War epidemics: an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000
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| Main Authors: | , |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
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Oxford
Oxford Univ. Press
2004
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| Edition: | 1. publ. |
| Series: | Oxford geographical and environmental studies series
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachrdrucke |
| Physical Description: | XXXIV, 805 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 0198233647 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Smallman-Raynor, Matthew |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)170836835 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a War epidemics |b an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 |c M. R. Smallman-Raynor and A. D. Cliff |
| 250 | |a 1. publ. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Oxford |b Oxford Univ. Press |c 2004 | |
| 300 | |a XXXIV, 805 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 0 | |a Oxford geographical and environmental studies series | |
| 500 | |a Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachrdrucke | ||
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte 1850-2000 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Geografische aspecten |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Infectieziekten |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Oorlogen |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Geschichte | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Communicable Diseases |x epidemiology | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Communicable diseases |x Transmission |x History | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Disease Outbreaks |x history | |
| 650 | 4 | |a War | |
| 650 | 4 | |a War |x Medical aspects |x History | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Infektionskrankheit |0 (DE-588)4026879-2 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Krieg |0 (DE-588)4033114-3 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Epidemiologie |0 (DE-588)4015016-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Infektionskrankheit |0 (DE-588)4026879-2 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Epidemiologie |0 (DE-588)4015016-1 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 2 | |a Krieg |0 (DE-588)4033114-3 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 3 | |a Geschichte 1850-2000 |A z |
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| 700 | 1 | |a Cliff, Andrew D. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
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| _version_ | 1804130749783212032 |
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| adam_text | CONTENTS
List of Figures and Plates xvii
List of Tables xxvii
Acknowledgements xxxiii
Prologue xxxv
PARTI War and Disease
1. Wars and War Epidemics 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Wars 8
1.3 War Epidemics 25
1.4 Epidemiological Data Sources 44
1.5 Organization of the Book 53
2. Epidemics in Early Wars 64
2.1 Introduction 65
2.2 Antiquity (1500 bc ad 500) 66
2.3 The Middle Ages (ad 500 1500) 73
2.4 The Old World, I: European Theatres (ad 1500 1850) 83
2.5 The Old World, II: European Engagements in Africa and Asia
(ad 1700 1850) 110
2.6 War Epidemics in the New World (ad 1500 1850) 111
2.7 Conclusion 119
PART II Temporal Trends
3. Mortality and Morbidity in Modern Wars, I: Civil Populations 123
3.1 Introduction 123
3.2 Twentieth Century Trends in Mortality: Australia and
England and Wales 124
3.3 Twentieth Century Trends in Mortality: International Patterns 130
3.4 The Causes of Epidemic Disease Decline 143
3.5 The Changing Disease Environment 155
3.6 Controlling Epidemic Spread 167
3.7 Conclusion 174
4. Mortality and Morbidity in Modern Wars, II: Military Populations 175
4.1 Introduction 175
xiv Contents
4.2 Mortality and Morbidity, 1850 1914 176
4.3 Measles in the American Civil War 184
4.4 World War 1,1914 1918 196
4.5 Patterns since 1918 218
4.6 HIV in the US Army, 1985 1989 221
4.7 Conclusion 228
5. Mortality and Morbidity in Modern Wars, III:
Displaced Populations 231
5.1 Introduction 232
5.2 Background 233
5.3 Global Patterns of Displacement, 1950 1999 238
5.4 Epidemiological Consequences of Displacement 246
5.5 Wartime Evacuation in the United Kingdom, 1939 1945 253
5.6 Palestinian Refugees 277
5.7 Ethnic Conflict, Displacement, and Disease in Central Africa 289
5.8 Conclusion 296
PART III A Regional Pattern of War Epidemics
Introduction to Part III 303
6. Tracking Epidemics 307
6.1 Introduction 308
6.2 Cholera and the Philippine American War, 1902 1904 309
6.3 Map Sequences 313
6.4 Epidemics in Space 316
6.5 Epidemics in Time and Space 321
6.6 Complex Epidemic Spaces 324
6.7 Time Series and Epidemic Models 329
6.8 Conclusion 339
7. Pan America: Military Mobilization and Disease in the
United States 349
7.1 Introduction 349
7.2 Recruiting Fields in the American Civil War (1861 1865) 351
7.3 Mobilization and Typhoid Fever in the Spanish American
War (1898) 370
7.4 US Mobilization and the World Wars 396
7.5 Conclusion 413
8. Europe: Camp Epidemics 415
8.1 Introduction 415
8.2 Crimean War: Cholera in the Field Camps of the British Army,
1854 1855 417
Contents xv
8.3 Prisoner of War Camps: Smallpox Transmission in the
Franco Prussian War, 1870 1871 452
8.4 Camp Epidemics in the World Wars 469
8.5 Conclusions 475
9. Asia and the Far East: Emerging and Re emerging Diseases 480
9.1 Introduction 480
9.2 Emerging and Re emerging Diseases 481
9.3 Scrub Typhus (Tsutsugamushi Disease) in the Burma India Theatre,
1942 1945 489
9.4 UN Forces, Emergent Viruses, and the Korean War 498
9.5 Re emergent Diseases and the Vietnam War 511
9.6 Conclusion 524
10. Africa: Soldiers, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, and War 527
10.1 Introduction 527
10.2 Historical Patterns: French Troops in Algeria Tunisia, 1875 1929 530
10.3 Sexually Transmitted Diseases in World War II 537
10.4 Civil War and the Spread of HIV/AIDS in Central Africa 549
10.5 Conclusion 562
11. Oceania: War Epidemics in South Pacific Islands 566
11.1 Introduction 566
11.2 Old World Diseases and South Pacific Wars, 1850 1900 570
