Handbook of human-computer interaction:
Gespeichert in:
| Format: | Buch |
|---|---|
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Amsterdam u.a.
North-Holland
1991
|
| Ausgabe: | 2. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XXXIII, 1167 S. |
| ISBN: | 0444705368 0444886737 |
Internformat
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804120182142009344 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | IMAGE 1
CONTENTS
I MODELS AND THEORIES OF HUMAN- COMPUTER INTERACTION 1
1 COGNITIVE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 3
1.1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.2 WHAT IS COGNITIVE ENGINEERING . 5
1.3 THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM TRIAD . .. 8
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM SOLVING HABITATS . . .. 8
MISMATCHES IN THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM TRIAD: GETTING L O S T . . .. 10
1.4 A SAMPLE OF CRITICAL ISSUES IN COGNITIVE ENGINEERING 11
WHAT IS EXPERTISE AND SKILL . .. 11
EXPLORATION TRAINING 13
HUMAN ERROR AND
PERSON-MACHINE MISMATCHES . .. 14 BRITTLE PROBLEM SOLVERS AND UN-
EXPECTED VARIABILITY 17
1.5 TOWARDS EFFECTIVE DECISION SUPPORT 18 WHAT IS GOOD ADVICE? 19
COGNITIVE TOOLS 21
CONCEPTUALIZATION AIDS 25
1.6 EXTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS AND HUMAN PROBLEM SOLVING 26
FIXED AND ADAPTIVE COLLECTIONS . 27 ANALOGICAL REPRESENTATIONS . .. 29
INTEGRAL DISPLAYS 30
MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS 32
A CASE IN REPRESENTATION DESIGN 33 1.7 SUMMARY 34
1.8 REFERENCES 34
2 MENTAL MODELS IN HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION 45
2.1 ABSTRACT 45
2.2 INTRODUCTION 46
2.3 MODELS OF WHAT, HELD BY WHOM? 46 2.4 TYPES OF REPRESENTATIONS OF
USERS KNOWLEDGE 47
SIMPLE SEQUENCES 48
METHODS AND WAYS TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM 48
MENTAL MODELS 50
COMPARISONS 52
2.5 HOW USERS KNOWLEDGE AFFECTS THEIR PERFORMANCE 54
CHAOS AND MISCONCEPTION IN BOTH NOVICES AND EXPERTS 54
SKILLED PERFORMANCE 55
2.6 APPLYING WHAT WE KNOW OF THE USER S KNOWLEDGE TO PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
56
DESIGNING INTERFACES 56
USER TRAINING 57
2.7 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS . .. 59
2.8 REFERENCES 61
INTERFACE METAPHORS AND USER INTERFACE DESIGN 67
3.1 INTRODUCTION 67
3.2 APPROACHES TO METAPHOR 70
OPERATIONAL APPROACHES TO METAPHOR 70
STRUCTURAL APPROACHES TO METAPHOR 71 PRAGMATIC APPROACHES TO METAPHOR 73
TOWARD A THEORY OF METAPHOR . . 75 3.3 DESIGNING WITH METAPHORS . . ..
76
IDENTIFY POSSIBLE METAPHORS FROM THE USER S POINT OF VIEW . . 77
IDENTIFY METAPHOR/SOFTWARE MATCHES WITH RESPECT TO REP- RESENTATIVE USER
SCENARIOS . . .. 78
IDENTIFY LIKELY MISMATCHES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS 79
HOW TO MANAGE METAPHOR MIS- MATCHES 80
3.4 CONCLUSIONS 81
3.5 REFERENCES 81
FIVE PARADIGMS IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PRO- GRAMMING 87
4.1 ABSTRACT 87
4.2 THE PARADIGMS FOR RESEARCH . .. 87
4.3 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 88
PROGRAMMING TESTS 88
PROGRAMMER MOTIVATION 90
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES SUMMARY 90 4.4 GROUP BEHAVIOR 91
GROUP BEHAVIOR SUMMARY . . .. 93
4.5 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 93
XVII
IMAGE 2
XX
11 COMMAND NAMES 237
11.1 INTRODUCTION 237
11.2 DESIGNING NAMESETS 238
WHAT DESIGNERS NEED TO KEEP IN MIND 239
WHAT PEOPLE DO WHEN THEY CRE- ATE NAMES 239
WHAT DESIGNERS DO WHEN THEY CREATE NAMES 240
11.3 EXPERIMENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS . . . 241 INTERPRETING EXPERIMENTS 241
DIFFERING DESIGNS OF COMMAND NAMESETS USED IN RESEARCH . . . 242
DIFFERING CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPANTS IN THE EXPERIMENTS . 243
DIFFERING TASK DOMAINS OF RE-
SEARCH EXPERIMENTS 243
DIFFERING MEASURES OF USER PER- FORMANCE 244
SUMMARY 245
NATURAL NAMES VERSUS SYSTEM- ORIENTED OR ARBITRARY NAMES . . . 245
ATTRIBUTES OF NAMES: SPECI- FICITY, FREQUENCY AND CONCRETENESS 245
ABBREVIATION 246
EFFECTS OF NAMESET ON INDIVID- UAL NAMES 247
EFFECTS OF TASK STRUCTURE ON THE USE OF NAMES 248
11.4 USING RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE IN DESIGN: GUIDELINES, TOOLS, AND MODELS
249
GUIDELINES 249
BACKGROUND: CHOOSING AND STRUCTURING A COMMAND LANGUAGE 249 NAMING TO
FACILITATE THE NAME- OPERATION MAPPING 249
NAMING TO ANTICIPATE USER VARI- ABILITY AND PERMIT CUSTOMIZATION 250
CONTEXT OF COMMAND NAME
USE: LAYOUT, PROMPTS, HELP . .. 250 DESIGNING THE SYSTEM FOR USER ERROR
250
TOOLS AND MODELS 250
11.5 DESIGN PROBLEMS, APPROACHES, AND UNEXPLORED TOPICS 251
11.6 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 252
11.7 REFERENCES 252
12 QUERY LANGUAGES 1 257
12.1 INTRODUCTION 257
12.2 BASIC NOTIONS 258
13
QUERY LANGUAGES 258
LANGUAGE DESIGN ISSUES 258
12.3 MEASURING EASE-OF-USE 260
HUMAN FACTORS METHODOLOGY . . 260 HUMAN FACTORS METHODOLOGY APPLIED TO
QUERY LANGUAGES . . . 260 12.4 QUERY LANGUAGE EXPERIMENTS . . 260
EVALUATING QUERY LANGUAGES . . 261
SQL 261
QBE 262
COMPARING TWO OR MORE LANGUAGES 263 INVESTIGATING BASIC ISSUES . . ..
264
DATA MODELS 265
A DATA MODEL COMPARISON WITHOUT QUERY LANGUAGE 266
12.5 IMPROVING QUERY LANGUAGE DESIGN 267 IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS 267
ISOLATING CAUSES 268
SUGGESTING IMPROVEMENTS . . .. 269 12.6 MODELS 270
USERS CONCEPTUAL MODELS . . .. 270 MODELS OF THE PROCESS OF QUERY
WRITING 270
12.7 RECENT TRENDS 271
COMPARING FORMAL QUERY LAN- GUAGES 271
COMPARING NATURAL LANGUAGE WITH FORMAL LANGUAGE QUERYING . 272 IMPROVING
QUERY LANGUAGE DESIGN 273 COMPARING DATA MODELS 273
PRAGMATICS OF TESTING 273
USER STUDIES AND MODELS . . .. 273
PREDICTIVE MODELS 274
12.8 IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS 274
WHAT DO WE KNOW 274
ASSESSING THE NUMERICAL RESULTS 275 ASSESSING THE CLAIMS 275
12.9 SOME RESEARCH DIRECTIONS . . .. 276
12.10 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 277
12.11 REFERENCES 277
USING NATURAL LANGUAGE INTERFACES 281 13.1 INTRODUCTION 281
HABITABILITY 282
13.2 EVALUATION ISSUES 283
13.3 EVALUATIONS OF PROTOTYPE AND COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS 284
LABORATORY EVALUATIONS 285
FIELD STUDIES 287
13.4 DESIGN ISSUES 289
ARTIFICIAL VERSUS NATURAL LANGUAGE 289
IMAGE 3
XXI
WHAT IS NATURAL? 291
RESTRICTIONS ON VOCABULARY . . .. 292 RESTRICTIONS ON SYNTAX 292
FUNCTIONAL RESTRICTIONS 293
EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK 294
EMPIRICALLY DERIVED GRAMMARS . 295 13.5 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS . . ..
