Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices:
Saved in:
| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
San Diego [u.a.]
Acad. Press
1998
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXI, 692 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0125249853 |
Staff View
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices |c Milton Ohring |
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Record in the Search Index
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| adam_text | Contents
Acknowledgments xvii
Preface xix
Chapter 1
An Overview of Electronic Devices and Their Reliability 1
1.1 Electronic Products 1
1.1.1 Historical Perspective 1
1.1.2 Solid State Devices 4
1.1.3 Integrated Circuits 4
1.1.4 Yield of Electronic Products 9
1.2 Reliability, Other ... ilities, and Definitions 13
1.2.1 Reliability 13
1.2.2 A Brief History of Reliability 14
1.2.3 MIL HDBK 217 15
1.2.4 Long Term Nonoperating Reliability 16
1.2.5 Availability, Maintainability, and Survivability 17
1.3 Failure Physics 17
1.3.1 Failure Modes and Mechanisms;
Reliable and Failed States 17
1.3.2 Conditions for Change 18
1.3.3 Atom Movements and Driving Forces 20
1.3.4 Failure Times and the Acceleration Factor 24
1.3.5 Load Strength Interference 25
1.3.6 Semiconductor Device Degradation and Failure 27
1.3.7 Failure Frequency 28
1.3.8 The Bathtub Curve and Failure 29
1.4 Summary and Perspective 31
Exercises 32
References 35
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 2
Electronic Devices: How They Operate and Are Fabricated ... 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Electronic Materials 38
2.2.1 Introduction 38
2.2.2 Semiconductors 39
2.2.3 Conductors 49
2.2.4 Insulators 52
2.3 Diodes 53
2.3.1 The p n Junction 53
2.3.2 Contacts 55
2.3.3 Deviations from Ideal Junction Behavior 57
2.4 Bipolar Transistors 59
2.4.1 Transistors in General 59
2.4.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors 59
2.5 Field Effect Transistors 62
2.5.1 Introduction 62
2.5.2 The MOS Capacitor 63
2.5.3 MOS Field Effect Transistor 66
2.5.4 CMOS Devices 69
2.5.5 MOSFET Instabilities and Malfunction 70
2.5.6 Bipolar versus CMOS 71
2.5.7 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) 72
2.6 Memories 74
2.6.1 Types of Memories 74
2.6.2 Memories Are Made of This! 76
2.6.3 Reliability Problems in Memories 77
2.7 GaAs Devices 79
2.7.1 Why Compound Semiconductor Devices? 79
2.7.2 Microwave Applications 80
2.7.3 The GaAs MESFET 81
2.7.4 High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) 82
2.7.5 GaAs Integrated Circuits 82
2.8 Electro optical Devices 84
2.8.1 Introduction 84
2.8.2 Solar Cells 84
2.8.3 PIN and Avalanche Photodiodes 85
2.8.4 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 86
2.8.5 Semiconductor Lasers 87
2.9 Processing—The Chip Level 91
2.9.1 Introduction 91
2.9.2 Silicon Crystal Growth (1) 92
Contents jx
2.9.3 Epitaxy (2) 93
2.9.4 Ion Implantation (3) 94
2.9.5 Gate Oxide (4) 95
2.9.6 Polysilicon (5) 95
2.9.7 Deposited and Etched Dielectric Films (6,7,12) 95
2.9.8 Metallization (8 11) 96
2.9.9 Plasma Etching 99
2.9.10 Lithography 99
Exercises 100
References 102
Chapter 3
Defects, Contaminants and Yield 105
3.1 Scope 105
3.2 Defects in Crystalline Solids and Semiconductors 107
3.2.1 General Considerations 107
3.2.2 Point Defects 108
3.2.3 Dislocations 115
3.2.4 Grain Boundaries 122
3.2.5 Dislocation Defects in DRAMs—A Case Study 123
3.3 Processing Defects 125
3.3.1 Scope 125
3.3.2 Stress and Defects 127
3.3.3 Step Coverage 137
3.4 Contamination 141
3.4.1 Introduction 141
3.4.2 Process Induced Contamination 142
3.4.3 Introduction to Particle Science 147
3.4.4 Combating Contamination 152
3.5 Yield 155
3.5.1 Definitions and Scope 155
3.5.2 Statistical Basis for Yield 157
3.5.3 Yield Modeling 159
3.5.4 Comparison with Experience 160
3.5.5 Yield and Reliability—What Is the Link? 162
3.5.6 Conclusion 168
Exercises 168
References 171
Chapter 4
The Mathematics of Failure and Reliability 175
4.1 Introduction 175
