (Compton Effect) 193
7.3.1 Relationship Between the Scattering Angle 6
and the Recoil Angle cf 196
7.3.2 Scattered Photon Energy hv
as a Function of hv and 6 196
7.3.3 Energy Transfer to the Compton Recoil Electron . . . 198
7.3.4 Differential Cross Section for Compton Scattering
deaâ„¢/dn 199
7.3.5 Differential Energy Transfer Cross Section
(de 7cKN)tr/dr? 203
7.3.6 Energy Distribution of Recoil Electrons
decr^N/dEK 203
7.3.7 Total Electronic Klein Nishina Cross Section
for Compton Scattering e(T^N 204
7.3.8 Energy Transfer Cross Section for Compton Effect
UcKN)tr 206
7.3.9 Binding Energy Effects and Corrections 207
XVIII Contents
7.3.10 Mass Attenuation Coefficient for Compton Effect . . . 210
7.3.11 Compton Mass Energy Transfer Coefficient 212
7.4 Rayleigh Scattering 214
7.4.1 Differential Atomic Cross Sections
for Rayleigh Scattering 215
7.4.2 Form Factor F(x, Z) for Rayleigh Scattering 215
7.4.3 Scattering Angles in Rayleigh Scattering 216
7.4.4 Atomic Cross Sections
for Rayleigh Scattering a TR 218
7.4.5 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
for Rayleigh Scattering 219
7.5 Photoelectric Effect 219
7.5.1 Atomic Cross Section for Photoelectric Effect 222
7.5.2 Angular Distribution of Photoelectrons 223
7.5.3 Energy Transfer to Photoelectrons
in Photoelectric Effect 224
7.5.4 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
for the Photoelectric Effect 225
7.5.5 Mass Energy Transfer Coefficient
for the Photoelectric Effect 225
7.6 Pair Production 227
7.6.1 Conservation of Energy, Momentum and Charge
for Pair Production in Free Space 227
7.6.2 Threshold Energy for Pair Production
and Triplet Production 228
7.6.3 Energy Transfer to Charged Particles
in Pair Production 230
7.6.4 Angular Distribution of Charged Particles 230
7.6.5 Nuclear Screening 230
7.6.6 Atomic Cross Sections for Pair Production 230
7.6.7 Mass Attenuation Coefficient for Pair Production . . 233
7.6.8 Mass Energy Transfer Coefficient
for Pair Production 233
7.6.9 Positron Annihilation 234
7.7 Photonuclear Reactions (Photodisintegration) 235
7.8 General Aspects of Photon Interaction with Absorbers 236
7.8.1 Narrow Beam Geometry 237
7.8.2 Characteristic Absorber Thicknesses 238
7.8.3 Other Attenuation Coefficients and Cross Sections . . 239
7.8.4 Broad Beam Geometry 240
7.8.5 Classification of Photon Interactions 241
7.8.6 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
of Compounds and Mixtures 243
7.8.7 Tabulation of Attenuation Coefficients 243
Contents XIX
7.8.8 Energy Transfer Coefficient 244
7.8.9 Energy Absorption Coefficient 248
7.8.10 Effects Following Photon Interactions 250
7.9 Summary of Photon Interactions 250
7.10 Example 1: Interaction of 2 MeV Photons with Lead 253
7.11 Example 2: Interaction of 8 MeV Photons with Copper .... 256
8 Radioactivity 263
8.1 Introduction 264
8.2 Decay of Radioactive Parent into a Stable Daughter 265
8.3 Radioactive Series Decay 268
8.3.1 Parent —» Daughter —
Granddaughter Relationships 268
8.3.2 Characteristic Time 270
8.3.3 General Form of Daughter Activity 271
8.3.4 Equilibria in Parent Daughter Activities 276
8.3.5 Bateman Equations 280
8.3.6 Mixture of Two or More Independently Decaying
Radionuclides in a Sample 280
8.4 Activation of Nuclides 281
8.4.1 Nuclear Reaction Cross Section 281
8.4.2 Neutron Activation 283
8.4.3 Infinite Number of Parent Nuclei:
Saturation Model 284
8.4.4 Finite Number of Parent Nuclei: Depletion Model . . 286
8.4.5 Maximum Attainable Specific Activities
in Neutron Activation 292
8.4.6 Examples of Parent Depletion: Neutron Activation
of Cobalt 59, Iridium 191 and Molybdenum 98 296
