Fundamentals of interfacial engineering:
Saved in:
| Main Authors: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New York [u.a.]
Wiley-VCH
1997
|
| Series: | Advances in interfacial engineering series
|
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXVIII, 701 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0471186473 |
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MARC
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| 100 | 1 | |a Stokes, Robert J. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Fundamentals of interfacial engineering |c Robert J. Stokes ; D. Fennell Evans |
| 264 | 1 | |a New York [u.a.] |b Wiley-VCH |c 1997 | |
| 300 | |a XXVIII, 701 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 0 | |a Advances in interfacial engineering series | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Chimie des surfaces | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Grenslagen |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Interfaces (Sciences physiques) | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Interfaces |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Química de superfície |2 larpcal | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Surfaces (Technologie) | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Interfaces (Physical sciences) | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Surface chemistry | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Surfaces (Technology) | |
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| 700 | 1 | |a Evans, Douglas Fennell |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
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| _version_ | 1804126087145324544 |
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| adam_text | CONTENTS
Fundamental Constants xxvii
Conversions and Useful Relations xxviii
— 1 / Defining Interfacial Engineering 1
1.1 What Is Interfacial Engineering? 1
1.2 Trends in Interfacial Products and Processes 1
1.2.1 Computer Chips and Packaging 1
1.2.2 Photographic Films 3
1.2.3 Polymer Composites 3
1.2.4 Advanced Ceramics 4
1.2.5 Breadth of Field 5
1.3 Reproducibility and Reliability 5
1.4 Organization and Goals of This Book 6
1.4.1 Interfacial Phenomena in Fluids and Solids
Are Treated Separately 6
1.4.2 Interfacial Engineering Embodies Both
Macroscopic and Microscopic Levels of
Understanding 7
1.4.3 Subject Headings and Concept Maps Provide
Different Levels of Overview of the Subject
Matter 8
— 2 / Interaction Forces in Interfacial Systems 9
2.1 Interaction Forces between Molecules Can Be Most
Simply Described as a Sum of Five Contributions 14
2.2 Interactions between Permanently Charged Molecules
and Polar Molecules—Coulomb s Law Describes
Attractive and Repulsive Interactions 17
2.2.1 Depending on the Sign of the Charges,
Ion Ion Interactions Can Be Attractive or
Repulsive 17
2.2.2 Ion Dipole Interactions Depend on the
Orientation of the Ion and the Dipole 18
2.2.3 Dipole Dipole Interaction Energies Are
Often Less Than Thermal Energy 20
2.2 A When Electrostatic Interactions Are
Comparable to the Thermal Energy, We
Use Angle Averaged Interaction Potentials
to Evaluate the Interaction Energy 22
2.2.5 When Angle Averaged Interaction Potentials
Are Computed for Dipole Dipole
xi
Interactions, We Obtain the Keesom
Attractive Interaction Energy 23
2.2.6 The Interaction Energy for Angle Averaged
Potentials Is Twice the Interaction Free
Energy 24
2.3 Interactions between Permanently Charged
Molecules or Polar Molecules and Induced
Dipoles—Attractive Interactions Occur When
Electrical Fields Emanating from a Polar Molecule
Induce Polarization in Nearby Molecules 24
2.3.1 Induced Dipole Interactions Exhibit Only
Half the Energy of Direct Interactions 24
2.3.2 Comparing Ion Induced Dipole Interactions
with Ion Dipole Interactions Shows That
Induced Interactions Are More
Short Ranged 27
2.3.3 When Angle Averaged Potentials Are
Computed for Dipole Induced Dipole
Interactions, We Obtain the Debye
Attractive Interaction 27
2.4 Interactions between Induced Dipoles and Induced
Dipoles—Dispersion Forces—Lead to Attractive
Interactions between All Molecules 28
2.5 We Can Obtain the van der Waals Attractive Force
by Combining Expressions for the Keesom, Debye,
and London Forces 29
2.5.1 Potential Energy Curves Describing
Intermolecular Interactions in the Vapor