x Contents
4.2 Statistics and Definitions 177
4.2.1 Normal Distribution Function 177
4.2.2 Six Sigma 180
4.2.3 Accuracy and Precision 182
4.2.4 Failure Rates 182
4.3 All About Exponential, Lognormal and Weibull Distributions 184
4.3.1 Exponential Distribution Function 184
4.3.2 Lognormal Distribution 189
4.3.3 Weibull Distribution 193
4.3.4 Lognormal versus Weibull 196
4.3.5 Plotting Probability Functions as Straight Lines 196
4.3.6 Freak Behavior 199
4.4 System Reliability 202
4.4.1 Introduction 202
4.4.2 Redundancy in a Two Laser System 205
4.4.3 How MIL HDBK 217 Treats System Reliability 206
4.5 On the Physical Significance of Failure Distribution
Functions 208
4.5.1 Introduction 208
4.5.2 The Weakest Link 208
4.5.3 The Weibull Distribution: Is There a Weak Link
to the Avrami Equation? 209
4.5.4 Physics of the Lognormal Distribution 211
4.5.5 Acceleration Factor 212
4.5.6 The Arrhenius Model 214
4.5.7 The Eyring Model 215
4.5.8 Is Arrhenius Erroneous? 218
4.5.9 The Bathtub Curve Revisited 219
4.6 Prediction Confidence and Assessing Risk 222
4.6.1 Introduction 222
4.6.2 Confidence Limits 222
4.6.3 Risky Reliability Modeling 224
4.6.4 Freak Failures 227
4.6.5 Minimizing Freak Failures 228
4.7 A Skeptical and Irreverent Summary 229
Exercises 231
References 235
Chapter 5
Mass Transport Induced Failure 237
5.1 Introduction 237
Contents xi
5.2 Diffusion and Atom Movements in Solids 238
5.2.1 Mathematics of Diffusion 238
5.2.2 Diffusion Coefficients and Microstructure 240
5.3 Binary Diffusion and Compound Formation 242
5.3.1 Interdiffusion and the Phase Diagram 242
5.3.2 Compound Formation 244
5.3.3 The Kirkendall Effect 245
5.3.4 The Purple Plague 246
5.4 Reactions at Metal Semiconductor Contacts 248
5.4.1 Introduction to Contacts 248
5.4.2 Al Si Contacts 248
5.4.3 Metal Silicide Contacts to Silicon 252
5.4.4 Contacts to GaAs Devices 253
5.5 Electromigration Physics and Damage Models 259
5.5.1 Introduction 259
5.5.2 Physical Description of Electromigration 262
5.5.3 Temperature Distribution in Powered Conductors 264
5.5.4 Role of Stress 266
5.5.5 Structural Models for Electromigration Damage 267
5.6 Electromigration in Practice 273
5.6.1 Manifestations of Electromigration Damage 273
5.6.2 Electromigration in Interconnects: Current
and Temperature Dependence 276
5.6.3 Effect of Conductor Geometry and Grain Structure
on Electromigration 279
5.6.4 Electromigration Lifetime Distributions 281
5.6.5 Electromigration Testing 281
5.6.6 Combating Electromigration 283
5.7 Stress Voiding 284
5.7.1 Introduction 284
5.7.2 Origin of Stress in Metallizations 285
5.7.3 Vacancies, Stresses, Voids, and Failure 288
5.7.4 Role of Creep in Stress Voiding Failure 291
5.7.5 Stress Voiding at Vias 292
5.8 Failure of Incandescent Lamps 293
Exercises 296
References 300
Chapter 6
Electronic Charge Induced Damage 303
6.1 Introduction 303
xii Contents
6.2 Aspects of Conduction in Insulators 304
6.2.1 Current Voltage Relationships 304
6.2.2 Leakage Current 307
6.2.3 SiO2—Electrons, Holes, Ions, and Traps 308
6.3 Dielectric Breakdown 310
6.3.1 Introduction 310
6.3.2 A Brief History of Dielectric Breakdown Theories 311
6.3.3 Current Dielectric Breakdown Theories 312
6.3.4 Dielectric Breakdown Testing: Ramp Voltage 316
6.3.5 Dielectric Breakdown Testing: Constant Voltage 320
6.3.6 Ramp Voltage and Constant Voltage Tests:
Is There a Connection? 321
6.3.7 Electric Field and Temperature Acceleration
Factors 324
6.3.8 Plasma Charging Damage to Gate Oxides 325
6.3.9 Analogy between Dielectric and Mechanical
Breakdown of Solids 326
6.3.10 Discharges and Water Trees 328
6.4 Hot Carrier Effects 330
6.4.1 Introduction 330
6.4.2 Hot Carriers 330
6.4.3 Hot Carrier Characteristics in MOSFET Devices 331
6.4.4 Models for Hot Carrier Degradation 331
6.4.5 Hot Carrier Damage in Other Devices 338
6.4.6 Combating Hot Carrier Damage 338
6.5 Electrical Overstress and Electrostatic Discharge 339
6.5.1 Introduction 339
6.5.2 ESD Models 341
6.5.3 Thermal Analysis of ESD Failures 344