8.4.7 Neutron Activation of the Daughter:
Depletion Activation Model 300
8.4.8 Example of Daughter Neutron Activation:
Iridium 192 302
8.4.9 Practical Aspects of Radioactivation 307
8.5 Origin of Radioactive Elements (Radionuclides) 312
8.5.1 Man Made (Artificial) Radionuclides 312
8.5.2 Naturally Occuring Radionuclides 312
8.5.3 Radionuclides in the Environment 314
8.6 General Aspects of Radioactive Decay Processes 314
8.7 Alpha Decay 316
8.7.1 Decay Energy in a Decay 317
8.7.2 Alpha Decay of Radium 226 into Radon 222 319
8.8 Beta Decay 321
8.8.1 General Aspects of Beta Decay 321
8.8.2 Beta Particle Spectrum 322
XX Contents
8.8.3 Daughter Recoil in (3~ and f3+ Decay 324
8.9 Beta Minus Decay 325
8.9.1 General Aspects of Beta Minus {(i~) Decay 325
8.9.2 Beta Minus (/3~) Decay Energy 326
8.9.3 Beta Minus (/? ) Decay of Cobalt 60
into Nickel 60 326
8.9.4 Beta Minus (/3~) Decay of Cesium 137
into Barium 137 328
8.10 Beta Plus Decay 329
8.10.1 General Aspects of the Beta Plus (/?+) Decay 329
8.10.2 Decay Energy in /?+ Decay 329
8.10.3 Beta Plus {(3+) Decay of Nitrogen 13
into Carbon 13 330
8.10.4 Beta Plus (/?+) Decay of Fluorine 18
into Oxygen 18 331
8.11 Electron Capture (EC) 332
8.11.1 Decay Energy in Electron Capture 332
8.11.2 Recoil Kinetic Energy of the Daughter Nucleus
in Electron Capture Decay 333
8.11.3 Electron Capture Decay of Beryllium 7
into Lithium 7 334
8.11.4 Decay of Iridium 192 335
8.12 Gamma Decay 336
8.12.1 General Aspects of Gamma (7) Decay 336
8.12.2 Emission of Gamma Rays in Gamma Decay 337
8.12.3 Gamma Decay Energy 337
8.12.4 Resonance Absorption and the Mossbauer Effect . . . 338
8.13 Internal Conversion 339
8.13.1 General Aspects of Internal Conversion 339
8.13.2 Internal Conversion Factor 340
8.14 Spontaneous Fission 341
8.15 Proton Emission Decay 342
8.15.1 Decay Energy in Proton Emission Decay 343
8.15.2 Example of Proton Emission Decay 344
8.15.3 Example of Two Proton Emission Decay 345
8.16 Neutron Emission Decay 345
8.16.1 Decay Energy in Neutron Emission Decay 346
8.16.2 Example of Neutron Emission Decay 347
8.17 Chart of the Nuclides 347
8.18 General Aspects of Radioactive Decay 349
Bibliography 359
Contents XXI
Appendices
Appendix 1: Short Biographies of Scientists
Whose Work Is Discussed in This Book 361
Appendix 2. Roman Letter Symbols 403
Appendix 3. Greek Letter Symbols 411
Appendix 4. Acronyms 415
Appendix 5. Electronic Databases of Interest
in Nuclear and Medical Physics 417
Appendix 6. International Organizations 421
Index 423
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
1 Introduction to Modern Physics 1
1.1 Fundamental Physical Constants 2
1.2 Derived Physical Constants and Relationships 3
1.3 Milestones in Modern Physics and Medical Physics 4
1.4 Physical Quantities and Units 5
1.5 Classification of Forces in Nature 6
1.6 Classification of Fundamental Particles 6
1.7 Classification of Radiation 7
1.8 Types and Sources of Directly Ionizing Radiation 8
1.8.1 Electrons 8
1.8.2 Positrons 8
1.8.3 Heavy Charged Particles 8
1.8.4 Heavier Charged Particles 9
1.8.5 Pions 9
1.9 Classification of Indirectly Ionizing Photon Radiation 9
1.10 Radiation Quantities and Units 9
1.11 Dose in Water for Various Radiation Beams 10
1.11.1 Dose Distributions for Photon Beams 11
1.11.2 Dose Distributions for Neutron Beams 13
1.11.3 Dose Distributions for Electron Beams 13
1.11.4 Dose Distributions
for Heavy Charged Particle Beams 14
1.12 Basic Definitions for Atomic Structure 14
1.13 Basic Definitions for Nuclear Structure 15
1.14 Nuclear Binding Energies 16
1.15 Nuclear Models 18
1.15.1 Liquid Drop Nuclear Model 18
1.15.2 Shell Structure Nuclear Model 20
