Holdings: Looking into the earth

Looking into the earth: an introduction to geological geophysics

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Bibliographic Details
Main Authors:	Mussett, Alan E. (Author), Khan, Mohammed Aftab (Author)
Format:	Book
Language:	English
Published:	Cambridge [u.a.] Cambridge Univ. Press 2000
Edition:	1. publ.
Subjects:	Geologie - Lehrbuch Geophysik - Lehrbuch Angewandte Geophysik Geophysik Geologie
Online Access:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Item Description:	Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachdrucke
Physical Description:	XIX, 470 S., [4] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt.
ISBN:	9780521780858 9780521785747 052178574X 0521780853

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adam_text	LOOKING INTO THE EARTH AN INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL GEOPHYSICS ALAN E. MUSSETT DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES, LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY, UK M. AFTAB KHAN DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, LEICESTER UNIVERSITY, UK ILLUSTRATIONS BY SUE BUTTON M W J IT ;!; CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS CONTENTS PREFACE: TURNING A MAGICIAN INTO AN EXPERT XVII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XIX CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING GEOPHYSICS AND THIS BOOK 1 1.1 WHAT IS GEOPHYSICS? 1 1.2 THE EARTH THROUGH GEOPHYSICAL SPECTACLES: THE RELATION OF GEOPHYSICS TO GEOLOGY 2 1.3 WHAT THIS BOOK COVERS AND HOW IT IS STRUCTURED 2 SUMMARY 3 FURTHER READING 4 PARTI GEOPHYSICAL METHODS SUBPART 1.1 DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING 7 CHAPTER 2 DATA ACQUISITION AND REDUCTION: CARRYING OUT A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY 7 2.1 DATA ACQUISITION: TAKING MEASUREMENTS 7 2.2 DATA REDUCTION 8 2.3 SIGNAL AND NOISE 8 2.4 MODELLING 9 2.5 GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 10 2.6 DISPLAYING THE RESULTS 10 SUMMARY 11 FURTHER READING 12 PROBLEMS 12 CHAPTER 3 DATA PROCESSING: GETTING MORE INFORMATION FROM THE DATA 13 3.1 FOURIER ANALYSIS 13 3.1.1 WAVELENGTH 13 3.1.2 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 14 3.1.3 FOURIER ANALYSIS OF A PROFILE ,15 3.1.4 FOURIER ANALYSIS IN 2D: GRIDDED DATA 16 3.1.5 WHY A HARMONIC SERIES? 16 VI * CONTENTS 3.2 DIGITAL FILTERING 17 3.2.1 SIMPLE FILTERS 17 3.2.2 ALIASING 18 3.2.3 DESIGNING A SIMPLE FILTER 20 3.2.4 FILTERING IN 2D: GRIDDED DATA 20 3.2.5 USING FILTERS TO ENHANCE VARIOUS TYPES OF FEATURES 21 3.3 SUMMING UP: FOURIER ANALYSIS AND FILTERING 21 SUMMARY 22 FURTHER READING 22 PROBLEMS 22 SUBPART 1.2 SEISMOLOGY 24 CHAPTER 4 GLOBAL SEISMOLOGY AND SEISMIC WAVES 24 4.1 WAVES, PULSES, AND RAYS 24 4.2 DETECTING SEISMIC WAVES: SEISMOMETERS AND GEOPHONES 26 4.3 THE EARTH IS CONCENTRICALLY LAYERED 28 4.3.1 SPHERICAL SYMMETRY OF THE EARTH S INTERIOR 28 4.3.2 CONCENTRIC LAYERING 29 4.4 FINDING THE PATH OF A RAY THROUGH THE EARTH 29 4.4.1 REFRACTION: SNELL S LAW 29 4.4.2 TRACING RAYS THROUGH THE EARTH: THE RAY PARAMETER, P 30 4.4.3 RAY TRACING AND THE EARTH S VELOCITY-DEPTH STRUCTURE 31 4.5 SEISMIC