11.3 World War I, Demobilization, and the Spread of Influenza
in Australasia 579
11.4 The United States and the Pacific War, 1942 1945 593
11.5 Conclusion 610
12. Further Regional Studies 612
12.1 Introduction 613
12.2 Africa: Population Reconcentration and Disease in the South
African War 613
12.3 Americas: Peace, War and the Epidemiological Integration of Cuba,
1888 1902 625
12.4 Asia: Prisoners of War, Forced Labour, and Disease in the Far East,
1942 1944 639
12.5 Europe: Civilian Epidemics and the World Wars 645
12.6 Conclusion to Part III 683
PART IV Prospects
13. War and Disease: Recent Trends and Future Threats 689
13.1 Introduction 690
i;
xvi Contents
13.2 Late Twentieth and Early Twenty First Century Conflicts 690
13.3 War, Disease Eradication, and Control 702
13.4 Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism 706
13.5 Further Issues 714
13.6 Conclusion: The Future Disease Burden of Conflict 728
Epilogue 733
References 734
Index 775
LIST OF FIGURES AND PLATES
Figures
1.1 Wars of modern civilization, 1480 1990 13
1.2 Geographical distribution of states at war, 1480 1990 15
1.3 Long term trends in different types of war, 1480 1990 16
1.4 Magnitude duration relationships for sample wars of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries 23
1.5 Intensity of medical writing on war, 1800 2000 28
1.6 Intensity of medical writing on a sample of six war related topics,
1900 2000 29
1.7 Alternate definitions of an epidemic 31
1.8 Disease data for civil populations 50
1.9 Organization of book 54
Plates
1.1 Friedrich Prinzing (1859 1938) 36
1.2 Sample statistical sources for the study of war epidemics 46
Figures
2.1 Wars and war epidemics, 1500 bc ad 1850 67
2.2 Spread of the Plague of Athens (430 425 bc) 71
2.3 Spread of the Black Death, 1347 1352 79
2.4 Location map of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire at the
outbreak of the Thirty Years War (1618 1648) 87
2.5 Estimated population loss in Germany as a consequence of the Thirty
Years War, 1618 1648 88
2.6 Temporal distribution of epidemic outbreaks in Germany during the
Thirty Years War, 1618 1648 89
2.7 Mortality in the Thirty Years War, 1618 1648 91
2.8 Spread of bubonic plague during the Russo Turkish War (1768 1774) 97
2.9 Daily count of deaths in Moscow during the bubonic plague epidemic,
July December 1771 99
2.10 Demographic impact of war on the civil population of sample parishes
of the Basse Meuse region, Belgium, 1620 1730 101
2.11 Epidemic transmission and the Spanish conquest of the Americas 114
Plates
2.1 La Peste d Asdod dit les Philistins frappes de la Peste 70
2.2 Hans Zinsser (1878 1940) 84
2.3 Les Pestiferes de Jaffa 1 °3
2.4 Napoleon Bonaparte s Russian Campaign (1812 1813) 107
Figures
3.1 Australia, 1917 1991:annualmorbidityratesfrom89infectious
diseases 127
I
xviii List of Figures and Plates
3.2 Australia, 1917 1991: summary statistics for annual morbidity rates
from 89 infectious diseases 128
3.3 England and Wales, 1911 1994: annual mortality rates for males aged
15 74 per million population 129
3.4 Classification of 53 causes of death in terms of their time series
behaviour, 1901 1975 134
3.5 Time series of median standardized mortality ratios for the causes of
death in each group of Fig. 3.4 135
3.6 Quinquennia with excess mortality from different causes, 1901 1975 136
3.7 Global trends in deaths from all causes, 1901 1975 138
3.8 Trends in deaths from all causes in the developed world, 1950 1989 140
3.9 Time series of maximum standardized mortality ratios: 31 countries 141
3.10 Schematic model of factors affecting levels of mortality 145
3.11 Measles mortality in the United States, 1960 1988 150
3.12 Time changes in mortality from four diseases (diphtheria, measles,
scarlet fever, and whooping cough), 1930 1990, attributable to
prevention and treatment 152
3.13 Migrations in Europe, 1944 1951 154
3.14 Annual mortality and morbidity from major infectious and parasitic
diseases in the United States in the mid 1980s 157
3.15 Global population growth 160
3.16 Increased spatial mobility of the population of France over a 200 year
period, 1800 2000 162
3.17 Relative threats posed by communicable diseases to travellers in
tropical areas 163
3.18 Global eradication of smallpox under the WHO Intensified
Programme, 1967 1977 169
3.19 Progress towards global poliomyelitis eradication, 1988 2000 173
Plates
3.1 The Expanded Programme on Immunization 171
Figures
4.1 Time trends in mortality rates for armies in seven geographical
locations, 1859 1914 178
4.2 Mortality rates (per 1,000 enlisted men) of troops at home (Britain,
France, Netherlands, Germany, and America) and abroad (all other
locations), 1817 1838 and 1909 1913 180
4.3 Time trends in causes of death for armies in five geographical
locations, 1859 1914 181
4.4 Time trends in causes of deaths by types of disease, 1859 1914 183
4.5 Deaths in the American Civil War, 1861 1865 185
4.6 Western Front, December 1916 August 1917: course of a mumps
epidemic in the IIANZAC Corps 204
4.7 Western Front, 1916 1918,1: percentage of total evacuations
(battle in black, non battle in white) from the army area on the weekly
average strength of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) 205
4.8 Western Front, 1916 1918, II: total casualties by month (battle in
black, non battle in white) in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) 206
List of Figures and Plates xix
4.9 United States, 1917 1919: mobilization and measles 207
4.10 United States, 1917 1919: measles by army camps 209
4.11 United States, 1917 1919: measles among armed forces by state 210
4.12 French research on measles rates in relation to army recruitment 215
4.13 Incidence rates for measles, mumps, and scarlet fever in the US Army
based in the Continental United States 219
4.14 Cumulative AIDS incidence rates in US cities by 31 October 1989 224
4.15 United States 1985 1989: prevalence of HIV 1 antibody in civilian
applicants for military service, I 227
4.16 United States 1985 1989: prevalence of HIV 1 antibody in civilian
applicants for military service, II 229
Plates
4.1 Civil War epidemiological records 187
4.2 Joseph Janvier Woodward (1833 1884) 188
4.3 Hospital conditions during the American Civil War 192
4.4 Assembly camps for new recruits in Australia at the start of the