1.16 Physics of Small Dimensions and Large Velocities 20
1.17 Planck's Energy Quantization 21
1.18 Quantization of Electromagnetic Radiation 22
1.19 Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity 23
1.20 Important Relativistic Relationships 24
1.20.1 Relativistic Mass m 25
XIV Contents
1.20.2 Relativistic Force F
and Relativistic Acceleration a 25
1.20.3 Relativistic Kinetic Energy EK 27
1.20.4 Total Relativistic E
as a Function of Momentum p 28
1.20.5 Taylor Expansion for Relativistic Kinetic Energy
and Momentum 29
1.20.6 Relativistic Doppler Shift 29
1.21 Particle Wave Duality: Davisson Germer Experiment 30
1.22 Matter Waves 31
1.22.1 Introduction to Wave Mechanics 32
1.22.2 Quantum Mechanical Wave Equation 33
1.22.3 Time Independent Schrodinger Equation 35
1.22.4 Measurable Quantities and Operators 36
1.23 Uncertainty Principle 37
1.24 Complementarity Principle 38
1.25 Tunneling 39
1.25.1 Alpha Decay Tunneling 40
1.25.2 Field Emission Tunneling 40
1.26 Maxwell's Equations 40
2 Rutherford Bohr Atomic Model 43
2.1 Geiger Marsden Experiment 44
2.1.1 Parameters of the Geiger Marsden Experiment . 44
2.1.2 Thomson's Atomic Model 46
2.2 Rutherford Atom and Rutherford Scattering 47
2.2.1 Rutherford Model of the Atom 48
2.2.2 Kinematics of Rutherford Scattering 48
2.2.3 Differential Cross Section
for Rutherford Scattering 52
2.2.4 Minimum and Maximum Scattering Angles 53
2.2.5 Total Rutherford Scattering Cross Section 54
2.2.6 Mean Square Scattering Angle
for Single Rutherford Scattering 56
2.2.7 Mean Square Scattering Angle
for Multiple Rutherford Scattering 58
2.3 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 59
2.3.1 Radius of the Bohr Atom 60
2.3.2 Velocity of the Bohr Electron 60
2.3.3 Total Energy of the Bohr Electron 61
2.3.4 Transition Frequency and Wave Number 63
2.3.5 Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen 63
2.3.6 Correction for Finite Mass of the Nucleus 64
2.3.7 Positronium 65
2.3.8 Muonic Atom 65
Contents XV
2.3.9 Quantum Numbers 65
2.3.10 Successes and Limitations
of the Bohr Atomic Model 66
2.3.11 Correspondence Principle 66
2.4 Multi electron Atoms 68
2.4.1 Exclusion Principle 68
2.4.2 Hartree's Approximation
for Multi electron Atoms 70
2.4.3 Periodic Table of Elements 72
2.4.4 Ionization Potential of Atoms 74
2.5 Experimental Confirmation of the Bohr Atomic Model 74
2.5.1 Emission and Absorption Spectra
of Mono Atomic Gases 76
2.5.2 Moseley's Experiment 77
2.5.3 Franck Hertz Experiment 78
2.6 Schrodinger Equation for the Ground State of Hydrogen . 79
3 Production of X Rays 87
3.1 X Ray Line Spectra (Characteristic Radiation) 88
3.1.1 Characteristic Radiation 88
3.1.2 Auger Effect and Fluorescent Yield 90
3.2 Emission of Radiation by Accelerated Charged Particle
(Bremsstrahlung Production) 92
3.2.1 Velocity of Charged Particles 92
3.2.2 Electric and Magnetic Fields
Produced by Accelerated Charged Particles 94
3.2.3 Energy Density of the Radiation
Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particle 95
3.2.4 Intensity of the Radiation
Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particle 95
3.2.5 Power Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particle
Through Electromagnetic Radiation
(Classical Larmor Relationship) 96
3.2.6 Relativistic Larmor Relationship 98
3.2.7 Relativistic Electric Field
Produced by Accelerated Charged Particle 98
3.2.8 Characteristic Angle #max 99
3.3 Synchrotron Radiation 102
3.4 Cerenkov Radiation 103
3.5 Practical Considerations in Production of Radiation 105
3.6 Particle Accelerators 107
3.6.1 Betatron 107
3.6.2 Cyclotron 108
3.6.3 Microtron 109