6.5.4 ESD Failure Mechanisms 347
6.5.5 Latent Failures 349
6.5.6 Guarding Against ESD 351
6.5.7 Some Common Myths About ESD 351
Exercises 352
References 355
Chapter 7
Environmental Damage to Electronic Products 359
7.1 Introduction 359
7.2 Atmospheric Contamination and Moisture 360
7.2.1 Sources of Airborne Contamination 360
7.2.2 Moisture Damage 363
Contents xjii
7.3 Corrosion of Metals 366
7.3.1 Introduction 366
7.3.2 Pourbaix Diagrams 367
7.3.3 Corrosion Rates 370
7.3.4 Damage Manifestations 370
7.4 Corrosion in Electronics. 373
7.4.1 Overview 373
7.4.2 Accelerated Corrosion Testing 375
7.4.3 Corrosion of Specific Metals 376
7.4.4 Modeling Corrosion Damage 382
7.5 Metal Migration 385
7.5.1 Introduction 385
7.5.2 Metal Migration on Porous Substrates 386
7.5.3 Metal Migration on Ceramic Substrates 388
7.5.4 Mobile Ion Contamination in CMOS Circuits 390
7.6 Radiation Damage to Electronic Materials and Devices 391
7.6.1 A Historical Footnote 391
7.6.2 Some Definitions 391
7.6.3 Radiation Environments 392
7.6.4 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 393
7.6.5 Device Degradation Due to Ionizing Radiation 395
7.6.6 Soft Errors 398
7.6.7 Radiation Hardening of Devices 404
Exercises 405
References 408
Chapter 8
Packaging Materials, Processes, and Stresses 411
8.1 Introduction 411
8.2 IC Chip Packaging Processes and Effects 415
8.2.1 Scope 415
8.2.2 First Level Electrical Interconnection 418
8.2.3 Chip Encapsulation 428
8.3 Solders and Their Reactions 435
8.3.1 Introduction 435
8.3.2 Solder Properties 438
8.3.3 Metal Solder Reactions 438
8.4 Second Level Packaging Technologies 447
8.4.1 Introduction 447
8.4.2 Through Hole and Surface Mounting 447
8.4.3 Ball Grid Arrays 449
8.4.4 Reflow and Wave Soldering Processes 449
8.4.5 Defects in Solder Joints 451
xiv Contents
8.5 Thermal Stresses in Package Structures 452
8.5.1 Introduction 452
8.5.2 Chips Bonded to Substrates 454
8.5.3 Thermal Stress in Other Structures 460
Exercises 467
References 471
Chapter 9
Degradation of Contacts and Package
Interconnections 475
9.1 Introduction 475
9.2 The Nature of Contacts 476
9.2.1 Scope 476
9.2.2 Constriction Resistance 477
9.2.3 Heating Effects 479
9.2.4 Mass Transport Effects at Contacts 479
9.2.5 Contact Force 481
9.3 Degradation of Contacts and Connectors 482
9.3.1 Introduction 482
9.3.2 Mechanics of Spring Contacts 482
9.3.3 Normal Force Reduction in Contact Springs 486
9.3.4 Tribology 488
9.3.5 Fretting Wear Phenomena 489
9.3.6 Modeling Fretting Corrosion Damage 491
9.4 Creep and Fatigue of Solder 492
9.4.1 Introduction 492
9.4.2 Creep—An Overview 493
9.4.3 Constitutive Equations of Creep 494
9.4.4 Solder Creep 495
9.4.5 Fatigue—An Overview 498
9.4.6 Isothermal Fatigue of Solder 504
9.5 Reliability and Failure of Solder Joints 507
9.5.1 Introduction to Thermal Cycling Effects 507
9.5.2 Thermal Stress Cycling of Surface Mount
Solder Joints 512
9.5.3 Acceleration Factor for Solder Fatigue 516
9.5.4 Fracture of Solder Joints 517
9.6 Dynamic Loading Effects in Electronic Equipment 526
9.6.1 Introduction 526
9.6.2 Vibration of Electronic Equipment 527
Exercises 531
References 535
Contents xv
Chapter 10
Degradation and Failure of Electro optical
Materials and Devices 539
10.1 Introduction 539
10.2 Failure and Reliability of Lasers and Light Emitting Diodes 540
10.2.1 A Bit of History 540
10.2.2 Reliability Testing of Lasers and LEDs 541
10.2.3 Microscopic Mechanisms of Laser Damage 547
10.2.4 Electrostatic Discharge Damage to Lasers 554
10.2.5 Contact and Bonding Reliability 556
10.3 Thermal Degradation of Lasers and Optical Components 559
10.3.1 Introduction 559
10.3.2 Thermal Analysis of Heating 560
10.3.3 Laser Induced Damage to Optical Coatings 561
10.3.4 Thermal Damage to Lasers 562
10.4 Reliability of Optical Fibers 568
10.4.1 Introduction 568
10.4.2 Optical Fiber Strength 571
10.4.3 Static Fatigue—Crack Growth and Fracture 574
10.4.4 Environmental Degradation of Optical Fiber 578
Exercises 582
References 585
Chapter 11
