Economic development in Europe:
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| Language: | English |
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MacMillan
1948
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| Edition: | A rev. and extension of Economic development in modern Europe, reprint. |
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| adam_text | Contents
CHAPTER PACE
I. MEDIEVAL AGRARIAN: THE MANOR . 1
The English Domesday Book, 1086. Density of
population. Forms of settlement. Social classes.
Source of the part-free class. Status of the part-
free. The manor; tenure of land. Tenure in vil-
leinage. Classes among part-free tenants. The
open-field system. Faults of the open-field sys-
tem. The three field system of cropping. Low
returns of agriculture. Deficiency of live stock.
Village and household self-sufficiency. Slight or-
ganization of labor. Standard of life. Food; la-
bor. Famines. Mental and moral standard. Jus-
tification of manorial institutions. Variety of me-
dieval conditions.
II. MEDIEVAL MUNICIPAL: THE TOWN . 22
The manor and the town. Origin and sig-
nificance of towns. Size of medieval towns.
Physical characteristics. Sanitary conditions.
Handicrafts. Position of the craftsman. Gilds;
the merchant gikl. Craft gilds. Modern institu-
tions resembling the gilds. Town policy; the
regulation of trade. Regulation of industry.
Division of the field of industry. Regulations
aiming to preserve equality. Criticism of gild
policy from the economic viewpoint.
III. DEVELOPMENT OF MANOR AND OF
TOWN..................................37
Reaction of the town on the manor. Influences
improving the condition of rural labor. The
Black Death. Statutes of laborers; agrarian re-
volts. Change from custom to contract; the com-
mutation of labor services. Variety of develop-
ment. End of villeinage in England. Rural de-
vil
CONTENTS
Vili
CHAPTER PAGE
velopment in France and Germany. Strains in
the growing town. Apprenticeship. The jour-
neyman class. Rise of a labor class and labor
organizations. Development of capitalist ele-
ments. Decline of towns as a result of narrow
policy.
IV. MEDIEVAL POLITICS, MONEY, CREDIT,
CAPITALISM...............................50
Political conditions in the early Middle Ages.
The feudal system. The social order. Primitive
laws. Improvements of the law. Exaggerated
praise of the feudal system. Contribution of
towns to the improvement of government. Cir-
culation of money. The cash nexus. Debase-
ment of coinage; public finance. Development
of economic policy. Early credit relations. De-
velopment of credit. Capitalism. Sombart s
theory of capitalist origins. Preconditions of
capitalism. Business records and calculations.
Improvement in methods of calculation. Ac-
counting.
V. TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO
MODERN...................................69
Changes about the year 1500. Effect of Ameri-
can silver on prices. The price revolution. Thirst
for money; luxury. Effects on classes. Effects on
labor. The political revolution. Improvement
of administration. Mercantilism; the balance of
trade. Protection. Unification; regimentation.
Business development; Germany. Rise of the
Fugger family. Money in politics. Decline of
the German banking families. Stimulus to capi-
talism. The spirit of capitalism. Capitalism and
Protestantism. Calvinism and Puritanism. Mix-
ture of influences.
VI. ENGLAND, 1500-1700 . . . . . 88
England in 1500. Dissolution of medieval so-
ciety. Agriculture; enclosure of open fields.
Change in concept of property in land; ques-
CONTENTS
IX
CHAPTER PACE
tions of ownership. Manufacture; handicraft.
Merchant employers. Decline of the gilds. Na-
tional regulation; the Act of Apprentices, 1563.
Attempts and failure to regulate manufacture in
detail. Attempts to establish royal monopolies.
Opposition to the monopolies; the patent act of
1624. Early credit relations. Hoarding; the gold-
smiths. Early banking. Early forms of business
organization. The regulated company; the joint
stock company. Early stock companies. Faults of
early companies. Growth in importance of the
stock company. The stock exchange; speculation
and crises.
VII. ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CEN-
TURY ...........................................108
Distribution of occupations in England about
1700. Average income per capita. Distribution
of income among classes; composition of the in-
come classes. The laboring poor. Agriculture.