296
13.6 CONCLUSION 297
13.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 298
13.8 REFERENCES 298
14 SYSTEMS DESIGN FOR AUTOMATED SPEECH RECOGNITION 301
14.1 INTRODUCTION 301
14.2 SPEECH RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY . 302 TECHNOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS OF
CURRENT SYSTEMS 303
HISTORIC PERSPECTIVE OF THE DE- VELOPMENT OF ASR 304
14.3 RECOGNITION ACCURACY 304
VOCABULARY DESIGN 305
APPLICATION TASKS 306
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 306
14.4 ANALYSIS OF TASK COMPOSITION . . 308 14.5 SPEAKING PATTERNS AND
TRAINING . 309 FEEDBACK AND ERROR CORRECTION . 310 14.6 TASK ANALYSIS
AND IMPLEMENTA-
TION OF VOICE I/O 311
14.7 FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS 312
TECHNOLOGICAL NEEDS 312
HUMAN FACTORS RESEARCH NEEDS . 313 14.8 APPENDIX:GLOSSARY 314
14.9 REFERENCES 315
15 APPLYING SPEECH SYNTHESIS TO USER INTER- FACES 321
15.1 INTRODUCTION 321
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 322
15.2 ADVANTAGES OF SPEECH OUTPUT . . 322 UNIVERSALITY OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE
322 SPEECH OPERATES OVER DISTANCES . 322 USER FREE TO PROCESS INFORMA-
TION IN OTHER MODALITIES 322
15.3 DISADVANTAGES OF SPEECH OUTPUT 323 LARGE BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS FOR
STORAGE AND TRANSMISSION . . 323 FASTER COMPREHENSION OF WRIT-
TEN THAN SPOKEN LANGUAGE . . .. 323
SPEECH IN AN INTERFACE CAN BE ANNOYING 323
15.4 TALKING TUTOR: A GOOD EXAMPLE OF USING VOICE INTERFACE 324
16
15.5 INTERACTION OF APPLICATION S VOCABULARY DEMANDS AND THE TYPE OF
SPEECH USED 325
VOCABULARY DEMANDS: FIXED MESSAGE VS. UNRESTRICTED TEXT . . 325 EXAMPLES
OF APPLICATIONS WITH FIXED MESSAGES 325
QUALITY OF SPEECH DEPENDS ON THE APPLICATION DEMANDS 325
15.6 UNRESTRICTED TEXT-TO-SPEECH SYNTHESIS 326
MAJOR STEPS INVOLVED IN TEXT- TO-SPEECH SYNTHESIS 326
TRANSFORMING TEXT TO A PHONETIC SPELLING 327
SELECTING A BASIC UNIT FOR SYNTHESIS 328 SYNTHESIZING SENTENCES: MOD-
ELING INTONATION 334
ROLE OF PARALANGUAGE IN SYN- THETIC SPEECH 336
15.7 ASSESING THE QUALITY OF SYN- THETIC SPEECH 337
TRADITIONAL MEASURES OF SPEECH QUALITY 337
INTELLIGIBILITY OF SYNTHETIC SPEECH 337 INCREASING THE SENSITIVITY OF
EVALUATION MEASURES 338
15.8 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN SPEECH SYNTHESIS 339
15.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 340
15.10 REFERENCES 340
ONLINE AIDING FOR HUMAN-COMPUTER IN- TERFACES 345
16.1 ABSTRACT 345
16.2 PROBLEMS IN ONLINE AIDING . . . 345 16.3 A SUMMARY OF PROTOTYPICAL
ON- LINE AIDING DIALOGUES 346
ONLINE ASSISTANCE DIALOGUES . . . 347 ONLINE INSTRUCTIONAL DIALOGUES . .
350 16.4 A RESEARCH AND DESIGN FRAME- WORK FOR ONLINE AIDING 353
A THEORY-BASED TASK-ANALYTIC MODEL FOR ONLINE AIDING 354
PREDICTING USABILITY FOR ONLINE AIDING 359
PREDICTING USABILITY PROBLEMS FOR ONLINE AIDING 359
16.5 CONCLUSIONS 361
16.6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 362
16.7 REFERENCES 362
IMAGE 4
XX11
17 GRAPHIC CHALLENGES IN DESIGNING OBJECT- ORIENTED USER INTERFACES 365
17.1 INTRODUCTION 365
17.2 OBJECT-ORIENTED DIRECT MANIPU- LATION AND ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES 365
17.3 GRAPHIC CHALLANGES 366
OLD PROBLEMS 366
NEW PROBLEMS 367
17.4 ILLUSTRATIONS 367
THE ILLUSION OF MANIPULABLE OBJECTS 367
VISUAL ORDER AND USER FOCUS . . 368 REVEALED STRUCTURE 370
CONSISTENT AND APPROPRIATE GRAPHIC VOCABULARY 371
MATCH THE MEDIUM 371
17.5 SYMBOLIC AND ANALOGIC USER IN- TERFACES ; . . . 372
17.6 SPECULATIONS 374
17.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 374
17.8 NOTES ON REFERENCES 375
17.9 REFERENCES 375
18 SCREEN DESIGN 377
18.1 INTRODUCTION 377
IMPORTANCE OF SCREEN DESIGN . . 377 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 377
AN OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . 378 18.2 SCREEN DESIGN ISSUES AND
TECH- NIQUES 382
AMOUNT OF INFORMATION TO PRESENT 382 GROUPING OF INFORMATION 387
HIGHLIGHTING OF INFORMATION . .. 391 PLACEMENT AND SEQUENCE OF IN-
FORMATION 393
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG EL- EMENTS 395
PRESENTATION OF TEXT 397
USES OF GRAPHICS 399
18.3 THE SCREEN DESIGN PROCESS . .. 404
REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS ANALYSIS 405
TASK ANALYSIS AND SCENARIO DE- VELOPMENT 405
DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN RULES . . 405 DEVELOPMENT OF IMPLEMENTA- TION
PHILOSOPHY 405
EARLY DESIGN, PROTOTYPING, AND EVALUATION 405
FULL-SCALE PROTOTYPING AND IM- PLEMENTATION 406
18.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 406
18.5 REFERENCES 407
19 TAKING PANES: ISSUES IN THE DESIGN OF WINDOWING SYSTEMS 413
19.1 INTRODUCTION 413
THE APPEAL OF WINDOWING . . .. 414 CONSTRAINTS ON THE DESIGN OF
WINDOWING SYSTEMS 415
AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE VALUE OF WINDOWING 418
19.2 CHARACTERIZING WINDOWING SYSTEMS 419 PRESENTATION STYLES 419
INTERACTION STYLES 423
SET OF OPERATIONS 426
19.3 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 432
GROUPING WINDOWS: WORKSPACES, WORKING SETS, AND ROOMS 432
USER-CUSTOMIZED WINDOWS . . .. 432 USER TRAINING TECHNIQUES . . .. 433
19.4 RESEARCH AGENDA AND CONCLUSIONS 433 19.5 REFERENCES 434
20 IMAGE QUALITY 437
20.1 INTRODUCTION 437
20.2 THEORETICAL BASES AND RELEVANT RESEARCH 438
SPATIAL VISION 439
SPATIAL IMAGE QUALITY 444
TEMPORAL VISION 451
CHROMATIC VISION 454
20.3 APPLICATIONS TO COMPUTER SYS- TEM DISPLAY DESIGN 458
RESOLUTION 458
RASTER MODULATION/ACTIVE AREA . 461 LUMINANCE AND CONTRAST 462
POLARITY 463
IMAGE STABILITY (JITTER) 463
FLICKER 464
COLOR SELECTION AND CONTRAST . . 465 CHARACTER DESIGN 465
TEXT SPACING 467
GLARE CONTROL 467