3.7 Linear Accelerator 110
XVI Contents
3.7.1 Linac Generations 110
3.7.2 Components of Modern Linacs Ill
3.7.3 Linac Treatment Head 113
3.7.4 Configuration of Modern Linacs 114
4 Two Particle Collisions 117
4.1 Collisions of Two Particles: General Aspects 118
4.2 Nuclear Reactions 121
4.2.1 Conservation of Momentum in Nuclear Reactions . . 122
4.2.2 Conservation of Energy in Nuclear Reactions 122
4.2.3 Threshold Energy £thr for Nuclear Reactions 123
4.3 Two Particle Elastic Scattering: Energy Transfer 124
4.3.1 General Energy Transfer from Projectile mi
to Target mi in Elastic Scattering 125
4.3.2 Energy Transfer in a Two Particle Elastic
Head On Collision 126
4.4 Cross Sections for Elastic Scattering of Charged Particles . . 130
4.4.1 Differential Scattering Cross Section
for a Single Scattering Event 131
4.4.2 Effective Characteristic Distance 131
4.4.3 Minimum and Maximum Scattering Angles 133
4.4.4 Total Cross Section for a Single Scattering Event . . . 134
4.4.5 Mean Square Angle for a Single Scattering Event . . 135
4.4.6 Mean Square Angle for Multiple Scattering 135
4.5 Mass Angular Scattering Power for Electrons 137
5 Interactions of Charged Particles with Matter 141
5.1 General Aspects of Stopping Power 142
5.2 Radiative Stopping Power 143
5.3 Collision Stopping Power for Heavy Charged Particles 144
5.3.1 Momentum Transfer from Heavy Charged Particle
to Orbital Electron 145
5.3.2 Linear Collision Stopping Power 147
5.3.3 Minimum Energy Transfer
and Mean Ionization Excitation Potential 149
5.3.4 Maximum Energy Transfer 149
5.4 Mass Collision Stopping Power 150
5.5 Collision Stopping Power for Light Charged Particles 154
5.6 Total Mass Stopping Power 156
5.7 Bremsstrahlung (Radiation) Yield 156
5.8 Range of Charged Particles 159
5.9 Mean Stopping Power 160
5.10 Restricted Collision Stopping Power 161
5.11 Bremsstrahlung Targets 162
5.11.1 Thin X ray Targets 164
Contents XVII
5.11.2 Thick X ray Targets 164
5.11.3 Practical Aspects of Megavoltage X ray Targets . 165
6 Interactions of Neutrons with Matter 169
6.1 General Aspects of Neutron Interactions with Absorbers . . . 170
6.2 Neutron Interactions with Nuclei of the Absorber 171
6.2.1 Elastic Scattering 171
6.2.2 Inelastic Scattering 172
6.2.3 Neutron Capture 172
6.2.4 Spallation 172
6.2.5 Fission Induced by Neutron Bombardment 173
6.3 Neutron Kerma 174
6.4 Neutron Kerma Factor 175
6.5 Neutron Dose Deposition in Tissue 176
6.5.1 Thermal Neutron Interactions in Tissue 177
6.5.2 Interactions of Intermediate and Fast Neutrons
with Tissue 179
6.6 Neutron Beams in Medicine 180
6.6.1 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) 180
6.6.2 Radiotherapy with Fast Neutron Beams 182
6.6.3 Machines for Production
of Clinical Fast Neutron Beams 182
6.6.4 Californium 252 Neutron Source 184
6.7 Neutron Radiography 184
7 Interactions of Photons with Matter 187
7.1 General Aspects of Photon Interactions with Absorbers . 188
7.2 Thomson Scattering 189
7.3 Compton Scattering (Compton Effect) 193
7.3.1 Relationship Between the Scattering Angle 6
and the Recoil Angle cf 196
7.3.2 Scattered Photon Energy hv'
as a Function of hv and 6 196
7.3.3 Energy Transfer to the Compton Recoil Electron . . . 198
7.3.4 Differential Cross Section for Compton Scattering
deaâ„¢/dn 199
7.3.5 Differential Energy Transfer Cross Section
(de 7cKN)tr/dr? 203
7.3.6 Energy Distribution of Recoil Electrons
decr^N/dEK 203
7.3.7 Total Electronic Klein Nishina Cross Section
for Compton Scattering e(T^N 204
7.3.8 Energy Transfer Cross Section for Compton Effect
UcKN)tr 206
7.3.9 Binding Energy Effects and Corrections 207
XVIII Contents