FEATURES OF THE EARTH 32 4.5.1 CORE AND MANTLE 32 4.5.2 LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES 33 4.5.3 THE MANTLE-CORE DIFFERENCE 36 4.5.4 OTHER SEISMOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH 36 4.5.5 ATTENUATION 37 4.5.6 RAY PATHS IN THE EARTH 37 4.6 SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY 39 SUMMARY 39 FURTHER READING 40 PROBLEMS 40 CHAPTER 5 EARTHQUAKES AND SEISMOTECTONICS 42 5.1 WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE? 42 5.2 LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE 43 5.3 FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS AND STRESSES 44 5.3.1 FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS 44 5.3.2 THE EARTHQUAKE STRESS FIELD AND THE DOUBLE-COUPLE MECHANISM 49 5.4 RUPTURE DIMENSIONS AND DISPLACEMENTS 50 5.5 MEASURES OF EARTHQUAKE SIZE 52 5.5.1 INTENSITY: SEVERITY OF AN EARTHQUAKE AT A LOCALITY 52 5.5.2 SEISMIC MOMENT: SIZE OF THE EARTHQUAKE AT SOURCE 53 5.6 SEISMOTECTONICS: DEDUCING TECTONIC PROCESSES 54 5.6.1 QUALITATIVE SEISMOTECTONICS 54 5.6.2 QUANTITATIVE SEISMOTECTONICS: SEISMIC AND ASEISMIC FAULTING 55 5.7 SURFACE WAVES 56 5.8 MAGNITUDE: ANOTHER MEASURE OF EARTHQUAKE STRENGTH 57 CONTENTS * VII 5.9 ENERGIES OF EARTHQUAKES 60 5.10 EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE AND ITS MITIGATION 60 5.10.1 CAUSES OF DAMAGE 60 5.10.2 MITIGATING THE DAMAGE CAUSED BY EARTHQUAKES 62 SUMMARY 62 FURTHER READING 63 PROBLEMS 63 CHAPTER 6 REFRACTION SEISMOLOGY 65 6.1 CRITICAL REFRACTION AND HEAD WAVES 65 6.1.1 HUYGENS S WAVELETS 66 6.1.2 HEAD WAVES 67 6.2 THE TIME-DISTANCE (T-X) DIAGRAM 67 6.3 MULTIPLE LAYERS 69 6.4 DIPPING INTERFACES 70 6.5 SEISMIC VELOCITIES IN ROCKS 72 6.6 HIDDEN LAYERS 73 6.6.1 HIDDEN LAYER PROPER 73 6.6.2 LOW-VELOCITY LAYER 73 6.7 CARRYING OUT A SEISMIC-REFRACTION SURVEY 74 6.8 UNDULATING INTERFACES AND DELAY TIMES 76 6.8.1 DELAY TIMES 76 6.8.2 THE PLUS-MINUS METHOD 78 6.9 RAY TRACING AND SYNTHETIC SEISMOGRAMS 79 6.10 DETECTING OFFSETS IN INTERFACES 80 6.11 FAN SHOOTING: SIMPLE SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY 81 SUMMARY 81 FURTHER READING 82 PROBLEMS 82 CHAPTER 7 REFLECTION SEISMOLOGY 84 7.1 SEISMIC-REFLECTION SECTIONS AND THEIR LIMITATIONS 84 7.2 VELOCITY DETERMINATION USING NORMAL MOVEOUT, NMO 86 7.3 STACKING 87 7.4 DIPPING REFLECTORS AND MIGRATION 88 7.5 FAULTED REFLECTORS: DIFFRACTION 90 7.6 MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS 90 7.7 CARRYING OUT A REFLECTION SURVEY 90 7.7.1 DATA ACQUISITION 90 7.7.2 COMMON-DEPTH-POINT (CDP) STACKING 92 7.7.3 DATA DISPLAY 93 7.7.4 VIBROSEIS: A NONIMPULSIVE SOURCE 94 7.8 WHAT IS A REFLECTOR? 95 7.8.1 STRENGTHS OF REFLECTED AND TRANSMITTED PULSES 95 7.8.2 VERTICAL RESOLUTION: THE LEAST SEPARATION AT WHICH INTERFACES CAN BE DISTINGUISHED 96 7.8.3 SYNTHETIC REFLECTION SEISMOGRAMS 98 7.9 THREE-DIMENSIONAL (3D) SURVEYING 99 VIII * CONTENTS 7.10 REFLECTION SEISMOLOGY AND THE SEARCH FOR HYDROCARBONS 100 7.10.1 THE FORMATION OF HYDROCARBON TRAPS 100 7.10.2 THE RECOGNITION OF HYDROCARBON TRAPS 101 7.11 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 102 7.12 SHALLOW-REFLECTION SEISMIC SURVEYS 103 SUMMARY 104 FURTHER READING 