20.4 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 469
FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS 469
STEREOSCOPIC DISPLAYS 470
TOUCH INPUT DEVICES 470
VIRTUAL IMAGE DISPLAYS 471
IMAGE QUALITY MEASUREMENT . . . 472 20.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 472
20.6 REFERENCES 472
IMAGE 5
XXU1
21 KEYS AND KEYBOARDS 475
21.1 INTRODUCTION 475
DESIGN CRITERIA 476
21.2 KEYBOARD LAYOUTS 476
THE QWERTY LAYOUT 476
THE DVORAK SIMPLIFIED KEY- BOARD LAYOUT 476
CONCLUSIONS ON DVORAK SIMPLI- FIED KEYBOARD 478
ALPHABETICAL KEYBOARDS 479
OTHER KEYBOARD LAYOUTS 479
21.3 DATA-ENTRY KEYPADS 479
LAYOUT OF NUMBERS AND LETTERS . 480 MULTIFUNCTION KEYPADS 480
21.4 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KEYS AND KEYBOARDS 481
KEYBOARD HEIGHT AND SLOPE . .. 481 SIZE OF THE KEYBOARD 482
DETACHABLE KEYBOARDS 482
KEYBOARD PROFILE 483
KEY SIZE AND SHAPE 483
KEY FORCE, TRAVEL AND TACTILE FEEDBACK 484
AUDITORY FEEDBACK 485
VISUAL FEEDBACK 486
ERROR-AVOIDANCE FEATURES . . .. 486 COLOR AND LABELING 487
21.5 INNOVATIONS IN KEYBOARD DESIGN 487 SPLIT AND TILT KEYBOARDS 487
NEW METHODS OF TYPING 490
21.6 SUMMARY 491
21.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 491
21.8 REFERENCES 491
22 INPUT DEVICES 495
22.1 INTRODUCTION 495
22.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 496
TOUCH SCREEN DEVICES 496
TOUCH SCREEN APPLICATIONS . . .. 499 LIGHT PENS 500
GRAPHIC TABLETS 501
APPLICATIONS 504
MICE 504
TRACKBALLS 506
JOYSTICKS 507
22.3 NOVEL INPUT TECHNIQUES 508
PRO POINTER 509
FOOTMOUSE 509
EYE-CONTROLLED INPUT 509
GESTURE-BASED INPUT 510
22.4 EMPIRICAL COMPARISONS 511
TARGET ACQUISITION TASKS . . .. 511
23
M
ING 24
MENU AND TEXT SELECTION TASKS . 512 TEXT ENTERING AND EDITING TASKS .
513 CONTINUOUS TRACKING TASKS . .. 514
22.5 CONCLUSION 514
22.6 REFERENCES 516
VDT WORKSTATION DESIGN 521
23.1 INTRODUCTION 521
23.2 A PROBLEM WITH MANY INTERACTIONS 522 23.3 WORK TASK 522
23.4 THE PERSON 523
23.5 POSITIONING THE BODY RELATIVE TO THE COMPUTER 524
23.6 BODY POSTURES 526
23.7 HEALTHY BODY POSTURES . . .. 526
23.8 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 528
23.9 SITTING POSTURES AND WORKSTA- TION DESIGN 531
23.10 ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF VDT WORKSTATIONS 532
SEAT DESIGN 534
VISUAL TARGETS 535
ADJUSTMENT FEATURES 535
STAND-UP WORKSTATIONS 535
23.11 SUMMARY 536
23.12 REFERENCES 536
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND TRAIN541
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN-COMPUTER INTER- ACTION 543
24.1 INTRODUCTION 543
PLAN FOR THIS CHAPTER 544
24.2 HOW BIG ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFFER- ENCES IN HUMAN-COMPUTER IN-
TERACTION? 544
SELECTING COMPUTER-BASED TASKS TO ANALYZE 544
STATISTICS TO CHARACTERIZE INDI- VIDUAL DIFFERENCES 544
TEXT EDITING PERFORMANCE . . .. 546
INFORMATION SEARCH 547
PROGRAMMING 549
SUMMARY 551
PUTTING THESE RESULTS INTO PER- SPECTIVE 551
24.3 WHAT PREDICTS DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE? 552
EXPERIENCE 552
TECHNICAL APTITUDES 553
IMAGE 6
XXIV
OTHER APTITUDES 555
DISCUSSION OF THE EFFECTS OF AP- TITUDES 555
AGE 556
DOMAIN SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE . . . 557 PERSONALITY AND AFFECT 557
WHICH PREDICTORS MAKE A BIG DIFFERENCE? 558
24.4 ACCOMMODATING USER DIFFERENCES 558 ROBUST INTERFACES 558
USER PROTOTYPES 560
ADAPTIVE TRAINER SYSTEMS . . .. 561
AUTOMATED MASTERY LEARNING . 562 24.5 GOALS IN DESIGNING FOR USER
DIFFERENCES 564
GOAL #1: AID USERS EXPERIENC- ING GREATEST DIFFICULTY 564
GOAL #2: ENABLE USERS TO EX- PLOIT DOMAIN KNOWLEDGE 564
ACHIEVING THE DESIGN GOALS . . . 565 CONCLUSION 565
24.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 565
24.7 REFERENCES 565
25 FROM NOVICE TO EXPERT 569
25.1 INTRODUCTION 569
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE IN HUMAN- COMPUTER INTERACTION 569
DATA BASE 570
25.2 EXPERT-NOVICE DIFFERENCES IN PROBLEM SOLVING 570
RECALL TASKS 570
PROTOCOL TASKS 570
SORTING TASKS 571
IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH ON EXPERT-NOVICE DIFFERENCES IN PROBLEM SOLVING
572
25.3 EXPERT-NOVICE PROGRAMMER DIFFERENCES IN SYNTACTIC KNOWLEDGE 572
WHAT IS SYNTACTIC KNOWLEDGE? . 572 RESEARCH ON DIFFERENCES IN SYN-
TACTIC KNOWLEDGE 572
IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH ON SYNTACTIC KNOWLEDGE 572
25.4 EXPERT-NOVICE PROGRAMMER DIFFERENCES IN SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE 573 WHAT
IS SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE? . 573 RESEARCH ON DIFFERENCES IN SE-
MANTIC KNOWLEDGE 573
IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH ON SE- MANTIC KNOWLEDGE 575
25.5 EXPERT-NOVICE PROGRAM- MER DIFFERENCES IN SCHEMATIC KNOWLEDGE 575
WHAT IS SCHEMATIC KNOWLEDGE? . 575 RESEARCH ON DIFFERENCES IN SCHEMATIC
KNOWLEDGE 575
IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH ON SCHEMATIC KNOWLEDGE 576
25.6 EXPERT-NOVICE PROGRAMMER DIFFERENCES IN STRATEGIC KNOWLEDGE 576
WHAT IS STRATEGIC KNOWLEDGE? . . 576 RESEARCH ON DIFFERENCES IN
STRATEGIC KNOWLEDGE 577
IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH ON STRATEGIC KNOWLEDGE 577
25.7 CONCLUSION 578
THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS 578
RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS 578
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 578
25.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 579
25.9 REFERENCES 579
26 MICROCOMPUTERS AND THE ELDERLY 581 26.1 INTRODUCTION 581
26.2 USE OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY BY OLDER ADULTS 582
EMPLOYMENT 582
COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION . 584 26.3 AGING AS A PROCESS 585