Phase Combine Expressions for van der
Waals Attractions and Hard Sphere
Repulsions 29
2.5.2 Dispersion Forces Determine the Properties
of van der Waals Solids Composed of Inert,
Spherical Molecules 32
2.6 We Can Express Interaction Forces between
Particles by a Sum of Terms Similar to That Used
to Express the Interaction between Molecules 34
2.6.1 We Can Obtain the Dispersion Forces
Acting between Two Particles or
Macroscopic Bodies in Vacuum by
Summing the London Dispersion Forces
over All Molecules Contained in the Two
Bodies on a Pairwise Basis 34
2.6.2 Interaction Forces between Spheres Can Be
Obtained from the Interaction Energy
between Parallel Plates 36
2.6.3 Attractive Energies between Particles Are
Much Smaller in a Condensed Phase Than
in Vacuum 39
2.7 The Boltzmann Equation Provides the Basis for
Deciding When Interfacial Energies Are Important 41
Bibliography 42
Exercises 42
xii / CONTENTS
— 3 / General Properties of Systems
Containing Fluid Interfaces 45
3.1 Surface Tension Is the Key Concept in Characterizing
Fluid Interfaces 52
3.1.1 Molecular Origins of Surface and Interface
Tension Can Be Understood in Terms of
Differences in Interaction between
Molecules in the Bulk and at the
Interface 53
3.2 The Relation between Surface Tension and Work
of Cohesion and Adhesion Affects the
Spontaneous Spreading of One Liquid upon
Another 57
3.2.1 Work of Cohesion and of Adhesion Are Key
Concepts in Understanding Many
Interfacial Processes 57
Z.Z.I The Spreading Coefficient Predicts Wetting
of One Liquid by Another 58
3.3 The Young Laplace Equation Relates Pressure
Differences to Curvature across a Surface 60
3.3.1 The Young Laplace Equation Accounts for
Capillary Rise 63
3.4 The Kelvin Equation Describes Vapor Pressure of
Small Droplets and Explains Homogeneous
Nucleation and Capillary Condensation 64
3.4.1 The Kelvin Equation Describes the Critical
Condition for Homogeneous Nucleation of
Liquid Droplets from a Vapor 64
3.4.2 Combining the Kelvin Equation and an
Arrhenius Rate Equation Provides an
Expression for the Rate of Homogeneous
Nucleation 67
3.4.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation Involves the
Interfacial Free Energy between the New
Phase and the Substrate 69
3.4.4 Due to Capillary Effects, Surface Energy Can
Cause a Liquid to Condense on a Rough
Surface Prior to Saturation in the Bulk
Phase 69
3.5 Thermodynamic Equations That Include Surface
Chemistry Contributions Provide a Fundamental
Basis for Characterizing Fluid Fluid Interface
Behavior 71
3.5.1 The Gibbs Model Provides a Powerful Basis
for Analyzing Interface Phenomena by
Dividing a System into Two Bulk Phases
and an Infinitesimally Thin Dividing
Interface 71
3.5.2 The Gibbs Adsorption Equation Relates
Surface Excess to Surface Tension and the
Chemical Potential of the Solute 73
CONTENTS / xiii
3.6 Monolayers Formed by Insoluble Amphiphiles
Behave As a Separate Phase and Are Most Readily
Characterized Using a Langmuir Balance 76
3.7 Thermodynamics of Ideal Solutions Provide a
Fundamental Basis for Characterizing Adsorption
in Fluid Solid Systems 79
3.7.1 Entropy of Mixing Provides the Basis for
the Ideal Solution Model and Very Dilute
Real Solutions 79
3.7.2 Based on an Ideal Mixing Model, the
Langmuir Equation Describes Adsorption of
Fluids at Solid Surfaces 81
3.8 Transport Processes Play a Fundamental Role in
Interfacial Process Engineering 84
3.8.1 Viscosity and Fluid Flow Provide
Understanding Necessary for Analyzing
Many Interfacial Processes 84
3.8.2 Viscosities of Surface Films Can Be
Described by a Two Dimensional Form of
Poisseuille s Equation and Measured Using
a Modified Langmuir Balance 90
3.8.3 Viscosity and Flow of Fluids Containing
Particles Are Important for Many Interfacial
Processes 91
3.8.4 Sedimentation Rate of Particles Depends on
Particle Size and Solution Viscosity 96
3.8.5 Material Transport in Many Interfacial
Processes Is Diffusion Controlled 98
Bibliography 103
Exercises 103
Appendix 3A Equations of Continuity and Motion 105
3A.1 Equation of Continuity 106
3A.2 Equation of Motion for a Fixed Control
Volume 107
3A. 3 Equation of Motion for a Moving Control
Volume 111
3A.4 Flow Around a Sphere As an Example of
Two Dimensional Flow 112
~ ~i :,„ ,i •, .¦, ¦„ , 4 / Colloids 115
4.1 Colloidal Systems Are Thermodynamically
Unstable, but Can Be Kinetically Stabilized by