Great War 197
4.5 Port Said, 1914: troopships in the Great War 198
4.6 Hospital arrangements in the Great War 203
Figures
5.1 Conceptual framework for the analysis of population displacement
in Africa 237
5.2 UNHCR based annual estimates of refugees, 1950 1999 239
5.3 World regional distribution of refugees and biproportionate scores,
based on UNHCR annual estimates, 1970 1999 243
5.4 World regional distribution of refugees and other populations of
concern as denned by UNHCR, 31 December 1999 245
5.5 Monthly crude mortality rates (per 1,000 per month) in sample
refugee camps of Africa and Asia 249
5.6 Evacuation of schoolchildren from British towns and cities,
September 1939 257
5.7 Counties serving as reception areas for London evacuees, 1939 1945 262
5.8 Quarterly time series of infectious disease activity, London and
reception counties, 1933 1949 266
5.9 Surfaces showing the average quarterly incidence (per 1,000
population) of scarlet fever, diphtheria, and poliomyelitis in London
and the reception counties 267
5.10 Disease time series, 1933 1949, for London and reception counties
after the removal of trend and seasonal components 269
5.11 Leads and lags of reception counties with respect to London, by
disease and time period 271
5.12 Poisson probabilities for rural and urban areas of reception counties,
1933 1949 275
5.13 Location of Palestinian refugee camps, June 2000 279
5.14 Infectious disease activity in the population of registered Palestinian
refugees, 1960 1987 282
5.15 Sample epidemic curves, registered Palestinian refugees (1960 1987) 284
i
xx List of Figures and Plates
5.16 Geographical variation in the annual incidence of sample infectious
diseases, registered Palestinian refugees (1960 1987) 286
5.17 Impact of the Lebanese Civil War (1975 1990) on infectious disease
activity among registered Palestinian refugees in the Lebanon and
Syria, 1960 1987 288
5.18 Epidemic louse borne typhus among residents of camps for the
internally displaced in Burundi, Central Africa, January September
1997 291
5.19 Monthly count of louse borne typhus fever in the camps of internally
displaced persons in three central highland provinces of Burundi,
January September 1997 293
5.20 Map showing the location of Rwandese refugee camps in eastern
Zaire, 1994 294
Plates
5.1 FridtjofNansen (1861 1930) 234
5.2 Percy Stocks (1889 1974) 260
Figures
6.1 The Philippine Islands 310
6.2 National series of cholera cases (histograms) and deaths (line traces)
by week, Philippine Islands, March 1902 February 1904 312
6.3 Diffusion of Wave I of the cholera epidemic, Philippine Islands,
March 1902 February 1903 315
6.4 Cholera diffusion at the national level, Philippine Islands, March
1902 February 1904 318
6.5 Comparison of cholera diffusion for Waves I and II at the national
level, Philippine Islands 320
6.6 Comparison of the velocity of Waves I and II at the levels of province,
island, and nation, Philippine Islands 322
6.7 The spread of cholera in Batangas and La Laguna, Wave 1,1902 323
6.8 Two dimensional minimum stress MDS configurations for cholera
in the provinces of the Philippine Islands, 1902 1904 328
6.9 Two dimensional minimum stress MDS configurations for cholera
in 12 islands of the Philippine Islands, 1902 1904 330
6.10 Two dimensional minimum stress MDS configurations for cholera
in the Philippine Islands, March 1902 February 1904 332
6.11 Basic elements in the SIR model 333
6.12 Conceptual view of the spread of a communicable disease in
communities of different population sizes 334
6.13 Associations between provinces in terms of similarity of cholera
activity in Wave II, based upon cross correlations (CCFs) between the
weekly series of morbidity rates per 10,000 population 338
6. A1 Characteristic case frequency distribution for normal, high, and low
velocity epidemic waves 343
Figures
7.1 The American Civil War, 1861 1865: location of states and territories 353
7.2 The War of the Rebellion 354
List of Figures and Plates xxi
7.3 Mortality among Union and Confederate troops in the War of the
Rebellion 356
7.4 Mortality among Union and Confederate prisoners in the War of the
Rebellion 357
7.5 Prevalence of disease and mortality among white and coloured troops,
US Armies per 1,000 strength present, monthly 1861 1866 364
7.6 Prevalence of continued fevers among white troops per 1,000 strength
present, monthly 1861 1866 365
7.7 Prevalence of continued fevers in the Atlantic, Central, and Pacific
Regions per 1,000 strength, monthly 1861 1866 367
7.8 Seasonality of all diseases in the US Armies, 1862 1866, by
geographical region 369
7.9 Daily series of typhoid fever cases (bar chart) and deaths (line trace)
in sample regiments of the US Volunteer Army during the Spanish
American War, May December 1898 370
7.10 Location map of camps occupied by volunteer regiments of the US
Army in the Spanish American War, May December 1898 373
7.11 Movements of typhoid infected regiments of the First, Second,
Third, and Seventh US Army Corps, June December 1898 384
7.12 Diffusion of typhoid fever in the system of encampments occupied by
the First, Second, Third, and Seventh US Army Corps, May
December 1898 389
7.13 Cross correlation functions (CCFs) between the weekly typhoid
case rate (10,000 mean strength) and the spatial autocorrelation
coefficient, /, calculated for three different diffusion graphs:
relocation; contagious (MST); and camp hierarchy 390
7.14 Plots of the weekly values of the spatial autocorrelation coefficient,
Moran s /, as a standard Normal deviate for the subsystems of camps
occupied by the different Army corps 393
7.15 Typhoid fever and anti typhoid vaccination in the US Army,
1897 1919 ^
7.16 Military camps in the Continental United States, World War I 398
7.17 Infectious diseases in military camps, Continental United States,
World War I . 400
7.18 Epidemic sequence in military camps of the Continental United
States during World War I, October 1917 December 1918 401
7.19 Spread of Wave II of the Spanish influenza pandemic in sample US
Army camps, September October 1918
7.20 Monthly admissions rate (per 1,000 mean strength per year) for the
ten leading infectious/parasitic causes of death among US Army
contingents in the Continental United States (1942 1945) 41U
Plates „ .....