The economic organization. Difficulty of trans-
portation. The village organization. The town
organization. Manufacture far less important
than agriculture. Stages of organization of manu-
facture; the craftsman; the merchant employer.
Faults of the merchant employer system. Con-
dition of the worker; hours of labor; child labor;
housing; food. Class distinctions breaking down.
The gentry; social importance of wealth. Faults
of the ruling class. Merits of the social and po-
litical organization. Neglect of the common
people.
VIII. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN
ENGLAND................................124
Relation of economics and politics in English
history. Course of the Industrial Revolution.
Rise of the competitive system. Early history of
invention in England. Benefits from the immi-
gration of foreign workmen. Source of the great
inventions; explanation of the “outburst of in-
X
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
vcntivc genius.” Elements in the course of
manufacture. Functions of the manufacturer.
Rise of “captains of industry.” Weakening of
earlier restrictions. Advantages of the English
social organization. Source of the new manu-
facturers; failure in business of the inventors.
Qualities needed in the manufacturers; charac-
teristics of the business leaders. The factory sys-
tem; early examples. Advantages of the factory.
Early applications of machinery; opposition; gain
from machinery. Aptness of the textile indus-
try for transformation; importance; its simple
organization. Pressure of demand on spinning.
Inventions of Hargreaves and Arkwright; Cart-
wright’s loom. Later application of machinery
to woolen industries. Source of power in early
factories. Early forms of steam engine; improve-
ment by Watt; the firm of Boulton and Watt;
gradual extension of the use of steam. Present
importance of iron. Smelting of iron by coke;
Cort’s improvements, puddling and rolling; steel.
Machine tools. Agriculture. Enclosure. Decline
of small holders.
IX. ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CEN-
TURY ...........................................
English development as measured by the
growth of population. England in a position of
unquestioned leadership to 1873. Faults of old
English political institutions. Questioning of
class distinctions; danger of revolution. Sig-
nificance of the Reform of 1832. Burke’s ideas
on the position of the laboring poor; protection
of property rather than of persons; doctrine that
a class of poor is not only necessary but de-
sirable. Persistence of social classes. Decline of
the hand loom weavers; decline of other hand
trades. Rise of a class of factory wage workers.
Conditions in the early factories; hours of work;
wages; child labor. Contemporary criticism of
conditions. Conditions of life in the towns. Rise
CONTENTS
XI
CHAPTER PAGE
of trade unions; gradual establishment of the
power of labor associations. Development of a
system of laws protecting labor; significance of
the factory acts of 1802, 1833, 1847, 1878. Agri-
culture in the nineteenth century. Ownership
of land; the landed gentry. Disadvantages of the
system. Condition of the laborers. The agri-
cultural crisis.
X. ENGLISH TRADE AND MANUFACTURE,
1873-1914 ....... 177
Development of English commerce, 1700-1900.
Character of English commerce about 1800.
Commercial policy. Situation of England about
1900. Importance of the export trade. The inter-
national balance before 1914. Failure of exports
to keep pace with those of other countries;
change in quality of exports. Indications of
change in the economic organization. Impor-
tance of the cotton industry; localization of the
cotton manufacture; organization; contrast of
England and the U. S.; spinning; weaving, the
Northrop loom; rise of competition in the
Asiatic market; labor and labor organization in
the English cotton industry; obstacles of the
v unions to technical change. Wool; contrast
cotton; distribution of the woolen industries; ad-
vantages of the English; check to growth; rea-
sons; technical superiority of the English; labor.
Iron and steel; comparative statistics, produc-
tion and export; relation to protective tariffs;
English supplies of ore and coal; antiquated or-
ganization; antiquated equipment; comparison
with the United States. Machinery; compara-
tive statistics. Industries with backward organi-
zation. Faults of the factory industries; anti-
quated equipment; attitude of labor; responsibil-
ity of employers.
XI. ENGLISH MANUFACTURE, 1918-1939 . 205
Importance of mobility in organization. Shifts
in occupations in the war period. Continued im-
Xll
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ГАСЕ
portance of the export trade. Imports and ex-
ports, 1913-1938. Possible causes of decline of
exports; decline in customers* purchasing power;
rise of manufactures abroad; protective tariffs.