Characterization and Failure Analysis
of Materials and Devices 587
11.1 Overview of Testing and Failure Analysis 587
11.1.1 Scope 587
11.1.2 Characterization Tools and Methods 591
11.2 Nondestructive Examination and Decapsulation 592
11.2.1 Radiography 592
11.2.2 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy 594
11.2.3 Analysis of PIND Particles 598
11.2.4 Decapsulation 599
11.3 Structural Characterization 603
11.3.1 Optical Microscopy 603
11.3.2 Electron Microscopy 604
11.3.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 611
11.3.4 Focused Ion Beams 612
xvi Contents
11.4 Chemical Characterization 615
11.4.1 Introduction 615
11.4.2 Making Use of Core Electron Transitions 615
11.4.3 Chemical Analysis by Means of Ions 619
11.5 Examining Devices Under Electrical Stress 621
11.5.1 Introduction 621
11.5.2 Emission Microscopy 621
11.5.3 Voltage Contrast Techniques 625
11.5.4 Thermography 630
11.5.5 Trends in Failure Analysis 635
Exercises 635
References 638
Chapter 12
Future Directions and Reliability Issues 641
12.1 Introduction 641
12.2 Integrated Circuit Technology Trends 642
12.2.1 Introduction 642
12.2.2 IC Chip Trends 642
12.2.3 Contamination Trends 648
12.2.4 Lithography 650
12.2.5 Packaging 651
12.3 Scaling 654
12.3.1 Introduction 654
12.3.2 Implications of Device Scaling 656
12.4 Fundamental Limits 658
12.4.1 Introduction 658
12.4.2 Physical Limits 659
12.4.3 Material Limits 660
12.4.4 Device Limits 660
12.5 Improving Reliability 662
12.5.1 Reliability Growth 663
12.5.2 Failure Prediction: Stressor Susceptibility
Interactions 664
12.5.3 Building In Reliability 665
Exercises 669
References 671
Appendix 673
Index 675
|
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| indexdate | 2024-07-09T18:21:53Z |
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| isbn | 0125249853 |
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| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Ohring, Milton Verfasser aut Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices Milton Ohring San Diego [u.a.] Acad. Press 1998 XXI, 692 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Electronic apparatus and appliances Reliability System failures (Engineering) Elektronisches Bauelement (DE-588)4014360-0 gnd rswk-swf Zuverlässigkeit (DE-588)4059245-5 gnd rswk-swf Elektronisches Bauelement (DE-588)4014360-0 s Zuverlässigkeit (DE-588)4059245-5 s DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008201418&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Ohring, Milton Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices Electronic apparatus and appliances Reliability System failures (Engineering) Elektronisches Bauelement (DE-588)4014360-0 gnd Zuverlässigkeit (DE-588)4059245-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4014360-0 (DE-588)4059245-5 |
| title | Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices |
| title_auth | Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices |
| title_exact_search | Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices |
| title_full | Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices Milton Ohring |
| title_fullStr | Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices Milton Ohring |
| title_full_unstemmed | Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices Milton Ohring |
| title_short | Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices |
| title_sort | reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices |
| topic | Electronic apparatus and appliances Reliability System failures (Engineering) Elektronisches Bauelement (DE-588)4014360-0 gnd Zuverlässigkeit (DE-588)4059245-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Electronic apparatus and appliances Reliability System failures (Engineering) Elektronisches Bauelement Zuverlässigkeit |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008201418&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT ohringmilton reliabilityandfailureofelectronicmaterialsanddevices |