105 PROBLEMS 105 SUBPART 1.3 GRAVITY 107 CHAPTER 8 GRAVITY ON A SMALL SCALE 107 8.1 NEWTON S LAW OF GRAVITATION 107 8.1.1 THE MASS OF THE EARTH 109 8.2 DENSITIES OF ROCKS 109 8.3 GRAVITY UNITS 110 8.4 GRAVITY ANOMALIES OF SOME BODIES 110 8.5 MEASURING GRAVITY: GRAVIMETERS 113 8.6 DATA REDUCTION 114 8.6.1 INSTRUMENTAL EFFECTS AND OTHER CORRECTIONS 114 8.6.2 RESIDUAL AND REGIONAL ANOMALIES 117 8.7 PLANNING AND CARRYING OUT A GRAVITY SURVEY 118 8.8 MODELLING AND INTERPRETATION 119 8.8.1 THE INVERSION PROBLEM 119 8.8.2 DEPTH RULES 121 8.8.3 MODELLING 122 8.9 TOTAL EXCESS MASS 122 8.10 MICROGRAVITY SURVEYS 122 SUMMARY 122 FURTHER READING 123 PROBLEMS 123 CHAPTER 9 LARGE-SCALE GRAVITY AND ISOSTASY 125 9.1 ISOSTASY 125 9.1.1 THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY: FLOATING BLOCKS 125 9.1.2 GRAVITY AND ISOSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM 127 9.1.3 SIMPLE ISOSTATIC CALCULATIONS 127 9.1.4 AIRY AND PRATT MODELS OF ISOSTASY 130 9.1.5 ISOSTASY WITH REGIONAL COMPENSATION 131 9.1.6 THE ISOSTATIC ANOMALY 131 9.1.7 THE EVIDENCE FOR ISOSTASY 132 9.1.8 ISOSTATIC REBOUND AND THE VISCOSITY OF THE ASTHENOSPHERE 133 9.2 HOW THE MANTLE IS BOTH SOLID AND LIQUID: SOLID-STATE CREEP 134 9.3 WHAT IS THE LITHOSPHERE? 135 9.4 FORCES ON THE LITHOSPHERE 135 9.5 THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH 135 9.5.1 SEEING THE OCEAN FLOOR IN THE OCEAN SURFACE 135 9.5.2 THE LARGE-SCALE SHAPE OF THE EARTH 136 SUMMARY 137 CONTENTS * IX FURTHER READING 137 PROBLEMS 138 SUBPART I.4 MAGNETISM 139 CHAPTER 10 PALAEOMAGNETISM AND MINERAL MAGNETISM 139 10.1 THE EARTH S MAGNETIC FIELD, PRESENT AND PAST 139 10.1.1 MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 139 10.1.2 THE EARTH S MAGNETIC FIELD AT PRESENT 140 10.1.3 THE EARTH S MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE PAST 142 10.2 PALAEOMAGNETISM 142 10.2.1 MEASURING A PALAEOMAGNETIC DIRECTION 142 10.2.2 PALAEOPOLES, PALAEOLATITUDES, AND ROTATIONS 144 10.2.3 APPARENT POLAR WANDER (APW) PATHS AND RELATIVE CONTINENTAL MOVEMENTS 145 10.3 THE MAGNETISM OF ROCKS 146 10.3.1 THE ATOMIC NATURE OF MAGNETISATION 146 10.3.2 MAGNETIC DOMAINS 147 10.3.3 CURIE AND BLOCKING TEMPERATURES 148 10.3.4 THERMAL REMANENT MAGNETISATION (TRM) 149 10.3.5 MAGNETIC MINERALS 151 10.3.6 MECHANISMS THAT MAGNETISE ROCKS AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE 152 10.4 TESTING WHEN THE REMANENCE WAS ACQUIRED 153 10.4.1 LABORATORY TESTS 153 10.4.2 FIELD TESTS 153 10.5 MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY 154 10.5.1 THE MAGNETIC POLARITY TIMESCALE 154 10.5.2 MAGNETIC POLARITY STRATIGRAPHY 157 10.5.3 MAGNETIC STRATIGRAPHY UTILISING SECULAR VARIATION AND EXCURSIONS 157 10.6 MINERAL MAGNETISM 157 10.7 MAGNETIC FABRIC: SUSCEPTIBILITY ANISOTROPY 158 SUMMARY 159 FURTHER READING 160 PROBLEMS 160 CHAPTER 11 MAGNETIC SURVEYING 162 11.1 MAGNETIC SURVEYING 162 11.1.1 ANOMALY OF A BURIED MAGNET 162 11.1.2 MAGNETOMETERS 162 11.1.3 DATA ACQUISITION 163 11.1.4 DATA REDUCTION 167 11.2 ANOMALIES OF SOME SIMPLY SHAPED BODIES 167 11.2.1 MAGNETIC POLES AND FIELDS 168 11.2.2 THE FIELD OF A DIPOLE 168 11.2.3 ANOMALY OF A DIPOLE, OR SMALL BODY 168 11.2.4 