The experience of science: an interdisciplinary approach
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| Main Authors: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New York u.a.
Plenum Pr.
1987
|
| Edition: | 3. print. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXIV, 400 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0306415380 |
Staff View
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Record in the Search Index
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|---|---|
| adam_text | The Experience
of Science
An Interdisciplinary Approach
Martin Goldstein
Yeshiva University
New York, New York
and
Inge Goldstein
Columbia University
New York, New York
Plenum Press • New York and London
Contents
Chapter 1
What Is Science? 1
Why Learn Science? 1
A Definition of Science 2
Understanding 3
Generality 4
Experimental Test 4
Science versus the Humanities ^ 5
Reference Note 6
Suggested Reading 6
Chapter 2
Common Sense 7
Facts: What Are They? 9
Seeing after Blindness 11
Facts Are Theory Laden , 14
How Facts Are Used 15
How Science Begins 15
Collecting All the Facts 16
The Facts about Motion 17
Which Facts Are Relevant? V 17
The Chicken or the Egg? : 18
Science and Public Facts 18
Reference Notes * 19
Suggested Reading 19
Problem 19
j«v CONTENTS
i
Chapter 3
Logic 21
Introduction 21
The Nature of Logic 21
The Logic of an Experimental Test 23
Logical Difficulties and Fallacies 23
An Example of Logical Reasoning 25
Probable Inference 27
Reference Notes 27
Suggested Reading 27
Problems 28
Chapter 4
Snow on Cholera 29
Introduction: The Man, the Background 29
The Disease 31
Introduction to the Study 32
The History of Cholera 32
Cholera Is Contagious Q 33
How Does Cholera Spread? The Effluvia Theory 34
Snow s Theory 36
The London Epidemics of 1853-1854 39
The Broad Street Pump 39
A Controlled Experiment—Where Did They Get Their Water? 43
Laboratory versus Natural Experiments 44
Where Did They Get Their Water? 45
Being Critical 48
Objections to Snow s Theory 48
Other Theories: Effluvia, Elevation, Hard Water, and Soft Water 50
Applications to Other Problems 53
What About Other Diseases? 53
Prevention: Measures to Combat the Spread of Cholera 54
What Snow Overlooked 55
The Causes of Cancer 56
Biological and Chemical Approaches 57
Geography 57
Within a Country J 59
Genetics and Cancer 60
Migration Studies 60
CONTENTS xv
Environment and Life-Style 61
Cancer and Smoking 64
Nonepidemiological Evidence 66
Unsolved Problems 67
How Avoidable Is Cancer? 67
Putting the Question Differently : 69
Reference Notes 69
Suggested Reading 70
Problems 70
Chapter 5
Mathematics 73
The Nature of Mathematics 73
Symbols and the Fear of Mathematics 74
The Rules of the Game 74
The Truth of Mathematics : 75
The Use of Mathematics in Science 76
The Reasons for Mathematics 77
Economy of Effort 78
Precision - ,
N 78
Another Kind of Precision 79
Mathematics versus Words 80
Quantitative Laws 81
How Many Prime Numbers Are There? An Example of Mathematical
Reasoning 82
Mathematics without Quantities—The Bridges of Koenigsberg 85
Calculation and Mathematics 88
Reference Notes 90
Suggested Reading 90
Problems 90
Chapter 6
Is Heat a Substance? 93
The Conflict between the Caloric and Kinetic Theories of Heat 93
What Is Heat? 93
The Caloric Theory 94
The Kinetic Theory 94
xvi CONTENTS
The Usefulness of the Wrong Theory 95
Summary of What Is to Come 96
Measuring Hotness 97
Making Things Quantitative 97
Thermometers 99
Standardization and Calibration 100
The Equilibrium of Heat 102
Science and Quantification 103
Exact and Inexact Sciences 104
Heat and Heat Capacity 105
The Invention of Caloric 105
Conservation of Heat 106
Joseph Black 106
Heat versus Temperature 106
The Capacity for Heat 109
Latent Heat 113
Melting Ice 113
Latent Heat and Caloric 116
Other Triumphs of the Caloric Theory: The Flow of Heat 117
The Efficiency of Steam Engines 118
Rumford: Does Heat Have Weight? 119
Benjamin Thomson, Count Rumford 119
Rumford s War against the Caloric Theory 120
Does Heat Weigh Anything? 120
Heat from Friction 124
The Boring of Cannons 124
Why Rumford Did Not Win 128
Molecular Motion 129
Do Atoms and Molecules Move? 129
Demonstration of the Constant Motion of Molecules 130
Heat as Molecular Motion 133
The Conversion of Motion, through Friction, into Invisible Molecular
Motion 135
Why Caloric Survived 136
How Does Heat Get through a Vacuum? 136
What Is Light? 137
The Objectivity of Scientists :, 138
The Laws of Energy 139
The Forms of Energy 139
The Transformations of Energy
? 140
Measuring Energy 141