AGING DEFINED 585
26.4 SENSORY PROCESSES 586
VISION 586
AUDITION 589
BODY SIZE AND STRENGTH 590
26.5 COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING 590
SPEED OF RESPONDING 590
PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES 592
26.6 MEMORY AND LEARNING 593
26.7 SUMMARY 595
26.8 REFERENCES 595
27 COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTION 599
27.1 INTRODUCTION 599
27.2 COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION . . 600 EXAMPLES OF CAI SYSTEMS . .
.. 601
ADVANTAGES OF CAI 604
DISADVANTAGES OF CAI 604
FUTURE OF CAI 605
27.3 COMPUTER MANAGED INSTRUCTION . 607 STUDENT VIEWPOINT 607
INSTRUCTOR VIEWPOINT 607
ADMINISTRATOR VIEWPOINT 607
IMAGE 7
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EXAMPLE OF A CMI SYSTEM: AIS 608
EVALUATION OF CMI SYSTEMS . . . 608 27.4 INTELLIGENT COMPUTER ASSISTED
INSTRUCTION 609
CHARACTERISTICS OF ICAI 609
STEAMER EXAMPLE 611
EVALUATION 612
FUTURE RESEARCH 612
27.5 COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTION IS- SUES AND RESEARCH 615
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 615
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR) . .. 617 AMOUNT OF PRACTICE 617
AUGMENTED FEEDBACK 617
PART-WHOLE TRAINING 617
ADAPTIVE TRAINING 617
CONCEPTUAL REPRESENTATIONS . . . 617 MOTIVATION 623
27.6 SUMMARY 623
27.7 REFERENCES 623
28 ISSUES OF CONTENT AND PRESENTATION IN DOCUMENT DESIGN 629
28.1 INTRODUCTION 629
28.2 DECISIONS ABOUT CONTENT 632
EVIDENCE FOR ENRICHED MANUALS 632 A PRECIS DOES NOT HELP THE READER.
633 EVIDENCE FOR MINIMAL MANUALS . 633 CONCLUSIONS ABOUT CONTENT . . ..
636 28.3 ISSUES OF PRESENTATION 636
MEDIUM 636
MODE OF REPRESENTATION 638
LANGUAGE 639
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT PRESENTATION . 640 28.4 ITERATIVE DESIGN PROCESSES . .
.. 640
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT TESTING . . .. 645
28.5 WILL DOCUMENTATION ALWAYS BE NEEDED? 645
CONCLUSIONS 646
28.6 REFERENCES 647
IV APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECH- NOLOGY 653
29 TEXT EDITORS 655
29.1 TEXT EDITORS 1 655
29.2 VARIETIES OF TEXT EDITORS 656
USERS AND THEIR TASKS: 656
EFFECT OF HARDWARE 656
29.3 FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES 656
RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER APPLI- CATIONS 657
THE PROCESS OF EDITING 657
29.4 COMMAND LANGUAGE 658
29.5 CONTENT 661
MODEL OF DATA 661
DISPLAY OF TEXT 662
OPERATIONS 663
29.6 APPEARANCE 664
MODEL OF APPEARANCE INFORMATION 664 DISPLAY OF FORMATTING 665
OPERATIONS: 667
29.7 ADVANCED FEATURES 667
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 667
PROGRAMMING 668
29.8 EVALUATION 669
29.9 CONCLUSION 669
29.10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 670
29.11 REFERENCES 670
30 TEXTUAL INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 673
30.1 INTRODUCTION 673
30.2 STRUCTURED DATABASES 674
QUERY LANGUAGES 674
NEW DIRECTIONS IN QUERY LAN- GUAGES 675
MENU-BASED SYSTEMS 677
NEW DIRECTIONS AND IMPROVE- MENTS IN MENU-BASED SYSTEMS . . 679 30.3
BIBLIOGRAPHIC/FULL-TEXT INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 680
KEYWORD-BASED RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS 680 EVALUATION OF KEYWORD RE- TRIEVAL
SYSTEMS 680
REVIEW OF RESEARCH IN AUTO- MATIC INDEXING 682
BOOLEAN VS. GRADED DOCUMENT SIMILARITY 682
SUMMARY OF OTHER INDEXING EX- PERIMENTS 683
IMPROVING RETRIEVAL 684
EVALUATION REVISITED 687
30.4 NEW DEVELOPMENTS AND FRONTIERS 687 RICHER CONNECTIONS/HYPERTEXT . .
687 ONLINE DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS . . 689 AI METHODS IN INFORMATION
SCIENCE. 690
GRAPHICAL/SPATIAL DATA MANAGE- MENT 692
CUSTOMIZATION/SELECTIVE PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION . . .. 693 30.5 THE
FUTURE OF INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 694 30.6 REFERENCES 694
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31 COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF COMPUTER AIDED
DESIGN 701
31.1 INTRODUCTION 701
31.2 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND ITS APPLICATIONS 701
WHAT IS COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN? 701 CAD SYSTEMS 702
31.3 DESIGN ENGINEERING AND DRAW- ING WORK 703
31.4 THE CAD-USER S SYSTEM INTER- ACTION 703
SYSTEM TO USER COMMUNICATION . 703 USER TO SYSTEM COMMUNICATION . 704
31.5 WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF CAD? 704 TWO-DIMENSIONAL CAD 704
THREE-DIMENSIONAL CAD 704
31.6 SOME COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF CAD 705
COMMAND COMPLEXITY 705
SURVEYING COMPLICATED PARTS . . 705 RESPONSE TIME 705
STRATEGY CHOICES IN CAD . . .. 705
31.7 THE USER S MENTAL MODELS . . .. 706
THE USER S MODEL OF THE CAD SYSTEM 706
THE USER S MODEL OF THE OBJECT AND FINAL PRODUCT 706
31.8 CAD AND PROBLEM SOLVING . . . 706 PROBLEM SPACES AND PROBLEM
SOLVING HEURISTICS 706
SOME ASPECTS ON CAD SYSTEMS AS PROBLEM SOLVING INSTRUMENTS . 707 31.9
CONCLUDING REMARKS 708
31.10 REFERENCES 708
32 HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION IN ARCHI- TECTURAL DESIGN 709
32.1 INTRODUCTION 709
32.2 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN: SOME IS- SUES IN HUMAN-COMPUTER INTER- ACTION
709
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND COM- PUTER SYSTEMS 709
A SHIFT IN FOCUS: CAAD AND QUALITY 710
32.3 A RESEARCH PROGRAM 711
32.4 THE SOCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF CAAD SYSTEMS . 712
32.5 USER EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR CAAD SYSTEMS: THE SYSTEM TUTOR 713
ON-LINE DOCUMENTATION AND PROFESSIONAL LEGAL LIABILITY . .. 714