Steric or Electrostatic Repulsive Forces 121
4.2 Colloids Can Be Prepared in Two Ways 124
4.2.1 Preparation of Colloids by
Precipitation—Nucleation and Growth
Determine the Size, Shape, and
Polydispersity of Colloids 324
4.2.2 Colloids Also Can Be Prepared by
Comminution 127
xiy / CONTENTS
4.2.3 The Surfaces of Colloidal Particles Are
Charged through Mechanisms Involving
Surface Disassociation or Adsorption of
Ionic Species 127
4.3 Charged Interfaces Play a Decisive Role in Many
Interfacial Processes 129
4.3.1 The Gouy Chapman Theory Describes How
a Charged Surface and an Adjacent
Electrolyte Solution Interact 130
4.3.2 The Electrical Double Layer Is Equivalent
to a Capacitor—with One Electrode at the
Particle Surface and the Other in the
Electrolyte at a Distance Equal to the Debye
Length 138
4.4 The Repulsive Potential Energy of Interaction, Vrep,
between Two Identical Charged Surfaces in an
Electrolyte Increases Exponentially as the Surfaces
Move Together 140
4.4.1 Repulsive Forces Originate Due to
Electrostatic Interaction 140
4.4.2 Repulsive Forces Also Originate Due to
Osmotic Pressure 141
4.4.3 The Total Repulsive Force between Two
Charged Particles in an Electrolyte Is the
Sum of the Electrostatic and the Osmotic
Force 143
4.5 Electrostatic Stabilization of Colloidal
Dispersions—Combining Vatt and Vrep Leads to the
DLVO Equation 145
4.5.1 We Can Use the DLVO Theory to Determine
the Conditions under Which Coagulation
Becomes Rapid 146
4.5.2 We Can Also Use the DLVO Theory to
Determine the Rate at Which Colloidal
Particles Coagulate 149
4.6 Surface Chemistry Plays an Important Role in
Determining the Stability and Specific Properties
of Colloidal Systems 152
4.6.1 The Stern Model Provides a Way to .Include
Specific Ion Effects at Charged Interfaces
153
4.6.2 The Zeta Potential Provides a Useful
Correlation between Double Layer
Potentials and Colloid Stability 157
4.6.3 In Colloidal Systems Many Specific Ion
Effects Can Be Understood by the Action of
Potential Determining, Indifferent, and
Charge Reversing Ionic Constituents 157
4.6.4 Heterocoagulation between Dissimilar
Colloidal Particles Is More Complex Than
Homocoagulation between Identical
Particles 162
CONTENTS / xv
4.7 Applications Involving Colloidal Interfacial
Systems 163
4.7.1 Paints Exemplify Complex Interfacial
Colloidal Systems 163
4.7.2 Protective Latex Coatings Are Formed
Using Diffusiophoresis—Movement of
Colloidal Particles in the Gradient of a
Chemical Solute 269
4.7.3 Modern Ceramics Place Stringent Demands
on Homogeneity and Quality Achievable
through Colloidal Particle Processing 175
4.7 .4 Zeolite Synthesis 182
Bibliography 188
Exercises 188
Appendix 4A The Complete Solution of the
Poisson—Boltzmann Equation 190
Appendix 4B Calculations Illustrating Numerical
Results with the Gouy Chapman and the Stern
Layer Equations 193
Appendix 4C Diffusion Controlled
Coagulation—Leading to Formation of Dimers 195
Appendix 4D Diffusion Controlled
Coagulation—Leading to Formation of
Multimers 196
Appendix 4E Kinetics of Slow Coagulation 198
1 — 5 / Amphiphilic Systems—Liquid Liquid
Interfaces 201
5.1 Aggregation of Amphiphilic Molecules to Form
Spherical Micelles Illustrates Many Features of
Self Organizing Systems 209
5.1.1 Concentration of Amphiphilic Molecules in
Solution Must Exceed a Critical Value
Before Micelles Will Form 212
5.1.2 The Radius of Spherical Micelles Is
Determined by the Energy Balance between
Unfavorable Hydrocarbon Water
Interaction and Polar Headgroup
Coulombic Repulsion 214
5.1.3 The Temperature Must Exceed a Critical
Value Before Micelles Will Form 218
5.2 We Can Quantitatively Model Micelle Formation
and Stability 219
5.2.1 Amphiphile Assembly Can Be Modeled As
a Reaction; the Equilibrium Constant
Relates Exponentially to the Free Energy of
Micellization 219
5.2.2 The Free Energy of Micellization for
Ionic Micelles Contains Two
xvi / CONTENTS
Components—Solvophobic Effects and
Headgroup Repulsion 221
5.2.3 The Contribution of Headgroup Interaction
to the Free Energy of Micellization Can Be
Modeled Using the Gouy Chapman
Theory 221
5.2.4 The Behavior of Ionic Micelles Can Be
Explained by Hydrocarbon Tail and
Headgroup Characteristics 223
5.2.5 Many Nonionic Micelles Separate into Two
Phases with Increasing Temperature 225
5.2.6 Relaxation Measurements Provide