7.3.10 Mass Attenuation Coefficient for Compton Effect . . . 210
7.3.11 Compton Mass Energy Transfer Coefficient 212
7.4 Rayleigh Scattering 214
7.4.1 Differential Atomic Cross Sections
for Rayleigh Scattering 215
7.4.2 Form Factor F(x, Z) for Rayleigh Scattering 215
7.4.3 Scattering Angles in Rayleigh Scattering 216
7.4.4 Atomic Cross Sections
for Rayleigh Scattering a TR 218
7.4.5 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
for Rayleigh Scattering 219
7.5 Photoelectric Effect 219
7.5.1 Atomic Cross Section for Photoelectric Effect 222
7.5.2 Angular Distribution of Photoelectrons 223
7.5.3 Energy Transfer to Photoelectrons
in Photoelectric Effect 224
7.5.4 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
for the Photoelectric Effect 225
7.5.5 Mass Energy Transfer Coefficient
for the Photoelectric Effect 225
7.6 Pair Production 227
7.6.1 Conservation of Energy, Momentum and Charge
for Pair Production in Free Space 227
7.6.2 Threshold Energy for Pair Production
and Triplet Production 228
7.6.3 Energy Transfer to Charged Particles
in Pair Production 230
7.6.4 Angular Distribution of Charged Particles 230
7.6.5 Nuclear Screening 230
7.6.6 Atomic Cross Sections for Pair Production 230
7.6.7 Mass Attenuation Coefficient for Pair Production . . 233
7.6.8 Mass Energy Transfer Coefficient
for Pair Production 233
7.6.9 Positron Annihilation 234
7.7 Photonuclear Reactions (Photodisintegration) 235
7.8 General Aspects of Photon Interaction with Absorbers 236
7.8.1 Narrow Beam Geometry 237
7.8.2 Characteristic Absorber Thicknesses 238
7.8.3 Other Attenuation Coefficients and Cross Sections . . 239
7.8.4 Broad Beam Geometry 240
7.8.5 Classification of Photon Interactions 241
7.8.6 Mass Attenuation Coefficient
of Compounds and Mixtures 243
7.8.7 Tabulation of Attenuation Coefficients 243
Contents XIX
7.8.8 Energy Transfer Coefficient 244
7.8.9 Energy Absorption Coefficient 248
7.8.10 Effects Following Photon Interactions 250
7.9 Summary of Photon Interactions 250
7.10 Example 1: Interaction of 2 MeV Photons with Lead 253
7.11 Example 2: Interaction of 8 MeV Photons with Copper . 256
8 Radioactivity 263
8.1 Introduction 264
8.2 Decay of Radioactive Parent into a Stable Daughter 265
8.3 Radioactive Series Decay 268
8.3.1 Parent —» Daughter —
Granddaughter Relationships 268
8.3.2 Characteristic Time 270
8.3.3 General Form of Daughter Activity 271
8.3.4 Equilibria in Parent Daughter Activities 276
8.3.5 Bateman Equations 280
8.3.6 Mixture of Two or More Independently Decaying
Radionuclides in a Sample 280
8.4 Activation of Nuclides 281
8.4.1 Nuclear Reaction Cross Section 281
8.4.2 Neutron Activation 283
8.4.3 Infinite Number of Parent Nuclei:
Saturation Model 284
8.4.4 Finite Number of Parent Nuclei: Depletion Model . . 286
8.4.5 Maximum Attainable Specific Activities
in Neutron Activation 292
8.4.6 Examples of Parent Depletion: Neutron Activation
of Cobalt 59, Iridium 191 and Molybdenum 98 296
8.4.7 Neutron Activation of the Daughter:
Depletion Activation Model 300
8.4.8 Example of Daughter Neutron Activation:
Iridium 192 302
8.4.9 Practical Aspects of Radioactivation 307
8.5 Origin of Radioactive Elements (Radionuclides) 312
8.5.1 Man Made (Artificial) Radionuclides 312
8.5.2 Naturally Occuring Radionuclides 312
8.5.3 Radionuclides in the Environment 314
8.6 General Aspects of Radioactive Decay Processes 314
8.7 Alpha Decay 316
8.7.1 Decay Energy in a Decay 317
8.7.2 Alpha Decay of Radium 226 into Radon 222 319
8.8 Beta Decay 321
8.8.1 General Aspects of Beta Decay 321
8.8.2 Beta Particle Spectrum 322
XX Contents
8.8.3 Daughter Recoil in (3~ and f3+ Decay 324