The Laws of Thermodynamics 141
Reference Notes 143
CONTENTS xvti
Suggested Reading 144
Problems • 144
Experiments 145
Chapter 7
Probability 147
How to Deal with Uncertainty 147
How to Gamble and Win 147
HeadsorTails? 148
Numerical Magnitudes 148
Are Tosses Independent? 149
The Law of Averages 149
Sequences of Tosses 150
A Proof of the Obvious 152
The Bell-shaped Curve 152
Another Paradox 156
The Law of Averages Justified • 157
Uncertainty Remains 157
Black Balls and White Balls 158
Another Meaning of Probability 160
Appendix 7-1: Computing Averages 161
Introduction ft -: 161
Tricks with Mirrors 163
The Average of the Unaverage 164
A New Headache: The Root-Mean-Square 165
More Tricks with Mirrors 167
Appendix 7-2: Applications of Probability Theory to Molecular Diffusion 170
Introduction 170
Molecules in Motion 170
The Tortuous Path: A Random Walk 171
Making a Model 172
Molecules, Dice, and Coins 173
How Fast Does It Happen? 174
The Random Walk in One Dimension 175
Applying Our Mathematics 176
The Experimental Test 176
What We Do Not Know 178
What Is Testable 179
Reference Notes 180
Suggested Reading 1 180
Problems 180
Experiments 181
xvm CONTENTS
Chapter 8
What Is Madness? The Scientific Study of Mental Disorders 183
Section I: Who It Mad? 183
A Depressed Genius 184
History 185
Treatment of the Insane 186
Does the Treatment of the Mad Make Them Madder? 186
Classification as the Starting Point of Science • 188
Classification 188
Facts and Their Classification 189
The Kinds of Mental Disorders 191
Schizophrenia and Depressive Disorders 194
Description of Schizophrenia 194
Description of Depressive Disorders 195
Comparison of the Two Groups 196
Diagnosis 196
Pattern Recognition—Art or Science? 197
The Experience of Madness 198
Theories of the Causes of Mental Disorders 202
Psychogenic Theories 202
Theories of Social Causation 203
Biological Theories 205
Interaction of Biological, Psychogenic, and Social Factors 206
An Epidemiological Study 207
United States and British Rates of Mental Disorder—A Clue to Causes 207
Explanations 207
Caution! Discovery or Artifact? 208
Previous Studies of Reliability of Diagnoses 210
A Study of Diagnostic Practices 211
A Thermometer for Mental Disorder? 212
The Project Diagnosis 212
The Results 213
How Good Is the Project Diagnosis? 214
Other Studies 215
The Schizophrenia Epidemic in New York State 216
The Psychiatrists Again # 216
What Have We Learned? 217
Section II: The Mental Hospital 218
t
Deterioration in Schizophrenia 218
Institutional Neurosis or Schizophrenia? 223
The Origin of Institutional Neurosis 224
The Cure 226
CONTENTS xix
Generalizing a Concept 228
Focus in Science 228
A New Discovery? 230
Total Institutions 231
What Do Convents and Concentration Camps Have in Common? 232
The Institution and the Condition 234
Belief and Evidence 235
What Have We Learned So Far? ; 236
Labeling 236
Eskimos and Yorubas 237
Section III: Genetic Studies 238
Why Does Schizophrenia Run in Families? 238
Inheritance 240
Introduction 240
Mendel s Work 240
Difficulties 242
Adoption Studies 243
The Danish Folkeregister 244
Blind Classification 245
The Control Group 245
The Uterine Environment 246
Cross-Fostering Studies D 246
Twins 247
The Conclusions and the Controversies 249
Another Classification of Schizophrenia 251
The Myth of Schizophrenia 252
Implications for the Psychogenic Approach 252
Postscript 253
Appendix 8-1: Genetics and Probability 254
Four O Clock Plants 254
Mendel s Hypothesis 255
Dominant and Recessive 256
Human Genetics 258
Reference Notes 259
Suggested Reading 261
Problems 262
Chapter 9
Statistics J 263
The Problem Turned Around 263
How Tall Is the Average Person? 264
xx CONTENTS
Is the Drug Effective? 264
Random versus Nonrandom 265
Another Meaning of Statistics 267
How Good Is an Average? 267
Again, the Average of the Unaverage 268
Statistical Tests in Science 270
Statistics and Science 272
Appendix 9-1: Statistics Experiment 273
The Chi-squared Test on a2x2 Table 273
Reference Note 278
Suggested Reading 278
Chapter 10
Science—The Search for Understanding 279
Understanding as a Common Experience 279
The Flash of Insight—The Birth of an Idea 280
The Dancing Atoms 280
The Sense of Exhilaration 282
Religion, Poetry P -- 283
Alcohol 283
and Insanity 284
Science Is a Consensus 284
Reference Notes 285
Chapter 11
Science—The Goal of Generality 287
Generality in Science: Examples 287
Einstein s Generalization 288
The Quantum Theory 288
Cholera and the Germ Theory : 288
The Price of Generality 288
The Loss of Individuality 289