ANOMALY OF A SPHERE 169 11.2.5 ANOMALY OF A VERTICAL SHEET 170 11.3 DEPTH OF THE BODY 170 11.4 REMANENT AND INDUCED MAGNETISATION 172 X * CONTENTS 11.5 COMPUTER MODELLING 174 11.6 MORE ADVANCED PROCESSING OF DATA 174 11.6.1 REDUCTION TO THE POLE 174 11.6.2 PSEUDOGRAVITY 174 11.6.3 UPWARD AND DOWNWARD CONTINUATION 174 1.7 MAGNETIC GRADIOMETRY 175 1.8 THE BLAIRGOWRIE MAGNETIC ANOMALY: A CASE STUDY 176 SUMMARY 178 FURTHER READING 179 PROBLEMS 179 SUBPART 1.5 ELECTRICAL 181 CHAPTER 12 RESISTIVITY METHODS 181 12.1 BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 181 12.2 RESISTIVITY SURVEYING 183 12.2.1 RESISTIVITIES OF ROCKS AND MINERALS 183 12.2.2 HOW ELECTRICITY FLOWS THROUGH ROCKS 185 12.2.3 THE NEED FOR FOUR ELECTRODES 185 12.3 VERTICAL ELECTRIC SOUNDING, VES: MEASURING LAYERED STRUCTURES 186 12.3.1 THE BASIC CONCEPT 186 12.3.2 REFRACTION OF CURRENT PATHS 186 12.3.3 APPARENT RESISTIVITY 186 12.3.4 CARRYING OUT A WENNER VES SURVEY 188 12.3.5 MODELLING THE DATA 189 12.3.6 OTHER ELECTRODE ARRAYS 191 12.3.7 LIMITATIONS OF VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING 193 12.4 RESISTIVITY PROFILING: DETECTING LATERAL VARIATIONS 194 12.4.1 INTRODUCTION 194 12.4.2 SOME ARRAYS FOR PROFILING 195 12.5 ELECTRICAL IMAGING 197 12.6 DESIGNING AND INTERPRETING A RESISTIVITY SURVEY 198 12.6.1 CHOOSING A RESISTIVITY ARRAY 198 12.6.2 GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 199 SUMMARY 199 FURTHER READING 200 PROBLEMS 200 CHAPTER 13 INDUCED POLARISATION AND SELF-POTENTIAL 202 13.1 INDUCED POLARIZATION, IP 202 13.1.1 WHAT INDUCED POLARIZATION IS 202 13.1.2 CARRYING OUT AN IP SURVEY 203 13.1.3 DATA REDUCTION AND DISPLAY 204 13.2 SELF-POTENTIAL, SP 204 13.2.1 WHAT SELF-POTENTIAL IS 204 13.2.2 SP SURVEYING 206 SUMMARY 208 FURTHER READING 209 PROBLEMS 209 CONTENTS * XI CHAPTER 14 ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS 210 14.1 BASIC CONCEPTS 210 14.1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 210 14.1.2 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SIGNAL 211 14.2 SOME E-M SYSTEMS 211 14.2.1 MOVING TRANSMITTER-PLUS-RECEIVER SYSTEM (SLINGRAM) 211 14.2.2 TURAM SYSTEM 215 14.3 TRANSIENT ELECTROMAGNETIC, TEM, SYSTEMS 215 14.3.1 THE BASIC CONCEPT 215 14.3.2 THE INPUT SYSTEM 216 14.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 217 14.4.1 WAVELENGTHS 217 14.4.2 ABSORPTION AND ATTENUATION OF E-M WAVES 218 14.5 VLF (VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY) METHOD 219 14.5.1 BASIC CONCEPTS 219 14.5.2 CARRYING OUT A VLF SURVEY 220 14.6 PHASE 221 14.7 MAGNETOTELLURIC, MT, SURVEYING: LOOKING INTO THE DEEP CRUST AND MANTLE 225 14.7.1 BASIC CONCEPTS 225 14.7.2 CARRYING OUT AN MT SURVEY 227 14.8 GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR, GPR 227 14.8.1 HOW GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR WORKS 227 14.8.2 VELOCITY, REFLECTION, PENETRATION, AND RESOLUTION 229 14.8.3 DATA REDUCTION 230 14.8.4 USES OF GPR SURVEYS 230 SUMMARY 230 FURTHER READING 231 PROBLEMS 231 SUBPART 1.6 RADIOACTIVITY 233 CHAPTER 15 THE AGES OF ROCKS AND MINERALS: RADIOMETRIC DATING 233 15.1 THE ATOMIC CLOCK 233 15.2 THE URANIUM-LEAD (U-PB) DATING METHOD 235 15.3 