Comparison of England with other countries.
Beneficial effect of war on manufacture. Criti-
cism of industrial management; contrast with
management in America. Obsolete equipment.
Standardization; influence of the Standards Com-
mittee. Scientific industrial research. Improve-
ment in condition of labor. Criticism of the at-
titude of labor; strikes. The coal industry. The
cotton industry. The iron and steel industries.
The machine industries.
XII. ENGLAND: PROBLEMS, 1918-1939 . . 226
m
Demobilization and remobilization. Changes
in occupations. Unemployment. Conditions of
unemployment. Unemployment relief; exten-
sion of relief measures; financial burden of relief;
results of relief measures. Wages and costs.
Items of international indebtedness. Currency;
problem of return to the gold standard. Eco-
nomic effect of deflation. Currency crisis, 1931;
abandonment of the gold standard. Election of
1931. Growth of customs duties. Problem of
protection. Imperial preference. Protective tariff
and imperial preference, 1932. Results of the
new commercial policy. Industrial recovery
based on the home market.
XIII. FRANCE TO 1789 ............................... 247
Primacy of France before 1800. Inferior po-
litical organization; religious differences. Lack
of representative institutions. Absolutism. Min-
isters of state. Wars; waste. Faults of the French
fiscal system; regressive taxation; the gabelle; the
taille; tax farming; estimate of the burden of
taxation. Agriculture: estimate of the division
of landed property. Old-fashioned tenures;
metayage. Old-fashioned methods and impie-
CONTENTS
Xlll
CHAPTER PACE
merits. Position of the noble class; burden of
the privileges enjoyed by nobles. Position of the
cultivators. Manufacture: human and physical
resources. Failure to utilize these resources the
result of bad politics. Division of home market.
Gilds; furthered by the government for fiscal
reasons; influence in restricting progress; failure
to realize social ideals; opposition to individual-
ism; resistance to improvements; conflicts among
themselves; failure of attempts to repress the
gilds. Regulation of manufacture by the central
government; burden of the regulations. Royal
manufactures; contrast with the English system;
number of royal manufactories; their influence;
characteristics. Position of labor. Abuses. Per-
sistence of small-scale industry. The merchant
employer system. Progress not retarded by tech-
nical incompetence; nor by lack of labor; but by
restrictions and the lack of leaders.
XIV. FRANCE: AGRICULTURE .... 275
Comparison of France and other countries
about 1900; occupations; scale of production,
foreign trade, consumption of coal; internal trade
and communication. France nevertheless “a
happy country.” The French Revolution. Na-
poleonic wars followed by a long period of peace.
Effect of the Revolution on the character of land
tenure; efTect on the distribution of property in
land. Variety of size of land holdings, 1814.
Leases and their faults. Metayage; reasons for its
decline. Agricultural methods; faults of the
open-field system; cropping systems; persistence
of backward methods; the plow; the plow team.
Labor in proportion to area cultivated. Sorts of
land; estimate of returns. Cultivation of artificial
grasses; special crops; potato. Slow progress of
agriculture. Estimates of distribution of prop-
erty in land. Census of classes engaged in agri-
culture; comparison with area of agricultural
land; with census of agricultural implements.
XIV
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PACE
Scattering of the land in fragments. Economic
self-sufficiency. Budget of the laboring class;
food; housing. Conditions after 1870; protective
tariff on wheat; the phylloxera. Improvement in
methods and yield. International comparison;
reasons for inferiority. Statistics of holdings,
1908. Relative efficiency of small and large hold-
ings. Importance of the peasant class; economic
merits and defects; thrift; political merits and
defects.
XV. FRANCE: MANUFACTURE . ... 303
Condition of manufactures, 1851; small size of
units; the textiles; petty industry; steam power.
Cotton manufacture; iron and steel; manufac-
ture of machinery. Condition of· labor. Develop-
ment after 1850; 1870-1890; 1890-1914. Move-
ment of population; explanation of decline of
birth rate. Characteristics of the French bour-
geois. Individualism in production; restricted
size of manufacturing establishments; strength
in quality rather than quantity. Silks; cottons;
woolens; iron and steel; machinery. Low pro-
ductivity of French manufacture. Wages. Pro-
tection of labor; organization of labor.