8.9 Beta Minus Decay 325
8.9.1 General Aspects of Beta Minus {(i~) Decay 325
8.9.2 Beta Minus (/3~) Decay Energy 326
8.9.3 Beta Minus (/?") Decay of Cobalt 60
into Nickel 60 326
8.9.4 Beta Minus (/3~) Decay of Cesium 137
into Barium 137 328
8.10 Beta Plus Decay 329
8.10.1 General Aspects of the Beta Plus (/?+) Decay 329
8.10.2 Decay Energy in /?+ Decay 329
8.10.3 Beta Plus {(3+) Decay of Nitrogen 13
into Carbon 13 330
8.10.4 Beta Plus (/?+) Decay of Fluorine 18
into Oxygen 18 331
8.11 Electron Capture (EC) 332
8.11.1 Decay Energy in Electron Capture 332
8.11.2 Recoil Kinetic Energy of the Daughter Nucleus
in Electron Capture Decay 333
8.11.3 Electron Capture Decay of Beryllium 7
into Lithium 7 334
8.11.4 Decay of Iridium 192 335
8.12 Gamma Decay 336
8.12.1 General Aspects of Gamma (7) Decay 336
8.12.2 Emission of Gamma Rays in Gamma Decay 337
8.12.3 Gamma Decay Energy 337
8.12.4 Resonance Absorption and the Mossbauer Effect . . . 338
8.13 Internal Conversion 339
8.13.1 General Aspects of Internal Conversion 339
8.13.2 Internal Conversion Factor 340
8.14 Spontaneous Fission 341
8.15 Proton Emission Decay 342
8.15.1 Decay Energy in Proton Emission Decay 343
8.15.2 Example of Proton Emission Decay 344
8.15.3 Example of Two Proton Emission Decay 345
8.16 Neutron Emission Decay 345
8.16.1 Decay Energy in Neutron Emission Decay 346
8.16.2 Example of Neutron Emission Decay 347
8.17 Chart of the Nuclides 347
8.18 General Aspects of Radioactive Decay 349
Bibliography 359
Contents XXI
Appendices
Appendix 1: Short Biographies of Scientists
Whose Work Is Discussed in This Book 361
Appendix 2. Roman Letter Symbols 403
Appendix 3. Greek Letter Symbols 411
Appendix 4. Acronyms 415
Appendix 5. Electronic Databases of Interest
in Nuclear and Medical Physics 417
Appendix 6. International Organizations 421
Index 423 |
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| index_date | 2024-07-02T13:45:59Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:34:28Z |
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| isbn | 9783540250418 3540250417 |
| language | English |
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| spelling | Podgorsak, Ervin B. Verfasser (DE-588)130392197 aut Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables E. B. Podgoršak Berlin [u.a.] Springer 2006 XXI, 437 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Biological and medical physics, biomedical engineering Radiologie (DE-588)4048213-3 gnd rswk-swf Radiologie (DE-588)4048213-3 s DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014597178&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Podgorsak, Ervin B. Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables Radiologie (DE-588)4048213-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4048213-3 |
| title | Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables |
| title_auth | Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables |
| title_exact_search | Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables |
| title_full | Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables E. B. Podgoršak |
| title_fullStr | Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables E. B. Podgoršak |
| title_full_unstemmed | Radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables E. B. Podgoršak |
| title_short | Radiation physics for medical physicists |
| title_sort | radiation physics for medical physicists with 37 tables |
| title_sub | with 37 tables |
| topic | Radiologie (DE-588)4048213-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Radiologie |
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