ON-LINE TEACHING SOFTWARE . . .. 714 32.6 ADVANCED INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS
FOR CAAD 714
THE HARDWARE INTERFACE 715
THE SOFTWARE INTERFACE 715
32.7 THE DESIGN INTERFACE, DESIGN MODELLING, AND DESIGN COGNITION 719
DESIGN RESEARCH AND THE STUDY OF DECISION MAKING IN DESIGN . . 719
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN MODELLING AND GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS . .. 721
VALUE JUDGMENT IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 722
32.8 CONCLUSION 724
32.9 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 724
32.10 REFERENCES 724
33 HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION IN FACILI- TIES LAYOUT 729
33.1 INTRODUCTION TO FACILITIES LAYOUT DESIGN 729
33.2 MODELLING THE BLOCK LAYOUT PROBLEM 730
GRAPHICAL TECHNIQUES 730
TRAVEL CHARTING 730
THE QUADRATIC ASSIGNMENT MODEL 731 GRAPH THEORY 731
COMPUTERIZED LAYOUT ROUTINES . 732 33.3 HUMAN VERSUS COMPUTER METHODS
732 33.4 HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTIVE METHODS 733
AIDING THE HUMAN 733
33.5 THE HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERAC- TIVE SYSTEM 735
33.6 REFERENCES 735
34 ROBOT PROGRAMMING 737
34.1 INTRODUCTION 737
34.2 PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS . . 738 FEASIBILITY 738
INFREQUENCY 738
HYBRIDS 739
OTHER AUTOMATION 739
SETTINGS 739
DATA SOURCES FOR ROBOT CONTROL . 739 TYPES OF ROBOTS 741
VARIETIES OF APPLICATION PROGRAMS 744 WHERE DO PROGRAMS ORIGINATE? . 745
WHO PROGRAMS? 745
34.3 HUMAN FACTORS INVESTIGATIONS . . 746 TEACH PENDANTS 746
TEACHING ARMS 748
IMAGE 9
XXVU
COMPUTER TERMINALS 748
CONTROLLER PANEL 748
SOFTWARE 748
34.4 DESIRABLE RESEARCH 750
PROGRAMMING CONFIGURATIONS . . 750 SKILL REQUIREMENTS 750
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT . . .. 752 DESIGN ISSUES 752
PROCEDURAL ISSUES 752
34.5 CONCLUSION 752
34.6 REFERENCES 753
V TOOLS FOR DESIGN AND EVALUATION 755
35 HOW TO DESIGN USABLE SYSTEMS 757
35.1 INTRODUCTION 757
OVERVIEW 758
USABILITY HAS MANY ASPECTS. . . 758 FOUR SYSTEM DESIGN PRINCIPLES. . 759
USABILITY DESIGN PHASES 759
35.2 BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN . 759 BEYOND STANDARDS, GUIDELINES,
ETC. 759 PRINCIPLE 1. EARLY AND CONTIN- UAL FOCUS ON USERS 760
METHODS TO CARRY OUT EARLY FO- CUS ON USERS 762
PRINCIPLE 2. INTEGRATED DESIGN. . 766 METHODS TO CARRY OUT INTE- GRATED
DESIGN 766
PRINCIPLE 3.
EARLY-AND CONTINUAL-USER TEST- ING 768
METHODS TO CARRY OUT EARLY AND CONTINUAL USER TESTING 768
PRINCIPLE 4. ITERATIVE DESIGN. . . 773 METHODS TO CARRY OUT ITERATIVE
DESIGN 773
EVALUATION OF HUMAN FACTORS PRINCIPLES 775
35.3 STARTING POINTS 777
DEFINE THE SYSTEM 778
FOLLOW-ON SYSTEMS 778
NEW INFLUENTIAL SYSTEMS 778
NEW TECHNOLOGIES 778
USER CIRCUMSTANCES 778
JOURNALS, PROCEEDINGS, DEMON- STRATIONS 778
OTHER DESIGNERS AND CONSULTANTS. 778 WORKSHOPS AND SHORT COURSES. . 779
STANDARDS, GUIDELINES, DEVEL- OPMENT PROCEDURES 779
35.4 USER INTERFACE STANDARDS 779
STATUS AND EVALUATION 779
35.5 HANDBOOKS AND GUIDELINES . . .. 780
STATUS AND EVALUATION 782
35.6 DEVELOPMENT RULES AND PROCEDURES 782 DESCRIPTION AND SOURCES 782
EVALUATION 783
35.7 FORMAL MODELS FOR DESIGN . . .. 783
EVALUATION 784
35.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . .. 784
35.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 784
35.10 TRADEMARKS 785
35.11 REFERENCES 785
36 USABILITY ENGINEERING: OUR EXPERIENCE AND EVOLUTION 791
36.1 INTRODUCTION 791
PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER 791
A FRAMEWORK FOR PROCEEDING, NOT A RECIPE 792
BACKGROUND OF OUR APPROACH . . 792 36.2 PART 1. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN
USABILITY ENGINEERING 792
OUR VIEW OF ENGINEERING . . .. 792
THE ROLE OF OBJECTIVES IN DE- VELOPMENT 793
DEVELOPING USABILITY SPECIFICATIONS 794 AN EVOLVING UNDERSTANDING OF
WHAT COUNTS AS SUCCESS 798
AN EXAMPLE OF A USABILITY SPECIFICATION TABLE 798
USING USABILITY OBJECTIVES DUR- ING THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS . . . 798
36.3 PART 2. ANALYSIS OF OUR
PROGRESS: THE NEED FOR CONTEX- TUAL RESEARCH 805
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: SHIFTING PERSPECTIVES 805
OUR CONCLUSION: A CONTEXT SENSITIVE RESEARCH APPROACH IS NEEDED . . 808
36.4 PART 3. CONTEXTUAL RESEARCH: EXPOSITION AND PROSPECTS 809
UNCOVERING EXPERIENCE 809
INTERPRETING THE DATA 812
A CONTEXTUAL EXAMPLE 812
THE PROBLEM OF GENERALIZABIL- ITY: THE EMERGENCE OF USABILITY CONCEPTS
812
INTEGRATING CONTEXTUAL RESEARCH INTO THE ENGINEERING PROCESS 813
USABILITY ENGINEERING IN THE DEVELOP- MENT CYCLE: A VISION 814
IMAGE 10
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36.5 SUMMARY 815
36.6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 816
36.7 REFERENCES 816
37 SOFTWARE TOOLS FOR USER INTERFACE DEVEL- OPMENT 819
37.1 INTRODUCTION 819
DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION 820
TOOLS VERSUS METHODS 821
A PERSPECTIVE ON PREVIOUS WORK 822 37.2 THE USER INTERFACE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM APPROACH 823
DEVICE INTERFACES 824
APPLICATION INTERFACES 824
DIALOGUE CONTROL 825
IMPLEMENTATION FUNCTIONALITY . . 825 DIALOGUE TYPES 826
37.3 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN USER INTERFACE TOOLS 829
INTEGRATING DESIGN AND EVALUA- TION TOOLS INTO DEVELOPMENT . . . 829
EXPERT SYSTEMS 830
ENFORCEMENT OF STANDARDS AND RULES 830
THE PROMISE OF OBJECT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT 830
37.4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 830
37.5 REFERENCES 831
38 A TASK ANALYTIC APPROACH TO DIALOGUE DESIGN 835