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE BASIC DATING EQUATION 236 15.4 THE POTASSIUM-ARGON (K-AR) DATING METHOD 236 15.4.1 THE CONVENTIONAL K-AR METHOD 237 15.4.2 THE ARGON-ARGON (AR-AR) METHOD 239 15.5 THE RUBIDIUM-STRONTIUM (RB-SR) DATING METHOD 241 15.6 THE SAMARIUM-NEODYMIUM (SM-ND) DATING METHOD 243 15.7 THE LEAD-LEAD (PB-PB) DATING METHOD 243 15.7.1 THEORY OF THE METHOD 243 15.7.2 THE AGE OF THE EARTH 244 15.8 FISSION-TRACK (FT) DATING 246 15.9 WHAT EVENT IS BEING DATED? 247 15.9.1 DIFFUSION 247 15.9.2 CLOSURE TEMPERATURE 248 15.9.3 COOLING HISTORIES 249 XII * CONTENTS 15.9.4 TWO DATES FROM A SINGLE ROCK, USING THE RB-SR METHOD 250 15.9.5 TWO DATES FROM A SINGLE ROCK, USING THE U-PB DISCORDIA METHOD 250 15.9.6 DATING PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SLOWLY COOLED REGIONS 251 15.10 DATING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 251 15.11 THE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE 251 15.12 DATING YOUNG ROCKS 252 15.12.1 URANIUM-SERIES DISEQUILIBRIUM METHODS 253 15.12.2 CARBON-14 ( 14 C) AND OTHER DATING METHODS USING COSMOGENIC ISOTOPES 255 15.13 WHY SO MANY RADIOMETRIC DATING METHODS? 256 SUMMARY 257 FURTHER READING 258 PROBLEMS 258 CHAPTER 16 RADIOACTIVE SURVEYING 261 16.1 RADIOACTIVE RACJIATIONS 261 16.2 Y RAY SURVEYS 261 16.2.1 MEASUREMENT: THE Y RAY SPECTROMETER 261 16.2.2 CARRYING OUT A Y RAY SURVEY 262 16.2.3 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING 264 16.3 RADON MONITORING 266 SUMMARY 267 FURTHER READING 267 PROBLEMS 268 SUBPART I.7 GEOTHERMICS 269 CHAPTER 17 GEOTHERMICS: HEAT AND TEMPERATURE IN THE EARTH 269 17.1 BASIC IDEAS IN GEOTHERMICS 269 17.1.1 INTRODUCTION 269 17.1.2 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT 269 17.1.3 HOW HEAT TRAVELS: CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION 270 17.1 A CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION WITHIN THE EARTH 270 17.2 HEAT FLOW AND TEMPERATURE 272 17.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF HEAT FLUX 272 17.2.2 OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE 272 17.2.3 CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE AND RADIOACTIVITY 275 17.3 EFFECTS OF CHANGES TO THE LITHOSPHERE 277 17.3.1 THERMAL CAPACITY 277 17.3.2 FILLING OF A SEDIMENTARY BASIN 277 17.3.3 OVERTHRUSTING AND UNDERTHRUSTING 278 17.3.4 CRUSTAL THICKENING AND OROGENIES 278 17.4 GLOBAL HEAT FLOW AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 279 17.4.1 GLOBAL HEAT FLOW 279 17.4.2 SOURCES OF THE EARTH S HEAT 279 17 .4.3 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 280 17.5 THE EFFECT OF SURFACE TEMPERATURE CHANGES: A RECORD OF PAST CLIMATES 281 CONTENTS * XIII SUMMARY 282 FURTHER READING 283 PROBLEMS 283 SUBPART 1.8 SUBSURFACE GEOPHYSICS 285 CHAPTER 18 WELL LOGGING AND OTHER SUBSURFACE GEOPHYSICS 285 18.1 INTRODUCTION 285 18.2 DRILLING AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE FORMATIONS 285 18.3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FROM A BOREHOLE: LOGS 286 18.4 GEOPHYSICAL WELL LOGGING IN THE OIL INDUSTRY 287 18.5 THE MOST COMMONLY USED LOGS 289 18.5.1 THE MEASUREMENT OF STRATA DIP, BOREHOLE INCLINATION, AND