7.1 Prisoner of war camp at Andersonville, Georgia, American Civil War
(1861 1865) s . ,
7.2 Appointed members of the Board on Typhoid Fever, and authors of
the Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in US Military
xxii List of Figures and Plates
Camps during the Spanish War of 1898 (Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1904) 376
Figures
8.1 The Black Sea and surroun4ing lands, c. 1853 419
8.2 Disease in the British Army of the East, September 1853 June 1856 420
8.3 Diffusion of Wave I of the cholera epidemic, Crimean War 429
8.4 Diffusion of cholera in the camp system of the British Army of the
East, Bulgaria, July August 1854 433
8.5 MDS maps of the regiment based connectivity of British army
camps in Bulgaria, May August 1854 438
8.6 Wave I of the cholera epidemic in the British Army before Sebastopol,
Crimea, October 1854 February 1855 446
8.7 Prussia at the outbreak of war with France, 1870 453
8.8 Spread of smallpox with French prisoners of war (POWs) in Prussia,
1870 1871 460
8.9 Diffusion of smallpox in Prussia during the Franco Prussian War,
1870 1871 463
8.10 Locations in Italy associated with documented outbreaks of Q fever
among US military personnel, November 1944 June 1945 472
8.11 The course of the Q fever epidemic in the US Third Battalion, 362nd
Infantry, April 1945 473
Plates
8.1 SirAndrewSmith(1797 1872) 425
8.2 Views of the allied camp on the plain before Sebastopol, Crimean War 445
Figures
9.1 Schematic diagram of infectious disease emergence and re emergence
in human populations 487
9.2 Distribution of scrub typhus (tsutsugamushi disease) in Southeast
Asia, and the Western Pacific 491
9.3 Cases of scrub typhus among US and Chinese troops in northeastern
India (Assam) and northern Burma, November 1943 September 1945 495
9.4 Monthly incidence of scrub typhus among US and Chinese troops in
northeastern India (Assam) and northern Burma, November
1943 July 1945 496
9.5 Presumptive natural cycle of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) 499
9.6 Japanese encephalitis among US troops in the Korean War, August
October 1950 500
9.7 Areas of northwest Asia, southeast Siberia, and Japan in which
haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is known to occur
in endemic form 504
9.8 Localized patterns of Korean haemorrhagic fever (KHF) among UN
troops fighting on, and near, the front line during the Korean War,
April 1952 June 1953 505
9.9 Weekly incidence of Korean haemorrhagic fever (KHF) in UN troops
during the Korean War, April 1951 January 1953 506
List of Figures and Plates xxiii
9.10 Annual incidence of Korean haemorrhagic fever (KHF) in Korea,
1950 1986 510
9.11 Daily incidence of Plasmodiumfalciparum malaria in sample US
military units, Republic of Vietnam, 1965 1966 515
9.12 Annual incidence of human plague in the Republic of Vietnam,
1906 1970 517
9.13 War and the spread of human plague in the Republic of Vietnam,
1951 1970 520
9.14 Major outbreaks of human plague reported in the Republic of
Vietnam, 1962 1967 521
9.15 Spread of human plague in Hue City, Republic of Vietnam, 1966 522
9.16 Annual incidence (per 100,000 population) of malaria in the
continental United States 525
Plates
9.1 Diagrammatic scheme of theoretical rat mite rat cycle of scrub
typhus in nature ^7/
9.2 Apodemus agrarius (striped field mouse), the rodent reservoir of
Hantaan virus in Korea 503
9.3 Korean haemorrhagic fever (KHF) in the Korean War, 1950 1953 507
Figures
10.1 Geographical expansion of French territories in North Africa,
1880 1924 531
10.2 Annual rate of sexually transmitted diseases (per 1,000 effectives) for
French troops in Algeria Tunisia, 1875 1929 532
10.3 Trends in sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) for French troops in
Algeria Tunisia relative to the French Interior, 1875 1929 535
10.4 Biproportionate scores for sexually transmitted diseases in French
troops stationed in Algeria Tunisia and the French Interior,
1875 1929 536
10.5 Annual rate (per 1,000 strength) of sexually transmitted diseases in
the US Army to World War II, 1819 1940 539
10.6 Theatres of operations of the US Army, 1942 1945 542
10.7 Geographical variations in sexually transmitted disease (STD) rates in
the US Army, 1942 1945
10.8 Time trends in sexually transmitted disease (STD) rates for US Army
forces stationed in the Mediterranean and Africa Middle East
Theatres, 1942 1945
10.9 Reported cumulative AIDS incidence rates (per 100,000 population)
to February 1990 for 34 districts of residence of Ugandan AIDS cases 552
10.10 Levels of urbanization of the districts of Uganda in 1980 «•
10.11 Location of principal roads in Uganda
10.12 Principal areas of labour supply and labour demand in Uganda 55/
10.13 November 1979 UNLA recruitment rates by tribe „...„, V/,
10.14 Pattern of regression residuals associated with model 8 in Table lO.b aoi
Plates ,c,
10.1 Scanning electron microscopy of HIV infected H9 cells
xxiv List of Figures and Plates
Figures
11.1 Islands of the Pacific Ocean 568
11.2 Main lines of European exploration and contact in the Pacific before
1800 571
11.3 Infectious diseases on Pacific islands 573
11.4 Global diffusion of pandemic influenza, March November 1918 582
11.5 Maritime quarantine and Spanish influenza , Australia, 1918 1919 585
11.6 The role of ships in dispersing Spanish influenza, 1918 1919 586
11.7 Estimated age and sex specific death rates (per 10,000 population) for
influenza in New Zealand Maoris, October December 1918 591
11.8 Location map for Section 11.4 595