38.1 INTRODUCTION 835
38.2 TRADITIONAL TASK ANALYSIS METHODS 836 38.3 OPERATIONS CONCEPT
DEFINITION . . 840 IMPORTANCE OF USER INVOLVEMENT 840
INFORMATION-PROCESSING TASK
ANALYSIS 842
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF INTERACTION 846 38.4 COMPUTER-HUMAN INTERFACE/TASK
ANALYSIS 847
CHI/TA CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS 847 SEMANTIC DESIGN PROCESS FOR THE
USER INPUT LANGUAGE 847
SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC DESIGN PROCESS FOR DISPLAY PROPERTIES . . 850
SYNTACTIC AND LEXICAL DESIGN OF
THE USER INPUT LANGUAGE 850
SYNTACTIC DESIGN OF THE USER DISPLAY LANGUAGE 852
LEXICAL DESIGN OF THE USER DIS- PLAY LANGUAGE 852
RESULTS OF CHI/TA 854
38.5 CONCLUSIONS 856
38.6 REFERENCES 856
39 RAPID PROTOTYPING FOR USER INTERFACE DE- SIGN 859
39.1 ABSTRACT 859
39.2 INTERFACE DESIGN AS TANGIBLE SPECULATION 860
RAPID PROTOTYPING DEFINED . . .. 860 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PROTOTYPING . 860
THE BENEFITS OF USER INTERFACE PROTOTYPING 861
WHAT CAN BE PROTOTYPED 862
THE USER INTERFACE SPECIFICATION . 862 39.3 HOW TO PROTOTYPE 863
THE RANDOM WALK APPROACH . . 864 TOP DOWN DESIGN 864
RAPID PROTOTYPING FROM THE BOT- TOM UP 864
INTEGRATED DESIGN ENVIRONMENTS. 865 39.4 CLASSES OF PROTOTYPING
TECHNIQUES 865 SLIDE SHOW TECHNIQUES 865
WIZARD OF OZ TECHNIQUES . . .. 865
FULLY ANIMATED PROTOTYPES. . . . 865 39.5 RAPID PROTOTYPING AND THE USER
INTERFACE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM . . 865 39.6 DESIGNERS THAT USE OR NEED
PROTOTYPING TOOLS 866
39.7 TYPES OF PROTOTYPING TOOLS . .. 866
THE TOOL KIT APPROACH 866
THE PARTS KIT APPROACH 866
ANIMATION LANGUAGE METAPHOR. . 867 39.8 ANATOMY OF A USER INTERFACE
RAPID PROTOTYPING TOOL 867
GRAPHICAL SPECIFICATION 868
LOGICAL SPECIFICATION 868
FORMAL GRAMMARS 868
STATE TABLES 869
STATE TRANSITION NETWORKS . . .. 869 BEHAVIOR BY EXAMPLE 869
BINDING IT ALL TOGETHER: THE RUN TIME UNIT 870
39.9 BUILT-IN INSTRUMENTATION OF THE USER INTERFACE 870
39.10 AUTOMATIC EVALUATION TECHNIQUES FOR USER INTERFACE DESIGN 871
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS 871
39.11 CONCLUSIONS 873
39.12 REFERENCES 873
IMAGE 11
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40 STANDARDS VERSUS GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN- ING USER INTERFACE SOFTWARE
877
40.1 ABSTRACT 877
40.2 USER INTERFACE SOFTWARE 877
40.3 DESIGN STANDARDS 878
40.4 HARDWARE VERSUS SOFTWARE . . .. 878
40.5 STANDARDS VERSUS GUIDELINES, RULES AND ALGORITHMS 880
40.6 THE KNOWLEDGE BASE FOR STAN- DARDS AND GUIDELINES 884
40.7 APPLICATION OF DESIGN GUIDELINES 885 40.8 ADAPTABILITY OR ANARCHY?
. . .. 887
40.9 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 887
40.10 REFERENCES 888
41 SOFTWARE EVALUATION METHODOLOGIES 891 41.1 INTRODUCTION 891
41.2 THEORY-BASED EVALUATION . . .. 893
41.3 USER-BASED EVALUATIONS 895
41.4 SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES . . . 896 41.5 VERBAL REPORTS 897
41.6 CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 898 41.7 TASK-BASED EVALUATIONS 899
41.8 INFORMAL DESIGN REVIEW 900
41.9 FORMAL DESIGN ANALYSIS - GOMS 900 41.10 PRODUCTION SYSTEM ANALYSIS
. . . 901 41.11 SUMMARY 902
41.12 REFERENCES 903
42 RESEARCH METHODS IN HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION 905
42.1 INTRODUCTION: FOR WHOM AND WHY AND WHAT 905
WHY RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT IN HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION. . . 905 42.2
GOALS FOR RESEARCH IN HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION 906
RELATIVE EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS OR FEATURES 907
DETERMINING WHAT A SYSTEM SHOULD DO 907
DISCOVERING RELEVANT SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES AND TESTING MODELS. . . 907
ESTABLISHING EXPLICIT STANDARDS OR GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN 907
BEING CLEAR ABOUT A GOAL IS THE FIRST STEP TOWARDS IT 907
42.3 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DOING RE- SEARCH IN HUMAN-COMPUTER IN-
TERACTION 907
42.4 RESEARCH DESIGNS AND GENERAL METHODOLOGY 908
GENERAL STRATEGY ISSUES 909
INVENTION AND SPECIFICATION ORI- ENTED METHODS 911
DESIGN ORIENTED RESEARCH METHODS. 913 GENERAL PRINCIPLE ORIENTED METHODS
917
42.5 MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS. . .. 918 PRELIMINARIES: WHAT TO MEASURE
AND HOW MANY OBSERVATIONS. . . 918 DATA QUALITY 921
RELIABILITY 921
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 922
42.6 CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY . . .. 926
42.7 REFERENCES 927
VI ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 929
43 HUMAN FACTORS ISSUES IN EXPERT SYSTEMS 931 43.1 INTRODUCTION 931
43.2 WHAT IS AN EXPERT SYSTEM? . . . 932
43.3 A USER-ORIENTED TAXONOMY OF EXPERT SYSTEMS 932
TYPE OF APPLICATION 932
SOURCE OF PACING 932
TYPE OF KNOWLEDGE 932
43.4 TASK DECOMPOSITION 933
43.5 FUNCTION ALLOCATION 934
43.6 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 934
TOOLS VERSUS SOLUTIONS 936
DESIGN OF DISPLAYS FOR EXPERT SYSTEMS 937
DISPLAYS FOR DATA INPUT 937
DISPLAYS FOR EXPLANATION 937
EXPERT SYSTEM USABILITY ISSUES . 939 KEEPING THE USER CURRENT . . .. 939
EXPERT SYSTEM RELIABILITY . . .. 939
WORKLOAD 939
43.7 SUMMARY 940
43.8 REFERENCES 940
44 NATURAL LANGUAGE INTERFACE SYSTEMS 941 44.1 INTRODUCTION 941
44.2 SYNTAX AND PARSING 943
INTRODUCTION 943
GRAMMATICAL FORMALISMS . . .. 945
SEMANTIC GRAMMARS 946
44.3 SEMANTIC INTERPRETATION 946
REPRESENTING THE MEANING OF A QUESTION 946
THE SEMANTIC INTERPRETATION PROCESS 948 44.4 SEMANTIC TRANSFORMATIONS .