Information on Micellar Lifetimes and
Dynamics 225
5.2.7 Micelles Can Solubilize Other Hydrocarbon
Molecules 229
5.3 Many Amphiphilic Molecules Form Bilayers,
Liquid Crystals, Vesicles, and Bicontinuous
Structures 230
5.3.1 Surfactant Numbers Provide Useful Guides
for Predicting Different Aggregate
Structures—Spherical Micelles, Cylindrical
Micelles, and Bilayer Structures 230
5.3.2 Bilayers Are the Basic Building Blocks of a
Number of Amphiphilic Structures 232
5.3.3 Hydration and Thermal Undulatory
Interaction Forces Play an Important Role
in Stabilizing Bilayer Systems 232
5.3.4 Vesicles Are Molecular Sized Containers
Formed by the Breakup of Bilayers 236
5.3.5 Amphiphilic Bicontinuous Structures
Contain Two Coexisting Phases 238
5.3.6 Temperature Versus Concentration Phase
Diagrams for Amphiphilic Molecules in
Solution Are Complex 239
5.4 Micro and Macroemulsions Are Homogeneous
Systems Containing Oil and Water Stabilized by
Amphiphilic Molecules 240
5.4.1 The Curvature of the Oil Water Interface
Can Be Manipulated 240
5.4.2 Microemulsions Are Thermodynamically
Stable Systems Possessing Microstructures
with Characteristic Dimensions Less Than
100 nm 243
5.4.3 Macroemulsions Are Thermodynamically
Unstable Colloidal Systems Containing Oil
(Water) Droplets Dispersed in Water (Oil)
with Microstructure Dimensions Greater
Than 100 nm 245
5.5 Applications Involving Amphiphilic Interfacial
Systems Illustrate the Rich Diversity of This
Topic 248
CONTENTS / xvii
5.5.1 Detergency is a Complex, Everyday Process
Involving Surfactants 248
5.5.2 Pressure Sensitive Adhesives Illustrate the
Use of Emulsions in Interfacial Processes
257
5.5.3 Low Density Foams Can Be Fabricated by
Emulsion Polymerization 263
Bibliography 268
Exercises 268
• 6 / Polymers 271
6.1 Polymer Synthesis Produces Macromolecules That
Are Generally Polydisperse 278
6.1.1 Chain (Addition) Polymerization 279
6.1.2 Step (Condensation) Polymerization 281
6.1.3 Both Chain and Step Polymerization
Produce Polydisperse Polymers 282
6.1.4 Polymers Are Used in Both Bulk and
Solution Form 283
6.2 Bulk Solid Polymers Exist in Both the Amorphous
and Crystalline State 283
6.2.1 The Decrease in Young s Modulus with
Increasing Temperature Marks Transitions
from Crystalline Solid to Amorphous Glass
to Rubbery Material to Viscous Fluid 284
6.2.2 Many Crystalline Polymers Consist of
Lamellar Structures That Form
Spherulites 285
6.2.3 Elastomers Are Crosslinked Polymer
Systems above Their Glass Transition
Temperature 286
6.2.4 Mechanical Behavior of Bulk Polymer
Solids 288
6.3 A Complete Description of Polymer Solutions
Involves Integrating Information from Many
Fields 289
6.3.1 The Character of a Polymer Solution
Changes with Concentration; There Are
Three Different Concentration
Regimes—Very Dilute, Semidilute, and
Concentrated 289
6.3.2 Macromolecule Conformation in Very
Dilute Solution Depends on Molecular
Weight and Solution Interaction 289
6.3.3 The Crossover from Very Dilute to
Semidilute to Concentrated Solution
Behavior Depends on Chain
Conformation 294
6.3.4 The Regular Solution Model Provides the
Basis for the Flory Huggins Theory of
Semidilute Polymer Solutions 295
xviii / CONTENTS
6.4 Many Additional Features Affect Macromolecule
Conformation in Solution 298
6.4.1 Homopolymers with Amphiphilic
Monomer Units Often Form Ordered
Helical Structures—The DNA Double
Helix 299
6.4.2 Heteropolymers Often Form Folded
Structures—Protein Chain Folding 300
6.4.3 Block Copolymers Can Be Amphiphilic and
Show the Same Self Assembly Properties as
Surfactants 302
6.4.4 Polyelectrolyte Chains Have a More
Extended Conformation Because They Are
Charged 304
6.4.5 Polymers Can Form Gels through Chemical
Crosslinking and Self Association 304
6.5 Polymer Adsorption at Surfaces Plays an Important
Role in Stabilizing Interfacial Systems 306
6.5.1 Polymers Can Be Attached to a Surface by
Spontaneous Adsorption or Grafting 306
6.5.2 Kinetics Often Determine the Outcome of a
Polymer Adsorption Process 309
6.5.3 Adsorbed Polymers Drastically Change
Forces between Surfaces—They Can
Lead to Colloidal Stabilization or
Flocculation 309
6.5.4 Polyelectrolytes Can Be Used to Flocculate
Charge Stabilized Colloidal Dispersions 312
6.5.5 Polymers Can Facilitate the Self Assembly
of Surfactants 323
6.6 Transport Properties of Homopolymer Solutions
Can Change by Orders of Magnitude with Variation