DIAMETER 289 18.5.2 THE SELF-POTENTIAL LOG 290 18.5.3 RESISTIVITY LOGS 291 18.5.4 RADIOACTIVITY LOGS 294 18.5.5 THE SONIC LOG 297 18.5.6 THE TEMPERATURE LOG 298 18.5.7 CROSS PLOTS 298 18.6 GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING OUTSIDE THE OIL INDUSTRY 299 18.6.1 MINERAL EXPLORATION 299 18.6.2 MAGNETIC LOGS 301 18.6.3 THE IP-RESISTIVITY LOG 302 18.7 OTHER WELL-LOGGING APPLICATIONS 303 18.8 OTHER SUBSURFACE GEOPHYSICS 303 SUMMARY 303 FURTHER READING 304 PROBLEMS 305 PART II EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS CHAPTER 19 WHICH GEOPHYSICAL METHODS TO USE? 309 19.1 INTRODUCTION 309 19.2 DOES THE PROBLEM HAVE GEOPHYSICAL EXPRESSION? 309 19.3 IS THE VARIATION LATERAL OR VERTICAL? 309 19.4 IS THE SIGNAL DETECTABLE? 310 19.5 WILL THE RESULT BE CLEAR ENOUGH TO BE USEFUL? 310 19.6 IS A SURVEY PRACTICABLE? 311 PROBLEMS 311 CHAPTER 20 GLOBAL TECTONICS 313 20.1 THE BASIC CONCEPT OF PLATE TECTONICS 313 20.2 DIVERGENT, OR CONSTRUCTIVE, MARGINS 314 20.2.1 OCEAN-FLOOR MAGNETIC ANOMALIES 314 20.2.2 THE SHAPE OF SPREADING RIDGES 315 20.3 CONSERVATIVE MARGINS 317 XIV * CONTENTS 20.4 CONVERGENT, OR DESTRUCTIVE, MARGINS 320 20.4.1 OCEAN-OCEAN CONVERGENT MARGINS AND SUBDUCTION ZONES 321 20.4.2 OCEAN-CONTINENT CONVERGENT MARGINS 324 20.4.3 CONTINENT-CONTINENT CONVERGENT MARGINS 325 20.5 THE GEOMETRY OF PLATE TECTONICS 326 20.5.1 POLES OF ROTATION 326 20.5.2 TRIPLE JUNCTIONS AND PLATE EVOLUTION 328 20.6 THE GLOBE ACCORDING TO PLATE TECTONICS 331 20.7 CONTINENTAL POSITIONS IN THE PAST 332 20.8 CRUST FORMATION AT RIDGES 333 20.9 WHAT MOVES THE PLATES? 336 20.9.1 FORCES ON PLATES 336 20.9.2 THE HOT-SPOT FRAME OF REFERENCE: PLATE VELOCITIES 338 20.9.3 DEDUCING THE DOMINANT DRIVE FORCES 339 20.9.4 PLATE TECTONICS AND MANTLE CONVECTION 340 SUMMARY 341 FURTHER READING 343 PROBLEMS 343 CHAPTER 21 IS THE KENYA RIFT A NEW PLATE MARGIN? A REGIONAL GEOPHYSICAL STUDY 345 21.1 INTRODUCTION: THE EAST AFRICAN RIFT SYSTEM 345 21.2 MORPHOLOGY AND GEOLOGY OF THE KENYA RIFT 347 21.3 GRAVITY STUDIES 348 21.4 SEISMIC SURVEYS 349 21.4.1 THE SEISMICITY OF KENYA 349 21.4.2 TELESEISMIC STUDIES 350 21.4.3 SEISMIC REFRACTION AND WIDE-ANGLE REFLECTION SURVEYS 351 21.5 COMBINED SEISMIC AND GRAVITY MODELS 356 21.6 HEAT FLOW STUDIES 356 21.7 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 359 21.8 SUMMARY 360 FURTHER READING 360 CHAPTER 22 HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION 361 22.1 INTRODUCTION: ENERGY SOURCES AND THE DEMAND FOR HYDROCARBONS 361 22.2 THE ORIGIN AND ACCUMULATION OF HYDROCARBONS 364 22.3 WHERE SEDIMENTARY BASINS FORM 364 22.4 EXPLORATION FOR PETROLEUM 366 22.5 THE WEST SOLE GAS FIELD OF THE SOUTHERN NORTH SEA: A CASE STUDY 367 22.6 THE FORTIES OIL FIELD OF THE NORTHERN NORTH SEA: A CASE STUDY 370 22.6.1 DISCOVERY AND INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIELD 370 22.6.2 FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE FORTIES FIELD 373 22.7 THE FUTURE 376 FURTHER READING 377 CONTENTS * XV CHAPTER 23 EXPLORATION FOR METALLIFEROUS ORES 378 23.1 INTRODUCTION: METALLIFEROUS AND OTHER ORE DEPOSITS . 