XVI. FRANCE, 1918-1939 ............................. 328
Losses in men; losses in capital; finance and
currency; devastations; occupied territory. Gain
of Alsace-Lorraine. Decline in production. Agri-
culture; lack of labor; migration to towns; condi-
tion of labor. Agricultural machinery. Consoli-
dation of holdings. Change in the peasant. Profits
of agriculture; its relative efficiency. Manufac-
ture. Industrialization; power and coal; water
power; size of establishment; size of factories. Ap-
plication of science. Obstacles to scientific man-
agement. Combinations. Textiles. . Iron and
steel; post-war problems; diversification. Ma-
chine industry; diversification. Automobiles;
comparison with United States. Conditions of
CONTENTS
XV
CHAPTER PACE
labor. Economic depression; political instability.
Currency; public finance. Election of 1936; the
Popular Front. Devaluation; strikes. A New
Deal in France. Conditions, 1936-39. Compari-
son with Germany in industrial production.
Comparison of key military industries. Interna-
tional relations.
XVII. GERMANY TO 1871 .................. 361
Medieval Germany. Class war about 1500. De-
cline of rural population. Peasants* War; return
of servitude. Effects of wars of religion. Political
condition about 1800. Primitive economic or-
ganization. Serfdom; evils and abuses of serf-
dom; emancipation. Distribution of the land.
Agricultural systems. Manufacture. Poverty.
The Zollverein; growth of traeje; imports and ex-
ports. Town artisans. Industrial classes in
Baden. Rise of factories. Cotton spinning. Iron;
Krupp. Advance 1850-1870. Factory labor.
Home workers: spinning; hand loom weavers.
Development of agriculture; enclosures; new
field systems. Agricultural crisis after 1870. Fer-
tilizers; machinery. Size of farms. Comparison
with France. Large estates; the Junkers. Agra-
rian protection.
XVIII. GERMAN MANUFACTURE, 1871-1914 . 389
Political results of Franco-Prussian war. In-
dustrial development; production of coal and
iron compared with that of England and France;
growth of horse power; growth in unit size of
enterprise. Handicraft. Merchant employers.
Backward state of factory industry in the ։70’s.
Sombart s analysis of German talent for capital-
ism. Discipline of the people. Education; higher
education; publication of books. Moral qualities
of the people. Importance of leadership; source
of leaders. Application of science; career of ex-
perts. Optical instruments as an illustration.
Systematic planning. Adaptation of improve-
XVI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PACE
ments by others. Specialization in manufacture;
mechanization. Interest in merchandizing. De-
velopment of coal, iron, steel; career of Thyssen.
Manufacture of machinery; cutlery. The tex-
tiles: cotton, silk, wool. Chemical industry;
Badischc Fabrik. Electrical industry; the A.E.G.
Contribution of the banks. Business combina-
tion, cartels. Wages of labor. Standard of liv-
ing.
XIX. GERMANY AFTER 1918 . . . .413
Political factors in the post-war situation.
Economic conditions. Reparations. Amount
paid in reparations. Flow payments were accom-
plished. Inflation and depreciation of the cur-
rency. Reasons for inflation. Occupation of the
Ruhr. The Dawes plan; merits and defects; pay-
ments under it. Need of amendment. German
borrowings abroad. The Young plan; the
Hoover moratorium. Analysis of the effects of
inflation; gainers by it; losses from it. Agricul-
ture during the war; during inflation; after sta-
bilization. Application of scientific method to
agriculture; difficulties. Small industry. De-
velopment of joint stock enterprise. Cartels;
combines; effect of stabilization of the currency.
Rationalization. Industry during inflation. Ad-
vance in productivity. Coal; lignite. Iron and
steel; the Krupp works. The chemical industry.
XX. GERMANY: TRANSITION TO NATIONAL
SOCIALISM..............................435
Chronological survey, 1930-33. Conditions of
commerce. Export trade. Obstacles to exports.