in Molecular Weight, Concentration, and
Temperature 315
6.6.1 In Dilute Polymer Solutions, Viscosity
Scales with Molecular Weight to a Power
between 0.5 and 1.0 316
6.6.2 In Dilute Polymer Solutions, Diffusion
Scales Inversely with Molecular Weight to a
Power between 0.5 and 1.0 319
6.6.3 The de Gennes Reptation Model Describes
Viscosity and Diffusion in Concentrated
Polymer Solutions and Polymer Melts 320
6.6.4 The Mechanical Response of Polymer
Systems Is Time Dependent—Polymers Are
Viscoelastic Materials 324
6.7 Processing of Polymeric Systems Illustrates How a
Wide Variety of Materials Are Produced 325
6.7.1 Production of Polyurethane Foams Involves
Simultaneous Control of Polymerization
and Foam Formation 325
CONTENTS / xix
6.7.2 High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) Is a
Microphase Polymer Composite Consisting
of Rubbery Particles Encased in a Brittle
Thermoplastic 329
6.7.3 Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPEs) Are Block
Copolymers That Are Thermoplastic at
High Temperatures but Form Rubbery and
Rigid Microphases on Cooling 334
6.7.4 Disposable Diapers Exemplify a Highly
Engineered, Complex Polymer System 338
Bibliography 343
Exercises 343
Appendix 6A Regular Solution Theory 344
~ 7 / Polymer Composites 347
7.1 The Composition, Processing, and Properties of
Polymer Composites Are Unique 354
7.1.1 The Typical Matrix Is a Thermoset or a
Thermoplastic Polymer 354
7.1.2 Reinforcements Are Either Particulates or
Fibers 355
7.1.3 Impregnation of the Reinforcements by the
Matrix Can Be Complex—Good Wetting Is
Critical 356
7.1.4 Fiber Matrix Interfacial Bonding Is
Optimized for Strength and Toughness 358
7.2 Liquid Solid Interfaces and Tortuosity Resist Flow
between Fiber Reinforcements during
Impregnation 360
7.2.1 Impregnation under External Pressure Can
Be Modeled as Flow through a Porous
Medium—Darcy sLaw 362
7.2.2 Darcy s Law Predicts Impregnation Length
as a Function of External Pressure 364
7.3 Capillary Action Also Assists Impregnation 367
7.3.1 Capillary Flow Rate along Fibers Is Based
on the Young Laplace and
Hagen Poiseuille Equations 368
7.3.2 Capillary Flow across Fibers Fluctuates
Due to Varying Meniscus Curvature 370
7.3.3 Flow Rates Due to External Pressure and
Capillary Pressure Are Complementary 372
7.3.4 Unequal Flow Rates and Changes in
Dynamic Contact Angle Promote Voids 372
7 A Interfacial Bond Strength Can Be Manipulated by
Chemical and Mechanical Treatments 374
7A. Interfacial Bond Strength Is Key to the
Mechanical Behavior of Polymer
Composites 374
7.4.2 Impact Strength Depends on Characteristics
of the Matrix and the Interface 376
xx I CONTENTS
7.4.3 Fiber Matrix Interface Bond Strength Is
Controlled by Various Surface Treatments 377
7AA Fiber Matrix Interfacial Bond Strength Is
Measured by Direct or Indirect Techniques 380
7.5 Polymer Composite Mechanical Properties Depend
on Fiber Reinforcement, Matrix Properties, and
Interfacial Bond Strength 382
7.5.1 The Elastic Properties of Fiber Reinforced
Composites 383
7.5.2 The Tensile Strength of Fiber Reinforced
Composites 388
7.6 Special Issues in the Processing and Application of
Reinforced Composites 391
7.6.1 Electric Cable Trays for the Eurotunnel Are
Processed by the Pultrusion Technique 391
7.6.2 Composite Field Repair 393
Bibliography 396
Exercises 397
. __»_ ___ ___»___— 8 / Liquid Coating Processes 399
8.1 Making Self Adhesive Paper Labels: A Tutorial on
the Fundamental Aspects of Coating Processes 404
8.1.1 Adhesive Is Applied to the Backing Using
Slot Coating 406
8.1.2 Analysis of the Stability of the Slot Coating
Process 407
8.2 Overview of Coating Methods 419
8.2.1 Coating Methods May Be Classified
According to Delivery Procedure 419
8.2.2 Many Factors Are Involved in the Selection
of a Coating Method 423
8.2.3 Defects in Coatings 427
8.2.4 Real Time Imaging Has Been Applied to
On Line Web Inspection for Defects 429
8.3 Environmental Issues in Coating Processes 433
8.3.1 Overview of the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1990 434
8.3.2 Impact on the Coating Industry 434
8.4 Coating Technology Is Widespread 435
8.4.1 Printing Is a Selected Area Coating
Process 435
8.4.2 Photographic Films Are Manufactured by
Multilayer Coatings of Photographic
Emulsions 437
8.4.3 Magnetic Recording Tapes Are Prepared by
High Speed Coating Processes 447