378 23 2 THE FORMATION OF ORES AND THEIR GEOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES 378 23.3 WHERE ORES FORM 381 23.4 EXPLORATION FOR OREBODIES 382 23.5 THE ELURA OREBODY, NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA: A CASE STUDY 383 23.5.1 BACKGROUND AND RECONNAISSANCE SURVEYS 383 23.5.2 INITIAL SURVEYS OF THE ELURA OREBODY 385 23.5.3 EVALUATION OF THE DEPOSIT 386 23.5.4 ASSESSMENT OF GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING METHODS 388 FURTHER READING 388 CHAPTER 24 VOLCANOES 390 24.1 INTRODUCTION: TYPES OF ERUPTION AND DAMAGE 390 24.2 METHODS FOR INVESTIGATING VOLCANOES AND MONITORING ACTIVITY 391 24.3 THE 1989-1990 ERUPTION OF REDOUBT VOLCANO, ALASKA: A CASE STUDY 391 24.3.1 BACKGROUND 392 24.3.2 THE 1989-1990 ERUPTION 392 24.3.3 MONITORING OF ACTIVITY 393 24.4 ETNA LAVA ERUPTIONS 1991-1993: A CASE STUDY 394 24.4.1 BACKGROUND 394 24.4.2 DEFORMATION AND MICROGRAVITY 394 24.4.3 THE 1991-1993 ERUPTION 396 FURTHER READING 398 CHAPTER 25 THE CHICXULUB STRUCTURE AND THE K/T MASS EXTINCTION 399 25.1 INTRODUCTION 399 25.2 IMPACTS AND CRATERS 399 25.3 THE CHICXULUB STRUCTURE 401 25.3.1 BACKGROUND 401 25.3.2 THE STRUCTURE OF CHICXULUB 401 25.3.3 AGES OF THE CHICXULUB STRUCTURE AND EJECTA 404 25.3.4 THE MANSON CRATER 406 25.4 GIANT ERUPTIONS 25.5 CONCLUSIONS TO DATE FURTHER READING CHAPTER 26 HYDROGEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATED LAND 26.1 INTRODUCTION 26.2 AQUIFERS 26.3 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS USEFUL IN HYDROGEOLOGY 26.4 GPR SURVEYING OF THE WATER TABLE, THE NETHERLANDS: AN EXAMPLE 26.4.1 BACKGROUND 409 26.4.2 OFFSETS OF THE WATER TABLE 409 26.5 STRUCTURAL CONTROL OF AQUIFERS IN EAST ANGLIA, ENGLAND: A CASE STUDY 26.5.1 INTRODUCTION 410 26.5.2 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS 410 406 406 407 408 408 408 408 409 410 XVI * CONTENTS 26.6 SALINE CONTAMINATION OF THE CRAG AQUIFER, EAST ANGLIA: A CASE STUDY 26.6.1 BACKGROUND 412 26.6.2 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS 413 26.7 LANDFILL SITES AND CONTAMINATED GROUND 26.7.1 INTRODUCTION 417 26.7.2 INVESTIGATION OF A LANDFILL IN NORTHERN ENGLAND: A CASE STUDY 26.7.3 LANDFILL MONITORING: A CASE STUDY 418 FURTHER READING CHAPTER 27 LOCATION OF CAVITIES AND VOIDS 27.1 INTRODUCTION 27.2 POSSIBLE GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES FOR LOCATING CAVITIES 27.2.1 SEISMIC METHODS 420 27.2.2 ELECTRICAL METHODS 421 27.2.3 MAGNETIC METHODS 421 27.2.4 GRAVITY METHODS 422 27.2.5 FRACTURING AROUND CAVITIES 423 27.3 COLLAPSES IN BURIED KARSTIC TERRAIN, KUWAIT: A CASE STUDY 27.3.1 BACKGROUND 423 27.3.2 GRAVITY SURVEY 424 27.4 LAND RECLAMATION, SOUTH WALES: A CASE STUDY 27.4.1 BACKGROUND 426 27.4.2 GRAVITY SURVEY 427 FURTHER READING CHAPTER 28 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE SURVEYING 28.1 SITE SURVEYING 28.