. .. 949
INTRODUCTION 949
IMAGE 12
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DECLARATIVE SPECIFICATIONS OF
THE RELATION BETWEEN EEL AND DBL 950
44.5 THE AMBIGUITY PROBLEM 951
ANOMALY CHECKING 951
PRESUPPOSITION FAILURE 951
44.6 DISCOURSE 952
44.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 952
44.8 REFERENCES 952
45 HUMAN FACTORS IN KNOWLEDGE ACQUISI- TION 957
45.1 INTRODUCTION 957
45.2 BUILDING AN EXPERT SYSTEM . .. 958
SELECTION OF EXPERTS 958
KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION IN THE EARLY STAGES OF SYSTEM BUILDING . 959 45.3
SPECIFIC ELICITATION TECHNIQUES . 960 INTRODUCTION 960
RETROSPECTIVE COMMENT ANALYSIS 961 THINKING-ALOUD PROTOCOLS . . .. 963
INTERRUPTION ANALYSIS 964
ON-LINE COMMENT ANALYSIS . . . 964 INCREMENTAL SIMULATION 965
MIXED-METHOD APPROACHES . . . 966 45.4 SUMMARY 967
45.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 967
45.6 REFERENCES 968
46 INTELLIGENT INTERFACE DESIGN 969
46.1 INTRODUCTION 970
46.2 THE EVOLUTION OF THE INTERFACE . . 970 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE
INTERFACE 971 47 46.3 THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENT IN- TERFACES 972
WHAT IS AN INTELLIGENT INTERFACE? . 972 WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF AN
INTELLIGENT INTERFACE? 976
WHEN IS AN INTELLIGENT INTERFACE NEEDED? 979
46.4 INTELLIGENT INTERFACE MODELS . . . 980 INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SEARCH
INTERMEDIARIES 980
EXPERT SYSTEMS AS INTELLIGENT INTERFACES 980
46.5 SUPPLEMENTARY TECHNIQUES FOR INTELLIGENT INTERFACES 981
APPROACH 2: NATURAL LANGUAGE INTERFACES 981
APPROACH 2: HYPERMEDIA . . .. 983
APPROACH 3: EXPERT SYSTEMS . . 984
APPROACH 4: KNOWLEDGE ACQUI- SITION 985
APPROACH 5: DIALOG DESIGN . . . 985 46.6 INTELLIGENT INTERFACE
TECHNOLOGY . 985 NECESSITY 1: TASK ANALYSIS . .. 985 NECESSITY 2: EXPERT
SYSTEMS . . 985
NECESSITY 3: INTERFACE DESIGN TOOLS 986 46.7 THE PROCESS OF BUILDING AN
IN- TELLIGENT INTERFACE 986
TASK ANALYSIS 986
USER MODEL 986
DEVELOPMENT OF COMMON INTER- FACE MODEL 986
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 986
BUILDING THE TASK MACHINE . . . 986 PROTOTYPING THE INTERFACE 987
EVALUATING THE INTERFACE 987
REDESIGN 987
46.8 A CASE STUDY IN INTELLIGENT IN- TERFACE DESIGN 987
TASK ANALYSIS 988
COMMON INTERFACE MODEL . . .. 988
USER MODEL 989
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 989
BUILDING THE TASK MACHINE . . . 989 PROTOTYPING THE INTERFACE 989
EVALUATING THE INTERFACE 989
46.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . .. 990
FUTURE DIRECTIONS 990
46.10 REFERENCES 991
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS: DESIGNING TO EXTEND THE COGNITIVE LIMITS 997
47.1 INTRODUCTION 997
47.2 DECISION SUPPORT AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES: SOME DEF- INITIONS
998
NATURALISTIC DECISION PROCESSES . 999 47.3 THE DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
DESIGN PROCESS 1001
47.4 STEP 1: DEFINITION AND DECOM- POSITION OF THE DECISION PROBLEM 1003
GOAL DECOMPOSITION 1003
DECISION SITUATION DESCRIPTION . . 1004 47.5 STEP 2: ANALYSIS OF
DECISION SITUATIONS 1008
IDENTIFYING DECISION-MAKING LIMITATIONS AND CONSTRAINTS . . . 1008 47.6
STEP 3: DENNING DECISION SUP- PORT SYSTEM FUNCTIONALITY . . . . 1010
IMAGE 13
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47.7 STEP 4: SELECTING DSS TECHNOL- OGY WITHIN BEHAVIORAL AND COG-
NITIVE CONSTRANTS 1011
47.8 SELECTING PROCESS MODELS FOR THE DSS 1013
47.9 SELECTING VALUE MODELS FOR THE DSS 1015 49
47.10 SELECTING INFORMATION MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR THE DSS . 1017 DATA
MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES . . 1018 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT TECH-
NIQUES 1019
47.11 SELECTING AUTOMATED ANALYSIS/ REASONING TECHNIQUES FOR THE DSS
1020 NUMERIC REASONING TECHNIQUES . 1022 SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES .
1023 47.12 SELECTING A REPRESENTATION AID
FOR THE DSS 1024
47.13 SELECTING A JUDGEMENT REFINEMENT/ AMPLIFICATION TOOL FOR THE DSS .
1026 47.14 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . 1028 47.15 ACKNOWLEDGEMNTS
1028
47.16 REFERENCES 1028
VII PSYCHOLOGICAL AND
ORGANIZATIONAL ISSUES 1031
48 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF COMPUTER USE 1033 48.1 INTRODUCTION 1033
48.2 MYTH NUMBER 1. EMPLOY- EES REACT WITH IRRATIONAL FEARS WHEN
COMPUTERS ARE INTRODUCED. .1033 50 48.3 MYTH NUMBER 2. EMPLOYEE
PARTICIPATION IN TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE IS NEEDLESS 1034
48.4 MYTH NUMBER 3. UNIONS, IM- PEDE TECHNOLOGICAL AND ECO- NOMIC
PROGRESS 1036
48.5 MYTH NUMBER 4. PLANNING FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE SHOULD RELY MORE
ON EXPERTS THAN END USERS 1038
48.6 MYTH NUMBER 5. WHEN POSSI- BLE, USE TECHNOLOGY TO CREATE MORE
DESK-TYPE JOBS 1039
48.7 MYTH NUMBER 6. IN JOB DESIGN, REMEMBER TO KEEP IT SIMPLE. . . 1040
48.8 MYTH NUMBER 7. NEW POLI- CIES AND CLOSER SUPERVISION ARE
PROVEN METHODS FOR IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY AND ELIMINATING WASTE. 1044
48.9 MYTH NUMBER 8. ONE PERSON WITH A COMPUTER CAN OUTPER- FORM A WHOLE
TEAM 1045
48.10 SUMMARY 1047
48.11 REFERENCES 1048
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND WORK OR- GANIZATION 1051
49.1 ABSTRACT 1051
49.2 INTRODUCTION 1051
49.3 THEORETICAL BASES 1052
PERSPECTIVES ON ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 1052
PERSPECTIVES ON TECHNOLOGY . . . 1053 THE LINK BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND
TECHNOLOGY 1054
49.4 SURVEY OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH . . 1055 RATIONALIST PERSPECTIVE 1056
INFORMATION PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE 1060 MOTIVATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 1061
POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE 1064
49.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 1065 49.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE
DESIGN OF SYSTEMS AND WORK 1065
RATIONALIST PERSPECTIVE 1065
INFORMATION PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE 1065 MOTIVATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 1066
POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE 1066
49.7 CONCLUSION 1066
49.8 REFERENCES 1067
SOCIO-ISSUES RELATED TO HOME-BASED WORK 1071
50.1 INTRODUCTION 1071
50.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HOME- BASED WORK FORCE 1072
50.3 RESEARCH CONCERNS 1073
50.4 LABOR UNIONS AND DISABLED WORKERS 1074
50.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS 1075
50.6 MARKETS FOR COMPUTER SYSTEMS . 1075 SYSTEMS INSTALLATION IN PRIVATE
DWELLINGS FOR FULL-TIME HOME- BASED EMPLOYEES 1076
50.7 NEW DIRECTIONS 1076
50.8 RESEARCH ON TECHNOLOGY 1077
50.9 ORGANIZATIONAL TECHNOLOGY . . .. 1077 50.10 RESEARCH ON HOME-BASED
WORK . 1078 50.11 REFERENCES 1078
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51 FACTORS INFLUENCING ACCEPTANCE OF
COMPUTER-BASED INNOVATIONS 1081 51.1 INTRODUCTION 1081
51.2 INNOVATION ACCEPTANCE THEORY . 1082 INITIAL AWARENESS 1083
NEED FOR IMPROVEMENT 1083
LEVEL OF INTEREST 1083
INFORMATION ACQUISITION 1085