Bibliography 453
Appendix 8A Dynamics of Wetting and Spreading 454
8A.1 The Dynamic Contact Angle Is Always Greater
Than the Static Contact Angle 454
CONTENTS / xxi
8A.2 Physical Understanding of the Dynamic Contact
Angle Is Complex 456
— 9 / General Properties of Crystalline Solid
Surfaces 457
9.1 Crystalline Solids Consist of a Regular Array of
Atoms 464
9.1.1 Each Crystalline Material Is Defined by Its
Unit Cell and Lattice Parameters 464
9.1.2 Inert Gas Solids Are Composed of
Close Packed Arrays of Spherical Molecules
Bonded by Dispersion Forces 466
9.1.3 Ionic Solids, Basic to Many Ceramics, Are
Composed of Different Sized Positive and
Negative Ions Bonded by Coulombic
Forces 468
9.1.4 Covalent Bonding Plays a Key Role in
Determining the Structure of Many
Materials Used in Electronic Devices, Such
as Diamond and the m IV and II VI
Compounds 471
9.1.5 The Special Properties of Metals Arise from
the Metallic Bond in Which Valence
Electrons Are Shared by All Atoms 473
9.1.6 Molecular Solids Exhibit Mixed Bonding 473
9.2 Characteristics of the Free Solid Surface 474
9.2.1 The Free Surface Energy Equals One Half
the Cohesive Energy 474
9.2.2 The Free Solid Surface Has a Structure Other
Than That Rendered by Simple Dissection of
the Material into Two Halves 482
9.3 The High Surface Energy of a Crystalline Solid Is
Reduced through a Change in the Chemical
Composition of the Surface 486
9.3.1 Adsorption Reduces Surface Energy at Low
Temperatures 487
9.3.2 Segregation Reduces Surface Energy at
High Temperatures 490
9.4 Crystalline Solids Contain Many Kinds of
Imperfections 481
9.4.1 Point Imperfections Exist in
Thermodynamic Equilibrium 491
9.4.2 Linear Imperfections, Known as Dislocation
Lines, Are Always Present in Crystalline
Solids 496
9.4.3 Small Angle Boundaries Are Planar
Imperfections; They Are Formed from
Arrays of Dislocations 501
9.5 Kinetic Transport Mechanisms Are Key to
Formation, Processing, and Stability of Interfaces
in Solid Solid Systems 505
xxii / CONTENTS
9.5.1 Self Diffusion and Solute Diffusion in
Substitutional Solid Solutions by the
Vacancy Mechanism 505
9.5.2 Self Diffusion and Solute Diffusion in
Interstitial Solid Solutions by the
Interstitial Mechanism 510
9.5.3 Diffusion and Absolute Mobility Are Related
by the Nernst Einstein Equation 512
9.5.4 Fick s Second Law Describes Changes in
Composition with Time 513
9.5.5 Large Differences in Diffusivity Lead to
Movement of Interfacial Boundaries with
Time and the Formation of Interfacial
Defects 515
9.5.6 Diffusion over Surfaces Is Faster Than
through the Bulk of the Material 516
9.5.7 Material Transport in Solids Also Can Be
Driven by Electrical Potential Gradients
and Mechanical Strain Gradients 518
Bibliography 522
Exercises 522
Appendix 9A Miller Indexing System for Denoting
Directions and Planes in Single Crystals 524
=========== 10 / Thin Films—Solid Solid Interfaces
Processed from the Vapor Phase 527
10.1 Ideal Gas Behavior Can Describe the Properties
of the Vapor Phase under Most Vacuum
Conditions 535
10.1.1 Gas (Vapor) Phase Equation of State 535
10.1.2 Kinetic Behavior of Gas Molecules 536
10.1.3 Mean Free Path between Collisions 538
10.1.4 Impingement Flux—The Number of
Particles Striking a Unit Area of Surface
per Unit Time 539
10.1.5 Other Properties of Gases in Vacuum Are
Sensitive to the Pressure 540
10.2 For Practical Purposes, We Can Relate the
Choice of Vacuum System to the Kinetic Theory of
Gases 540
10.2.1 Vacuum Pumps: Speed and Throughput
540
10.2.2 Angular Distribution of Emitted
Molecules 543
10.2.3 Vacuum Chambers Come in a Variety of
Materials and Shapes 544
10.3 Physical Vapor Deposition Generally Employs
High Vacuum Techniques 544
10.3.1 Physical Vapor Deposition by Thermal
Evaporation—Molecules Are Evaporated
from a Thermally Heated Source 545
CONTENTS / xxiii
10.3.2 Physical Vapor Deposition by Sputtering—
Ion Bombardment Ejects Molecules from a
Source 550
10.3.3 Other Physical Vapor Deposition
Techniques Combine Features from
Thermal and Sputtering Methods 555
10.3.4 Substrates Must Be Carefully Prepared for
Physical Vapor Deposition 556
10.3.5 Deposition Rate and Thickness Can Be
Monitored inside the Vacuum 557
10.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition Generally Employs
Low Vacuum Techniques 557
10.4.1 Higher Operating Pressures Means CVD
Gives Conformal Coatings 558