Strain on credit. Position of labor. Labor dur-
ing inflation. Wages. Labor organization. Un-
employment. Rise to power of Hitler. Elements
supporting the National Socialists. Decline of
number of unemployed. Nazi policy regarding
unemployment. Growth of national income.
Accumulation of capital. Public works. Foreign
CONTENTS
XVII
CHAPTER PACE
debts and the gold standard. Control of foreign
trade and exchange. Reasons for the New Plan
in commerce. Blocked marks. Development of
bilateral trade. Changes in the direction of
trade. Trade with the Balkan countries.
XXI. GERMANY: REARMAMENT, AUTARCHY 455
Chronological survey, 1935-39. Regulation of
production and prices. Regimentation; hard-
ships of the small enterprise. Second Four-year
Plan, 1936. Rearmament and autarchy under
Goering. Active employment; results. Nazi
policy toward »agriculture. Problems of land
tenure. Establishment of the hereditary farm.
Conditions and criticism of the hereditary farm.
Attempt to reach self-sufliciency in agriculture.
Expansion of manufacture. Lack of mineral re-
sources. Manufacture of substitute materials.
Strain on productive capacity. The Labor Front.
Regimentation of labor. Hours of work. Wages.
Standard of living. Statistics of consumption.
Significance of the statistics. Cost of rearmament
and autarchy.
XXII. RUSSIA BEFORE AND AFTER EMANCI-
PATION ............................................476
Physical characteristics; climate; the Black
Earth; unity and diversity. Origin of Russia
about 862; conversion to Byzantine Christianity;
conquest by the Mongols. Rise of Muscovy; Peter
the Great. Rise of serfdom; condition of the serfs
in the eighteenth century; classes of serfs; abuses
under serfdom; evils attending serfdom; pro-
posals to abolish serfdom. The Crimean war a
turning point. The plan of emancipation, 1861;
financial arrangement; failure of serfs to take full
advantage of the plan; dilemma of the govern-
ment in the distribution of land. Statistics of
distribution. Persistence of peasants* land-hun-
ger. Decline of the large estates.
CONTENTS
XV111
CHAPTER . PACE
XXIII. ORGANIZATION OF RUSSIAN AGRICUL-
TURE ....................... . . .492
Communal ownership; a contemporary Amer-
ican illustration. Origin of communal land ten-
ure; influence of collective responsibility for
taxes; peasants after emancipation still bound to
the village. Method of apportioning land; units
of labor power; formation of lot-groups. Di-
vision of the land; fields; shots; strips; size of the
strips. Redistribution of the land. The Russian
village, mir, a world in itself; Haxthausen’s eu-
logy of the mir. Communal land tenure only one
clement in a complex. Faults of the open-field
system. Disadvantage inherent in communal
land tenure. Exaggeration of the evil of com-
munal tenure. Particular faults of over-large
villages. Bad economic results of the break-up
of the patriarchal family. Social differentiation
in the free village; usury; kulaks; exploitation
of the peasants. Political autonomy of the mir;
faults of village government.
XXIV. THE RUSSIAN PEASANT . . . .511
Low rate of yield of agriculture. Poor farm
equipment. Estimates of per capita income.
Burden of taxes; reduction of the peasants* in-
come by taxation; difficulty of raising taxes im-
posed on the peasants; significance of the arrears
of taxation. Persistence of famines. Living con-
ditions of the peasant: housing; food; drink.
Vital statistics of Russia and of other countries;
infant mortality; lack of medical service. Il-
literacy; postal statistics; credulity of the peas-
ants. Average land holding of the peasant; grow-
ing deficiency of land. Improvements in agricul-
ture. Projects of reform of Witte and of Stolypin.
Summary of measures attending reform. The
Peasant Bank. ^ Need to increase not only
amount of land but also yield per acre. Measures
designed to do away with communal land tenure.
Political aspects of the reform. Difficulty of re-
CONTENTS
XIX
CHAPTER PACE
forming the open-field system; extent of land
and people involved. Beginnings of practical
execution of the reforms.
XXV. RUSSIAN MANUFACTURE: EARLY FORMS 534
Beginning of the factory industry under Peter
the Great. Encouragement of private factories
with servile labor; backward character of these
factories. Statistics of factory laborers, 1826.