11.9 Classification of 24 disease related causes of hospital admission in
terms of their time series behaviour, US Army, Pacific Theatre,
1942 1945 597
11.10 US Army, Pacific Theatre, 1942 1945: monthly series of hospital
admissions for each group of diseases in Fig. 11.9 598
11.11 Monthly series of hospital admission rates (per 1,000 average strength
per year) for sample diseases of military importance, US Army,
Pacific Theatre, 1942 1945 599
11.12 Weekly incidence of scrub typhus among US military personnel
stationed in Dutch New Guinea, 1944 607
Plates
11.1 J.H.L.Cumpston (1880 1954) 584
11.2 Australia and the influenza pandemic of 1918 1919 587
11.3 US Army: cartoons for the control of malaria in the Southwest
Pacific, World War II 601
11.4 Educational posters developed for the control of scrub typhus during
World War II 608
Figures
12.1 Map of Boer concentration camps in the South African War,
1899 1902 616
12.2 Military and civilian deaths in the South African War, 1899 1902 618
12.3 Monthly mortality rates in Black and Boer camps during the South
African War, April 1901 April 1902 620
12.4 Mortality in Boer concentration camps of the Transvaal, 1901 621
12.5 Location map of Cuba, c. 1900 626
12.6 Monthly mortality rate (per 10,000 population) for seven Cuban
cities, 1888 1902 627
12.7 Mortality from infectious diseases in seven Cuban cities, 1888 1902 629
12.8 The spread of infectious diseases in the Cuban Insurrection 632
12.9 Spatial associations for mortality from all causes, Cuba, 1890 1898 634
12.10 Spatial associations for infectious diseases, Cuba, 1890 1898 637
12.11 Disease among Allied prisoners in Japanese prisoner of war camps,
Singapore Island, February 1942 May 1944 641
12.12 Death rates from sample diseases in a party of Allied prisoners of war
( F Force) engaged in the construction of the Burma Thailand
Railway, May 1943 April 1944 644
List of Figures and Plates xxv
12.13 Mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis in England and Wales,
1850 1960 646
12.14 Mortality from infectious diseases in Europe, 1901 1965 648
12.15 Annual series of tuberculosis mortality in England and Wales,
1911 1960 651
12.16 World War I and pulmonary tuberculosis mortality in adult females
(aged 15^5 years) in the county and metropolitan boroughs of
England and Wales 653
12.17 Frequency distribution of the change in proportionate mortality from
pulmonary tuberculosis in adult females (aged 15 45 years) in the
county and metropolitan boroughs of England and Wales, 1913 1916 654
12.18 Typhus and relapsing fever in the military and civilian areas of Serbia,
1915 658
12.19 Fevers in Serbia, 1915 659
12.20 Spatial associations for typhus and relapsing fever in Serbia, 1915 663
12.21 Weekly influenza death rate (per 100,000 population), London and
the county boroughs of England and Wales, June 1918 April 1919 665
12.22 The spread of influenza in London and the county boroughs of
England and Wales, June 1918 April 1919 668
12.23 Influenza in Cambridge, 1918 1919 670
12.24 Spread of Wave II of the Spanish influenza epidemic in the Borough
of Cambridge, 1918 672
12.25 Age distribution of mortality from influenza 673
12.26 Weekly notifications of cerebrospinal meningitis, encephalitis
lethargica, and acute poliomyelitis in England and Wales, 1919 1921 676
12.27 Reported case rate (per 10,000 population) for encephalitis lethargica
in the city districts of Bristol, UK, January 1919 September 1921 677
12.28 Poliomyelitis in Malta and Gozo, November 1942 March 1943 679
12.29 Poliomyelitis in Malta, 1920 1964 680
12.30 Poliomyelitis in Malta and Gozo, November 1942 April 1943 681
Plates
12.1 Concentration camp at Norvalspont, South Africa, during the war of
1899 1902 617
12.2 Railway van steam bathing and disinfecting unit in Serbia, 1915 661
Figures
13.1 Number of armed conflicts by year, 1946 2000 691
13.2 Intensity of military conflict by country, 2000 692
13.3 Location map of the republics of the former Yugoslavia 697
13.4 Eradication status of poliomyelitis in countries affected by armed
conflict, 1990 1999 703
13.5 Epidemic poliomyelitis in Luanda Province, Angola, January June
1999 705
13.6 Cases of bioterrorism related anthrax by day of onset, United States,
{ September October 2001 713
I 13.7 United Nations peacekeeping missions, 1948 1998 719
j 13.8 Emergence of visceral leishmaniasis in western Upper Nile, southern
Sudan, 1984 1994 722
xxvi List of Figures and Plates
13.9 Diphtheria in Tajikistan, 1991 1997 725
13.10 Change in rank order of the 15 leading causes of disease and
disability in the world, estimated for 1990 and 2020 730
Plates
13.1 Geographical spread of anthrax associated with the airborne escape
of spores from the military microbiology facility at Sverdlovsk,
former USSR, April May 1979 710
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Sample epidemic events associated with war, 500 bc ad 2000 6
1.2 Quincy Wright s (1924,1965) legal and material definitions of war 9
1.3 Sample classifications of wars 11
1.4 Distribution of sample wars and war like events, by number of
participating units, 2000 bc ad 2000 12
1.5 Summary characteristics of wars, 1480 1990 14
1.6 Some principal events in the development of international laws
relating to war and associated populations 18
1.7 Article 13 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions I and II 19
1.8 Estimated war related mortality in military populations,
500 bc ad 1800 21
1.9 Global estimates of the average annual military deaths in wars, by
century 22