10.4.2 Precursor Sources for Chemical Vapor
Deposition Are Vapors, Liquids, or Solids
559
10.4.3 Some Typical Chemical Vapor Deposition
Reactions 559
10.4.4 Reactor Design and Substrate Heating 562
10.4.5 Plasmas and Lasers Stimulate Reaction at
Lower Temperatures 564
10.4.6 Techniques Are Needed to Monitor CVD
Deposition Processes 564
10.4.7 For Certain CVD Systems, Safety Is an
Important Issue 565
10.5 Epitaxial Growth on Single Crystal Substrates
Requires Special Deposition Conditions 566
10.5.1 Molecular Beam Epitaxy Uses Evaporation
under UHV Conditions 567
10.5.2 Molecular Beam Sources 568
10.5.3 Substrate Preparation and Temperature
Control 569
10.5.4 Thickness Monitoring and Surface
Analysis 570
10.5.5 Metallorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition
Is an Alternative Technique for Processing
Multilayer Epitaxial Thin Films 571
10.6 Vapor Phase Growth Mechanisms 571
10.6.1 Capillarity Theory Describes
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
Nucleation from the Vapor 572
10.6.2 Thin Film Growth Kinetics Involves a
Combination of Mass Transfer, Surface
Adsorption, Desorption, and Surface
Reaction Steps 576
10.6.3 Growth Modes and Microstructures of
Thin Films Result from One of Three
Basic Mechanisms 585
10.7 Imperfections and Failure Mechanisms in Thin
Films 598
xxiv / CONTENTS
10.7.1 Failure of Epitaxial Interfaces Is Primarily
Due to Mechanical Strain 598
10.7.2 Residual Stresses Induce Failure of
Interphase Interfaces 601
10.7.3 Mechanical Stresses Due to Impact and
Friction Cause Failure in Service 605
10.7.4 Thin Film to Substrate Adhesion Is
Important but Difficult to Measure 606
10.7.5 Interface Failure Due to Surface Diffusion
and Interdiffusion 608
10.7.6 Porosity of a Film 609
10.8 Thin Film Applications 610
10.8.1 Magneto Optical Data Storage Disks 610
10.8.2 Thin Film Infrared Sensors 617
Bibliography 620
Exercises 620
^^ 11 / Grain Boundary Surfaces and Interfaces
in Crystalline Solids 623
11.1 Grain Boundaries Form during Condensation
from the Vapor, during Solidification from the
Melt, or by Solid State Recrystallization 628
11.2 In Pure Polycrystalline Solids, the Surface Energy
of Grain Boundaries Gives Rise to Curvature
Effects and Grain Boundary Motion 630
11.2.1 Grain Boundary Misorientation Is
Represented by Tilt and Twist
Components or by the Inverse of the
Coherent Lattice Site Density 630
11.2.2 Grain Boundary Surface Energy Is
Determined by the Density of Unsatisfied
Bonds and Related to Misorientation 633
11.2.3 Grain Boundary Surface Energy Also
Varies with the Boundary Plane 636
11.2.4 Grain Boundary Surface Energy Lowers
the Cohesive Strength of a Solid—Grain
Boundary Decohesion 637
11.2.5 Minimizing Grain Boundary Surface
Energy Determines the Equilibrium
Configuration of Grain Boundary
Junctions 638
11.2.6 Grain Boundary Curvature Causes Grain
Boundary Movement and Increases the
Average Grain Size 639
11.2.7 Grain Boundary Surfaces Act as the
Source and Sink for Vacancies; As a
Result, Grain Boundary Surfaces in Ionic
Solids Can Become Charged 645
11.3 Solute Atoms (or Impurities) Segregate
Preferentially in the Grain Boundary Region 645
CONTENTS / xxv
11.3.1 Solute Atoms Segregate at Grain
Boundaries to Reduce the Chemical,
Mechanical, or Electrical Energy of the
System 645
11.3.2 Impurity Segregation Is Used to Control
Grain Growth 647
11.3.3 Impurity Segregation Modifies the
Properties of Metals and Ceramics 648
11.4 Grain Boundary Surfaces in Equilibrium with
Other Phases Lead to Different Microstructural
Configurations 649
11.4.1 Grain Boundary/Vapor Phase Interaction
Leads to Thermal Grooving 650
11.4.2 Grain Boundary/Liquid Phase Interaction
Leads to Two Phase Microstructures of
Varying Complexity 651
11.4.3 Grain Boundaries between Mixed Solid
Phases Lead to Unusual Microstructures
656
11.5 Grain Boundaries Form Preferential Sites for
Solid State Precipitation Reactions 658
11.5.1 Most Technologically Significant
Crystalline Solids Undergo Phase
Transformations and Precipitation at Low
Temperatures 658
11.5.2 Regular Solution Theory Describes Solid
Solution Stability 658
11.5.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation Theory
Describes Initiation of Solid State
Precipitation 659
11.5.4 Precipitate Particles Form from the Matrix
Phase in Different Ways 661