Manorial factories; manufacture of woolen cloth
and of iron in these establishments. “Possession”
factories; conditions of work and pay. “Free”
serfs, the result of commutation of labor dues in
money; superiority of the free serfs as laborers.
Mixture of free and servile elements in this
period. Relative insignificance of factory manu-
facture about 1850. Obstacles to modern manu-
facture. Conflicting theories regarding manufac-
ture; explanation of the policy followed. The
village kustar industries; variety of their prod-
ucts; influence of the factories in developing
hastar industry; competition of kastar industries
with the factories. By-industries of the peasants
about 1880. Statistics of huslar industry, prov-
ince of Moscow. Conditions of work.
XXVI. RUSSIAN FACTORY INDUSTRY . .548
Effect of emancipation on factory industry;
weakness measured by foreign trade; dependence
on foreigners; disadvantage of social distinctions.
Factory labor drawn from the peasant class; dis-
advantage to the manufacturer and to the
laborer. Four stages of development of the fac-
tory. Provision of barracks for factory workers;
example of the plant of a large factory; heavy
demand of capital resulting. Sluggish nervous
organization of the peasant worker; faults result-
ing from serfdom; inefficiency compared with
workers of western countries. Working time in
the factories about 1880. Condition of the fac-
tories. Wages; deductions for fines and truck.
Factory barracks; housing in industrial towns.
XX
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TAGE
Life in the Chludowo factory about 1880. At-
tempts to improve conditions by factory acts;
acts of 1882; of 1897. Eircct of the revolution of
1905; improvement in some respects; persistence
of a depressed class. Persistence of bad housing
conditions; room; roomlet; nook; bunk. Futile
attempts of the workers to better their condi-
tions. Development of an effective opposition.
Relative importance of different branches of pro-
duction, 1900. Weakness of factory industry.
Significance of the figures of import and export.
Relative importance of different branches of fac-
tory industry. Weakness of the Russians in or-
ganization and administration.
XXVII. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION . . .568
Conditions inviting revolution. Course of the
revolution. The Bolsheviks. The soviets. De-
cline of soviets. Application of socialism. Pe-
riods of development, 1917-38. Factors in
efficiency: food, labor, capital, administration.
Decline in production. Decline in welfare. Agri-
culture; seizure of land by the peasants. Distri-
bution of land. Effect on production. Confisca-
tion of grain; results, famine of 1921-22. The
New Economic Policy. Retreat from socialism.
Decentralization. Lack of coordination. Labor;
change in wage policy. Recovery under NEP.
Agriculture; “the scissors.“ Land tenure. Rise of
kulaks.
XXVIII. RUSSIA UNDER FIVE-YEAR PLANS . 588
The Five-Year Plan, 1928. Early plans. Magni-
tude of plan. Capital. Complexity. Source of
capital. Investment under the plan. Administra-
tion. Lack of skilled labor. Condition of labor.
Waste attending execution of the plan. War
against kulaks. State farms. Collective farms.
Compulsory collectivization; “Dizziness from
Success.“ Industrial results of plans. Transfor-
mation of Russia, 1928-37. Development of
planned agriculture. Rise in industrial capacity.
CONTENTS
XXI
CHAPTER TAGE
Motives to labor. Stakhanovism. Transporta-
tion. The third plan, 1938-42; statistics. Stand-
ard of living under the plans. Social services
provided by the government.
XXIX. ITALY................................ . .611
Italy before 1500. Conditions after 1500. Con-
ditions after 1800. Conditions in the South.
Establishment of united Italy, 1870. Agricul-
ture; land tenure. Share cropping in central
Italy. Latifundia in the South. Development of
manufacture. Condition of labor. Faults of the
political system. Public finance. Improvement
about 1900. Conditions after 1918; the Fascist
revolution, 1922. Principles of Fascism. Tend-
encies of Fascism. Agriculture. Reclamation;
the Battle of Wheat. Manufacture after 1914.
Condition of the industrial laborer. Social con-
ditions.