1.10 Proportion of war related deaths estimated to have occurred among
civilians, sample wars of the twentieth century 24
1.11 War related categories of mortality in military and civilian
populations 26
1.12 Routes of transmission of infections 33
1.13 Distribution of deaths by cause in military forces, sample wars
(1792 2000) 34
1.14 War epidemics selected for detailed study in this book 41
1 .A 1 Geographical distribution/occurrence of sample diseases 5 5
2.1 Distribution of sample wars and war like events, by number of
participating states/areas, 1500 bc ad 1850 66
2.2 Sample war epidemics in Antiquity, 1500 bc ad 500 69
2.3 Epidemic events during the Crusades, ad 1095 1291 76
2.4 Epidemic outbreaks in sample cities of Germany and the Swiss
Confederation during the Thirty Years War, 1618 1648 90
2.5 Sample war epidemics in military and civilian populations, European
theatres (1650 1792) 95
2.6 Distribution of sick on board Transport no. 309 (Alfred) at Corunna,
18 January 1809 105
2.7 Return of the sick of the army from Spain and Portugal received into
hospitals in Portsmouth and vicinity from 24 January to 24 July 1809 105
2.8 Early disease occurrences (1493 1517) and major pandemic events
(1518 1600) in the Americas to 1600 113
2.9 Guatemala, Central America: estimates of Maya depopulation,
1520 1600 116
2.10 Estimated mortality associated with epidemic outbreaks of yellow
fever in sample forces and wars, Caribbean Basin, 1680 1810 118
3.1 International mortality trends, 1901 1975: list of countries studied by
Alderson(1981) 131
t
xxviii List of Tables
3.2 International mortality trends, 1901 1975: list of causes of death
studied by Alderson (1981) 132
3.3 International mortality trends, 1901 1975: results from loglinear
model fitted to time series of the median SMRs for causes of
mortality in groups 1 5 of the dendrogram shown in Fig. 3.4 137
3.4 Some major twentieth century microbiological advances with
implications for six marker diseases (diphtheria, enteric fever,
measles, scarlet fever, tuberculosis, and whooping cough) 149
3.5 Communicable diseases as part of the global health situation
(1993 estimates) 156
3.6 Target diseases in the WHO Expanded Programme on Immunization 172
4.1 Deaths of Northern troops held as prisoners in Andersonville, 1864 186
4.2 Deaths of Southern troops held in prisons of the Northern states 186
4.3 Dragon Grange, 1902: causes of death and sickness 199
4.4 Losses in World War I: United States 217
4.5 Losses in World War I: Russian Empire, 1914 1917 217
4.6 Measles rates in the US armed forces since 1861 218
4.7 Royal Naval Hospital, Gosport, 1914 1918 and 1939 1945: measles
admissions 219
4.8 Relative risks for AIDS among US adults by ethnicity to 31
December 1989 222
4.9 United States, 1985 1989: prevalence of HIV antibody in civilian
applicants for military service by gender and ethnic group 226
4.10 HIV among US army recruits, 1985 1989: state level. Principal
components loadings for percentage of recruits from different ethnic
groups diagnosed as HIV positive 226
4.11 Chronology of the development of vaccines, 1796 1960 230
5.1 Sample war associated refugee flows, 1950 1999 240
5.2 World regional distribution of refugees and other populations of
concern to the UNHCR, 31 December 1999 244
5.3 Countries with the largest numbers of internally displaced persons
(IDPs), 1999 246
5.4 Estimated crude mortality rates (CMRs) for sample refugee and
internally displaced populations, 1978 1995 248
5.5 Communicable disease risk factors in refugee and other relief camps 250
5.6 Sample countries in which diarrhoeal diseases, measles, and certain
other infectious diseases were recorded as leading causes of death
among displaced populations, 1970s 1990s 251
5.7 Dispersal of September 1939: total number of evacuees by priority
class 256
5.8 Cases of diphtheria, poliomyelitis, and scarlet fever recorded in the
Registrar General s Returns, 1933 1949 263
5.9 Lead lag relationships between London and reception counties by
time period and disease 270
5.10 Distribution of registered Palestinian refugees, June 2000 280
5.11 Reported cases of 12 sample diseases, registered Palestinian refugees
(1960 1987) 281
List of Tables xxix
5.12 Estimated crude mortality rate for Rwandan refugees in Zaire, 1994 295
5 .A 1 Biproportionate scores: hypothetical data for the count of refugees in
two years and five regions 298
III. A Matrix of regional thematic examples 305
6.1 Reported cholera cases and deaths by island in Waves I and II of the
1902 1904 epidemic in the Philippines 313
6.2 Cholera in the provinces and islands of the Philippine Islands,
1902 1904: average affine correlations, R, associated with the two
dimensional minimum stress MDS solutions 331
6.3 Mass action models: transition types and rates 332
6.4 Results of regressions of 7, (Wave II) on residual cholera case rates per
10,000 (Wave I) at the level of province 336
7.1 Mortality among Union troops in the American Civil War,
1861 1865 359
7.2 Annual sickness and mortality among Union white and coloured
troops per 1,000 mean strength 359
7.3 Impact of disease upon Union forces. White troops, 1 May 1861 30
June 1866; coloured troops, 1 July 1863 30 June 1866 360
7.4 Disease ratios, coloured: white Union troops 362
7.5 Regional distribution of sickness and mortality from disease per
1,000 mean strength (year ending 30 June) 366
7.6 Typhoid fever in volunteer regiments of the United States Army,
1898 378
7.7 Cases of typhoid fever in camps occupied by volunteer regiments of
the US Army in the Spanish American War, 1898 379