11.6 Grain Boundary Devices Called Ceramic Varistors
Protect Electrical Circuits from Voltage Surges 664
Bibliography 667
Exercises 667
Appendix 11A Mechanical Behavior of Materials under
Stress—Macroscopic View 669
11A.1 Elastic Deformation 669
11A.2 Fracture and Plastic Deformation 671
11A.3 Elastomer Deformation 673
11A.4 Time Dependent Behavior—Viscoelastic
Deformation 673
Appendix 11B Mechanical Behavior of Materials under
Stress—Microscopic View 678
11B.1 Elastic Deformation 678
11B.2 Plastic Deformation at Low Temperatures 679
11B.3 Plastic Deformation at High Temperatures 680
11B.4 Brittle Fracture 681
Index 685
xxvi / CONTENTS
|
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| dewey-sort | 3620 244 |
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| discipline | Chemie / Pharmazie Physik Werkstoffwissenschaften Chemie |
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| id | DE-604.BV011561087 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T18:11:52Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0471186473 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-007784908 |
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| physical | XXVIII, 701 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 1997 |
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| publisher | Wiley-VCH |
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| series2 | Advances in interfacial engineering series |
| spelling | Stokes, Robert J. Verfasser aut Fundamentals of interfacial engineering Robert J. Stokes ; D. Fennell Evans New York [u.a.] Wiley-VCH 1997 XXVIII, 701 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Advances in interfacial engineering series Chimie des surfaces Grenslagen gtt Interfaces (Sciences physiques) Interfaces gtt Química de superfície larpcal Surfaces (Technologie) Interfaces (Physical sciences) Surface chemistry Surfaces (Technology) Werkstoffkunde (DE-588)4079184-1 gnd rswk-swf Grenzflächenphysik (DE-588)4452968-5 gnd rswk-swf Grenzflächenchemie (DE-588)4246080-3 gnd rswk-swf Grenzfläche (DE-588)4021991-4 gnd rswk-swf Werkstoffkunde (DE-588)4079184-1 s Grenzfläche (DE-588)4021991-4 s DE-604 Grenzflächenchemie (DE-588)4246080-3 s Grenzflächenphysik (DE-588)4452968-5 s Evans, Douglas Fennell Verfasser aut HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=007784908&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Stokes, Robert J. Evans, Douglas Fennell Fundamentals of interfacial engineering Chimie des surfaces Grenslagen gtt Interfaces (Sciences physiques) Interfaces gtt Química de superfície larpcal Surfaces (Technologie) Interfaces (Physical sciences) Surface chemistry Surfaces (Technology) Werkstoffkunde (DE-588)4079184-1 gnd Grenzflächenphysik (DE-588)4452968-5 gnd Grenzflächenchemie (DE-588)4246080-3 gnd Grenzfläche (DE-588)4021991-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4079184-1 (DE-588)4452968-5 (DE-588)4246080-3 (DE-588)4021991-4 |
| title | Fundamentals of interfacial engineering |
| title_auth | Fundamentals of interfacial engineering |
| title_exact_search | Fundamentals of interfacial engineering |
| title_full | Fundamentals of interfacial engineering Robert J. Stokes ; D. Fennell Evans |
| title_fullStr | Fundamentals of interfacial engineering Robert J. Stokes ; D. Fennell Evans |
| title_full_unstemmed | Fundamentals of interfacial engineering Robert J. Stokes ; D. Fennell Evans |
| title_short | Fundamentals of interfacial engineering |
| title_sort | fundamentals of interfacial engineering |
| topic | Chimie des surfaces Grenslagen gtt Interfaces (Sciences physiques) Interfaces gtt Química de superfície larpcal Surfaces (Technologie) Interfaces (Physical sciences) Surface chemistry Surfaces (Technology) Werkstoffkunde (DE-588)4079184-1 gnd Grenzflächenphysik (DE-588)4452968-5 gnd Grenzflächenchemie (DE-588)4246080-3 gnd Grenzfläche (DE-588)4021991-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Chimie des surfaces Grenslagen Interfaces (Sciences physiques) Interfaces Química de superfície Surfaces (Technologie) Interfaces (Physical sciences) Surface chemistry Surfaces (Technology) Werkstoffkunde Grenzflächenphysik Grenzflächenchemie Grenzfläche |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=007784908&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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