Science and Maps 290
Is History a Science? , 290
Reference Notes 292
CONTENTS xxi
Chapter 12
Science—The Experimental Test 293
Testing Theories 293
The Development of the Experimental Method 293
The End of Authority 295
Repeatability 295
Quantity Rather Than Quality—The Faith in Mathematics 297
Testing by Experiment—Planned and Unplanned 298
The Experiment Must Make a Difference 299
An Awareness of Alternatives 299
Refutability 302
You Cannot Prove a Theory Right 302
You Cannot Prove a Theory Wrong 303
Indirectness of Experimental Tests 304
Generality and Indirectness 304
What Do We Test, and When? 305
Appendix 12-1: The Experimental Method in the Humanities 306
Images as Facts 306
A Controlled Experiment 307
Results 307
Appendix 12-2: The Controlled Experiment Revisited 309
Introduction Q - 309
Dichotomies 311
A Common Mistake 311
A More Subtle Mistake 312
Reference Notes 315
Suggested Reading 316
Problems 316
Chapter 13
The Experimenter and the Experiment 317
The Uncertainty Principle 317
A Useful Metaphor—Interaction between Experiment and Observer 318
The Smart Mice 318
Placebo Pills in Drug Trials 319
Blind and Double-Blind Experiments , 320
The Lively Flatworms 321
Mental Telepathy 321
The Clever Horse 321
xxii CONTENTS
Interviewers and Interviewees 323
Rumford s Mistake 323
The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 324
Reference Notes 325
Suggested Reading 325
Chapter 14
Measurement and Its Pitfalls 327
Measurement and Science 327
Reliability and Validity 328
Precision 328
Random Errors 329
Accuracy 329
The Point of Diminishing Returns 331
Counting 332
How to Fool People 332
How to Fool Oneself 333
Appendix 14-1: Significant Figures 336
Appendix 14-2: Describing Precision Quantitatively 338
Reference Notes ; 340
Suggested Reading 341
Problems 341
Chapter 15
Graphs and Sketches 343
Why Graphs? 343
Comparison Graphs 343
Discrete versus Continuous 346
Mathematical Functions 346
Graphing the Laws of Physics 348
Noise 351
Neglected Variables 352
Useful Distortions 353
Exponential Growth 355
Sketches 358
Reference Notes
v 358
Suggested Reading ? 358
Problems 358
CONTENTS xxiu
Chapter 16
Where Do Hypotheses Come From? 361
Posing Hypotheses 361
We All Make Them : 361
The Moment of Insight 362
Poetry Also 365
Folk Wisdom 365
Chance 367
The Lost Keys 368
The Collective Unconscious 368
The Tactics of Science 369
Reference Notes 370
Suggested Reading 370
Chapter 17
The Dispassionate Scientist 371
The Myths 371
TheReality 371
For Example: Isaac Newton 3 372
Freud Also ~ 373
Why Scientists Care So Much 373
The Depersonalization of Discovery 374
Reference Notes
Suggested Reading 376
Chapter 18
The Cultural Roots of Science 377
The Subjective Element 377
The Tacit Component 378
The Belief in Witchcraft 379
Arguing with the Azande - 380
Carelessness and Witchcraft 381
The Poison Oracle : 382
The Confirmatory Test , 385
Dealing with Contradictory Results 385
xxiv CONTENTS
Science versus Witchcraft 386
Cultures and Subcultures 387
Scientific Subcultures 388
Breaking Through 388
Reference Notes 390
Suggested Reading : 390
Index • 391
|
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| spelling | Goldstein, Martin Verfasser aut The experience of science an interdisciplinary approach Martin Goldstein and Inge Goldstein 3. print. New York u.a. Plenum Pr. 1987 XXIV, 400 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Wissenschaft (DE-588)4066562-8 gnd rswk-swf Naturwissenschaften (DE-588)4041421-8 gnd rswk-swf Wissenschaft (DE-588)4066562-8 s DE-604 Naturwissenschaften (DE-588)4041421-8 s Goldstein, Inge F. Verfasser aut HEBIS Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=006125252&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
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| title | The experience of science an interdisciplinary approach |
| title_auth | The experience of science an interdisciplinary approach |
| title_exact_search | The experience of science an interdisciplinary approach |
| title_full | The experience of science an interdisciplinary approach Martin Goldstein and Inge Goldstein |
| title_fullStr | The experience of science an interdisciplinary approach Martin Goldstein and Inge Goldstein |
| title_full_unstemmed | The experience of science an interdisciplinary approach Martin Goldstein and Inge Goldstein |
| title_short | The experience of science |
| title_sort | the experience of science an interdisciplinary approach |
| title_sub | an interdisciplinary approach |
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