7.8 Geographical sources of typhoid fever in US national assembly
camps during the Spanish American War, 1898 381
7.9 Admissions for sample infectious diseases among enlisted men in the
continental United States, October 1917 December 1918 399
7.10 Progress of the influenza epidemic at Camp Devens, Massachusetts,
12 September 18 October 1918 403
7.11 Influenza in sample US Army camps, 12 September 31 October 1918 405
7.12 Week of onset of the influenza epidemic (as judged by a marked
increase in deaths from pneumonia) in the principal cities and army
camps of the United States, 8 September 25 October 1918 406
7.13 Severity of influenza in US barrack camps (cantonments) and tent
camps, 12 September 31 October 1918 408
7.14 Leading infectious and parasitic causes of death in the US Army,
continental United States (1942 1945) 409
8.1 Estimated deaths in the Allied and Austrian forces during the
Crimean War, 1853 1856 417
8.2 Hospital admissions and deaths recorded in military divisions of the
British Army during the Crimean War, 1854 1856 426
8.3 Summary details of Waves I and II of the cholera epidemic in 66
regiments of the British Army during the Crimean War, 1853 1856 427
8.4 Cholera in the British Army during the Allied expedition to Bulgaria,
May September 1854, Crimean War 431
xxx List of Tables
8.5 Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis to examine the spread
of cholera in the camp system of the British Army, Bulgaria,
May September 18 54 440
8.6 Cholera in regiments of the British Army on the voyage from
Bulgaria to the Crimea, August September 1854 443
8.7 Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis to identify factors
associated with the magnitude and velocity of cholera transmission in
British regiments stationed in the Crimea, October 1854 February
1855 448
8.8 Deaths from smallpox in the military and civilian populations of
France and Germany, 1870 1871 456
8.9 Smallpox in Prussia, July 1870 January 1871 458
8.10 Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis to identify diffusion
processes for smallpox in Prussia, 1870 1871 465
8.11 Documented epidemics of Q fever among US troops in Italy during
World War II 471
8 .A 1 Cholera cases and deaths recorded in divisions and regiments of the
British Army during the Crimean War, 1854 1856 476
9.1 Examples of emergent and re emergent diseases and disease agents in
the late twentieth and early twenty first centuries 482
9.2 Factors involved in the emergence and re emergence of infectious
diseases 486
9.3 Selected examples of disease emergence and re emergence in Asian
and Far Eastern theatres of war 488
9.4 Reported cases and deaths from scrub typhus in military forces, by
theatre and command, 1942 1945 493
9.5 The haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) group of
diseases 502
9.6 Malaria statistics for US military forces during sample wars of the
twentieth century 514
9.7 Average annual admissions rate and average annual number of
man days lost from duty, US Army in Vietnam, 1967 1970 515
9.8 Malaria rates (per 1,000 strength) in the Fifth and Seventh US Marine
Regiments, Que Son Mountains, Vietnam, during the malaria seasons
of 1969 and 1970 516
9.9 Health problems associated with US military personnel stationed in
Vietnam and among Vietnam returnees (status: late 1960s) 523
9.10 Cases of malaria treated in US Army facilities in the Continental
United States, 1965 1970 524
10.1 Burden of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in the US Army
during World War I, April 1917 December 1918 528
10.2 Average annual morbidity rate (per 1,000 effectives) for three sexually
transmitted diseases in French troops, 1875 1929 533
10.3 Leading causes of disease related admissions in the US Army,
1942 1945 540
10.4 Sexually transmitted diseases among Axis prisoners of war in Africa,
1940 1946, based on sample evidence from the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 548
List of Tables xxxi
10.5 Reported Ugandan AIDS cases to 28 February 1989 by district of
residence 553
10.6 Regression results for tests of hypotheses to explain geographical
patterns of AIDS in Uganda 560
11.1 Sample conflicts in the South Pacific region, 1850 2000 569
11.2 Decade in which cases of sample diseases were first recorded in
Australia and New Zealand 574
11.3 Pacific islands, 1790 1920: McArthur s estimates of population totals
for the five major island groups 575
11.4 Pacific Islands, 1790 1920: McArthur s estimates of major epidemic
incidents by deaths 575
11.5 Pacific islands, 1790 1920: McArthur s estimates of major epidemic
incidents by mortality rate 576
11.6 Continent level mortality estimates for Wave II of the influenza
pandemic, 1918 1919 579
11.7 Vessels arriving at Australian ports during the Spanish influenza
outbreak, October 1918 April 1919 584
11.8 Spanish influenza, 1918 1919: international maximum weekly death
rates 589
11.9 Recent estimates of mortality associated with the 1918 1919 influenza
pandemic in the South Pacific 592
11.10 Infectious and parasitic diseases resulting in more than 1,000 hospital
admissions in the US Army, Pacific War, 1942 1945 596
11.11 Epidemic periods for sample diseases of military significance to the
US Army in the Pacific War, 1942 1945 600
11.12 Sample epidemics of dengue among US forces in South Pacific
islands, Pacific War, 1942 1945 605
12.1 Periods of epidemic activity in the Cuban Insurrection, February
1895 Marchl898 630
12.2 Summary statistics of CCF analysis in Figs. 12.9and 12.10 635