XXX. SPAIN TO 1800 ........................G3I
Geography and peoples. The Moslem con-
quest. The Christian reconquest. Condition of
the people. Political and economic renaissance
about 1500. Decline about 1600; shrinkage of
population. Expulsion of Jews and Moriscos.
Beggary; celibacy. Decline of manufacture. Re-
sponsibility of the government for the decline.
Burden of taxation. The Mesta. Deforestation.
Decline of the monarchy; a parasitic upper class.
Stifling of manufacture. Distribution of land
ownership. The church. Low yield of agricul-
ture.
XXXI. SPAIN SINCE 1800 ............................ 648
Growth of population. Imperfect reform of
the distribution of property in land. Statistics
of land tenure after 1800. Backward agriculture
of the great estates. Condition of labor on the
latifundia. Land tenure in northern Spain. Min-
eral industry. Manufacture. Condition՝ of urban
labor. Political conditions; “constitutionalism/1
I
CONTENTS
XXII
CHAPTER TACE
Local bosses; the civil service. Military and social
policy. Conditions about 1900. Improvement
after 1900; Alfonso XIII. Growth of opposition
to the monarchy. Beginning of agrarian reform.
Agrarian reform of the republic. Lands subject
to condemnation. Conditions leading to civil
war.
XXXII. IRELAND TO 1800 ..................GG5
Geography and people; tribal organization.
Conditions of native life. The English conquest.
Confiscation and plantation. Rebellion, repres-
sion, and further confiscation. Repressive laws
against Catholics. English restrictions on Irish
economic development. Backward economic and
political conditions. Absentee land owners.
Resident gentry. Middlemen; “half gentlemen.”
Agriculture. Cottier land tenure. Character-
istics of cottier tenure. Budgets of cottiers. Agri-
culture of the cottier. Rundale; scattering of
land fragments. The Irish cabin. Low estimate
on material surroundings. Extreme conditions
on the west coast. Faults of the Irish: ignorance,
intemperance. Indolence; its relation to the cot-
tier tenure. Contrast of Ulster and the other
provinces; the three F’s. Manufacture.
XXXIII. IRELAND SINCE 1800 ....................... 668
The Union, 1800; periods in later history.
Growth of agrarian disorder. Tithes. Educa-
tion; poor relief. Growth of population; lack of
prudential checks. Early famines. The great
famine, 184G. Results of the famine. Periods
in reform legislation. The land act of 1881.
Land purchase acts. Land purchase act of 1903.
Agricultural improvement. Rise in the stand-
ard of living. Cooperation; the I.A.O.S. Ex-
tension of cooperation. Hindrances to indus-
trial development. Manufactures. Home rule.
REFERENCES . . . . . . ,705
. 739
INDEX
|
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| classification_rvk | NW 2050 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1151045 (DE-599)BVBBV006174040 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| edition | A rev. and extension of Economic development in modern Europe, reprint. |
| era | Geschichte 1000-1939 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1000-1939 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic_facet | Europa Europe Economic conditions |
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| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T16:41:32Z |
| institution | BVB |
| language | English |
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| publishDate | 1948 |
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| spelling | Day, Clive Verfasser aut Economic development in Europe by Clive Day A rev. and extension of Economic development in modern Europe, reprint. New York MacMillan 1948 XXII, 746 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geschichte 1000-1939 gnd rswk-swf Wirtschaft Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 gnd rswk-swf Europa Europe Economic conditions Europa (DE-588)4015701-5 gnd rswk-swf Europa (DE-588)4015701-5 g Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 s Geschichte 1000-1939 z DE-604 Digitalisierung UB Bamberg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003905958&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Day, Clive Economic development in Europe Wirtschaft Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4066399-1 (DE-588)4015701-5 |
| title | Economic development in Europe |
| title_auth | Economic development in Europe |
| title_exact_search | Economic development in Europe |
| title_full | Economic development in Europe by Clive Day |
| title_fullStr | Economic development in Europe by Clive Day |
| title_full_unstemmed | Economic development in Europe by Clive Day |
| title_short | Economic development in Europe |
| title_sort | economic development in europe |
| topic | Wirtschaft Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Wirtschaft Europa Europe Economic conditions |
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