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND THEIR GEOPHYSICAL EXPRESSION 28.2.1 DITCHES, PITS, AND POSTHOLES 430 28.2.2 FOUNDATIONS 430 28.2.3 FURNACES, FIREPLACES, AND KILNS 430 28.3 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS USEFUL FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEYING 28.3.1 MAGNETIC AND SUSCEPTIBILITY SURVEYS 431 28.3.2 RESISTIVITY SURVEYS 431 28.3.3 GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR (GPR) 432 28.3.4 OTHER TECHNIQUES 433 28.3.5 DISPLAY OF DATA 433 28.4 A POSSIBLE ROMAN VILLA: A CASE STUDY 28.4.1 BACKGROUND 434 28.4.2 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS 434 28.5 HUDSON S BAY COMPANY FUR TRADE POST: A CASE STUDY 28.5.1 BACKGROUND 434 28.5.2 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS 436 FURTHER READING 412 417 417 419 420 420 420 423 426 428 429 429 430 431 APPENDIX A APPENDIX B BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURE SOURCES INDEX LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 434 434 438 439 442 449 457 461
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spelling	Mussett, Alan E. Verfasser aut Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics Alan E. Mussett ; M. Aftab Khan 1. publ. Cambridge [u.a.] Cambridge Univ. Press 2000 XIX, 470 S., [4] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachdrucke Geologie - Lehrbuch Geophysik - Lehrbuch Angewandte Geophysik (DE-588)4122049-3 gnd rswk-swf Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 gnd rswk-swf Geologie (DE-588)4020227-6 gnd rswk-swf Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 s DE-604 Geologie (DE-588)4020227-6 s 1\p DE-604 Angewandte Geophysik (DE-588)4122049-3 s 2\p DE-604 Khan, Mohammed Aftab Verfasser aut GBV Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=009051289&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 2\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk
spellingShingle	Mussett, Alan E. Khan, Mohammed Aftab Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics Geologie - Lehrbuch Geophysik - Lehrbuch Angewandte Geophysik (DE-588)4122049-3 gnd Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 gnd Geologie (DE-588)4020227-6 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4122049-3 (DE-588)4020252-5 (DE-588)4020227-6
title	Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics
title_auth	Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics
title_exact_search	Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics
title_full	Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics Alan E. Mussett ; M. Aftab Khan
title_fullStr	Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics Alan E. Mussett ; M. Aftab Khan
title_full_unstemmed	Looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics Alan E. Mussett ; M. Aftab Khan
title_short	Looking into the earth
title_sort	looking into the earth an introduction to geological geophysics
title_sub	an introduction to geological geophysics
topic	Geologie - Lehrbuch Geophysik - Lehrbuch Angewandte Geophysik (DE-588)4122049-3 gnd Geophysik (DE-588)4020252-5 gnd Geologie (DE-588)4020227-6 gnd
topic_facet	Geologie - Lehrbuch Geophysik - Lehrbuch Angewandte Geophysik Geophysik Geologie
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=009051289&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT mussettalane lookingintotheearthanintroductiontogeologicalgeophysics AT khanmohammedaftab lookingintotheearthanintroductiontogeologicalgeophysics

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