12.3 Casualties in the British and Empire forces during the Malaya
Campaign, 8 December 1941 15 February 1942 639
12.4 Record of mortality in F Force dispatched from Changi prisoner of
war camp, Singapore Island, to work on the construction of the
Thailand Burma Railway in 1943 1944 643
12.5 Estimated impact of World War I and World War II on national level
records of tuberculosis mortality in sample European and
non European countries 649
12.6 World War I and proportionate mortality from respiratory
tuberculosis, females (aged 15 45 years), in the industrial and non
industrial county and metropolitan boroughs of England and Wales 655
12.7 Influenza in London and the county boroughs of England and Wales,
June 1918 April 1919 666
12.8 Paralytic poliomyelitis in Malta and Gozo, November 1942 March
1943 682
13.1 Mortality from non battle causes in US military personnel deployed
to the Persian Gulf, and in non deployed US forces, 1 August
1990 31 July 1991 696
xxxii List of Tables
13.2 Incidence rate of selected enteric diseases in sample locations of
central Bosnia, 1990 1993 698
13.3 Endemic infectious diseases of military and non military
importance in Afghanistan and proximal states of central Asia 701
13.4 Sample biological entities identified by the World Health
Organization (WHO) for possible development in weapons 707
13.5 Estimates of casualties resulting from a hypothetical biological
attack with agents of selected diseases 708
13.6 Cases of bioterrorism related anthrax in the United States (status:
7 November 2001) 713
13.7 Some infectious diseases and disease agents documented in a sample
of UN and NATO peacekeeping operations, 1980 2000 720
13.8 Factors contributing to the re emergence of diphtheria in the Newly
Independent States (NIS) of the former Soviet Union, 1990 1996 724
13.9 Symptoms commonly associated with war related medical and
psychological illnesses 727
13.10 Estimated burden of conflict, 1990 and 2020 731
|
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| id | DE-604.BV018160451 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T19:25:59Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0198233647 |
| language | English |
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| spelling | Smallman-Raynor, Matthew Verfasser (DE-588)170836835 aut War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 M. R. Smallman-Raynor and A. D. Cliff 1. publ. Oxford Oxford Univ. Press 2004 XXXIV, 805 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Oxford geographical and environmental studies series Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachrdrucke Geschichte 1850-2000 gnd rswk-swf Geografische aspecten gtt Infectieziekten gtt Oorlogen gtt Geschichte Communicable Diseases epidemiology Communicable diseases Transmission History Disease Outbreaks history War War Medical aspects History Infektionskrankheit (DE-588)4026879-2 gnd rswk-swf Krieg (DE-588)4033114-3 gnd rswk-swf Epidemiologie (DE-588)4015016-1 gnd rswk-swf Infektionskrankheit (DE-588)4026879-2 s Epidemiologie (DE-588)4015016-1 s Krieg (DE-588)4033114-3 s Geschichte 1850-2000 z b DE-604 Cliff, Andrew D. Verfasser aut HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=010931244&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Smallman-Raynor, Matthew Cliff, Andrew D. War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 Geografische aspecten gtt Infectieziekten gtt Oorlogen gtt Geschichte Communicable Diseases epidemiology Communicable diseases Transmission History Disease Outbreaks history War War Medical aspects History Infektionskrankheit (DE-588)4026879-2 gnd Krieg (DE-588)4033114-3 gnd Epidemiologie (DE-588)4015016-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4026879-2 (DE-588)4033114-3 (DE-588)4015016-1 |
| title | War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 |
| title_auth | War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 |
| title_exact_search | War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 |
| title_full | War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 M. R. Smallman-Raynor and A. D. Cliff |
| title_fullStr | War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 M. R. Smallman-Raynor and A. D. Cliff |
| title_full_unstemmed | War epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 M. R. Smallman-Raynor and A. D. Cliff |
| title_short | War epidemics |
| title_sort | war epidemics an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife 1850 2000 |
| title_sub | an historical geography of infectious diseases in military conflict and civil strife, 1850-2000 |
| topic | Geografische aspecten gtt Infectieziekten gtt Oorlogen gtt Geschichte Communicable Diseases epidemiology Communicable diseases Transmission History Disease Outbreaks history War War Medical aspects History Infektionskrankheit (DE-588)4026879-2 gnd Krieg (DE-588)4033114-3 gnd Epidemiologie (DE-588)4015016-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Geografische aspecten Infectieziekten Oorlogen Geschichte Communicable Diseases epidemiology Communicable diseases Transmission History Disease Outbreaks history War War Medical aspects History Infektionskrankheit Krieg Epidemiologie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=010931244&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT smallmanraynormatthew warepidemicsanhistoricalgeographyofinfectiousdiseasesinmilitaryconflictandcivilstrife18502000 AT cliffandrewd warepidemicsanhistoricalgeographyofinfectiousdiseasesinmilitaryconflictandcivilstrife18502000 |