PERCEIVED FEATURES AND PER- 52
CEIVED NEED 1085
EXPERIENCE WITH SIMILAR DEVEL- OPMENTS 1085
USER PARTICIPATION IN DESIGN . . . 1085 PERSONAL RISK 1085
AVAILABILITY OF SUPPORT 1085
SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION 1086
ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 1086
THE ROLE OF AUTHORITY . . . . .. 1087
SUMMARY OF THE THEORETICAL PROCESS 1087 51.3 PLANNING FOR INNOVATION
ACCEPTANCELO87 COMMUNICATE WITH POTENTIAL USERS 1089 USER INVOLVEMENT
DURING DE-
VELOPMENT 1089
DESIGN FOR ACCEPTANCE 1091
51.4 A STUDY OF NEW DECISION SUP- PORT SYSTEMS 1091
MILITARY OFFICERS ARE BASICALLY OPTIMISTIC ABOUT THE POTENTIAL VALUE OF
AI DECISION AIDS . . .. 1092 UNDERSTANDING THE DECISION
RULES IS ESSENTIAL 1092
THE BEST AVAILABLE EXPERTISE DOES NOT IMPLY OPERATIONAL VA- LIDITY 1095
REDUCTION OF THE DECISION MAKER S MENTAL WORKLOAD . . .. 1095 VALUE OF
AI UNDER HIGH STRESS CONDITIONS 1097
PERCEIVED VALUE OF AI TO OF- FICERS OF DIFFERENT EXPERIENCE LEVELS 1097
CONCERN ABOUT UNDUE INFLUENCE 1099 UNDERMINING OF DECISION MAK- ING
AUTHORITY 1099
SUMMARY 1099
INTERFACE DESIGN ISSUES 1101
NATURE OF RECOMMENDA- TION/SITUATION ASSESSMENT OUTPUTS 1101 PROBABILITY
OR CONFIDENCE ESTIMATES 1101 ADDITION/DELETION OF DECISION RULES 1103
51.5 SUMMARY OF RESULTS 1103
PERCEIVED POSITIVE ATTRIBUTES OF AI DECISION AIDS 1103
NEGATIVE PERCEPTIONS OF AI DE- CISION AIDS 1103
GENERAL DESIGN ISSUES 1104
51.6 CONCLUSION 1105
51.7 REFERENCES 1105
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND ORGANIZA- TIONAL ECOLOGY 1107
52.1 ABSTRACT 1107
52.2 INTRODUCTION 1107
52.3 TECHNOLOGICAL FEASIBILITY 1109
BRIDGE DISTANCE AND TIME . . .. 1109 ENORMOUS DATA STORAGE CAPABILITY
1109 MORE STAND ALONE EQUIPMENT . . 1109
MORE CONNECTIVITY AMONG TER- MINALS AND COMPUTERS 1109
EQUIPMENT MOBILITY 1109
VIRTUAL SIMULTANEOUS INPUT. . .. 1109 GRAPHIC, NUMBER, WRITTEN, AND ORAL
CAPACITY 1109
RAPID OBSOLESCENCE 1109
SUMMARY OF TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY 1109 52.4 SPACE PLANNING IMPLICATION OF
OFFICE AUTOMATION 1109
REDISTRIBUTION OF SPACE: SMALLER AND LARGER PERSONAL WORK AREAS 1110
MULTIPLE WORK AREAS 1110
MORE FOCUS ON SHARED MEETING AND SOCIAL SPACES 1110
MORE AMENITIES 1111
MORE GROUP/PROJECT SPACES . .. 1111 MORE EMPHASIS ON PERSONNEL SAFETY
1111 LOOSE VERSUS TIGHT FIT 1111
52.5 ORGANIZATIONAL CONSTRAINTS: THE ACCEPTABILITY PROGRAM 1112
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HOW SPACE IS STRUCTURED 1112
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PEER RELA- TIONSHIPS AND INTERACTION PATTERNS 1112
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT TURF AND
PRIVACY 1113
SUMMARY OF ORGANIZATIONAL IM- PLICATIONS 1114
52.6 INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY, DESIGN, AND ORGANIZATIONAL INNOVATION . .
1114 A CASE STUDY 1114
52.7 THE ACCEPTABILITY FACTOR AND THE ENCULTURATION PROCESS 1116
52.8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1116
IMAGE 15
XXX111
52.9 REFERENCES 1117
AUTHOR INDEX 1119
SUBJECT INDEX 1149
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV005981523 |
| callnumber-first | Q - Science |
| callnumber-label | QA76 |
| callnumber-raw | QA76.9.H85 |
| callnumber-search | QA76.9.H85 |
| callnumber-sort | QA 276.9 H85 |
| callnumber-subject | QA - Mathematics |
| classification_rvk | CW 3000 ST 278 ST 280 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)32419319 (DE-599)BVBBV005981523 |
| dewey-full | 004'.01'9 |
| dewey-hundreds | 000 - Computer science, information, general works |
| dewey-ones | 004 - Computer science |
| dewey-raw | 004'.01'9 |
| dewey-search | 004'.01'9 |
| dewey-sort | 14 11 19 |
| dewey-tens | 000 - Computer science, information, general works |
| discipline | Informatik Psychologie |
| edition | 2. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| genre | 1\p (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Aufsatzsammlung |
| id | DE-604.BV005981523 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T16:38:01Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0444705368 0444886737 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-003756138 |
| oclc_num | 32419319 |
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| owner | DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-11 |
| owner_facet | DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-11 |
| physical | XXXIII, 1167 S. |
| publishDate | 1991 |
| publishDateSearch | 1991 |
| publishDateSort | 1991 |
| publisher | North-Holland |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Handbook of human-computer interaction ed. by Martin Helander 2. ed. Amsterdam u.a. North-Holland 1991 XXXIII, 1167 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Human-computer interaction Mensch-Maschine-System (DE-588)4038662-4 gnd rswk-swf Benutzeroberfläche (DE-588)4131424-4 gnd rswk-swf Computer (DE-588)4070083-5 gnd rswk-swf Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 gnd rswk-swf Ergonomie (DE-588)4015249-2 gnd rswk-swf Software Engineering (DE-588)4116521-4 gnd rswk-swf Künstliche Intelligenz (DE-588)4033447-8 gnd rswk-swf Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation (DE-588)4125909-9 gnd rswk-swf 1\p (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content Mensch-Maschine-System (DE-588)4038662-4 s Computer (DE-588)4070083-5 s 2\p DE-604 Benutzeroberfläche (DE-588)4131424-4 s Ergonomie (DE-588)4015249-2 s 3\p DE-604 Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 s 4\p DE-604 Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation (DE-588)4125909-9 s 5\p DE-604 Software Engineering (DE-588)4116521-4 s 6\p DE-604 Künstliche Intelligenz (DE-588)4033447-8 s 7\p DE-604 Helander, Martin Sonstige oth SWB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003756138&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 2\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 3\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 4\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 5\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 6\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 7\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Handbook of human-computer interaction Human-computer interaction Mensch-Maschine-System (DE-588)4038662-4 gnd Benutzeroberfläche (DE-588)4131424-4 gnd Computer (DE-588)4070083-5 gnd Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 gnd Ergonomie (DE-588)4015249-2 gnd Software Engineering (DE-588)4116521-4 gnd Künstliche Intelligenz (DE-588)4033447-8 gnd Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation (DE-588)4125909-9 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4038662-4 (DE-588)4131424-4 (DE-588)4070083-5 (DE-588)4047704-6 (DE-588)4015249-2 (DE-588)4116521-4 (DE-588)4033447-8 (DE-588)4125909-9 (DE-588)4143413-4 |
| title | Handbook of human-computer interaction |
| title_auth | Handbook of human-computer interaction |
| title_exact_search | Handbook of human-computer interaction |
| title_full | Handbook of human-computer interaction ed. by Martin Helander |
| title_fullStr | Handbook of human-computer interaction ed. by Martin Helander |
| title_full_unstemmed | Handbook of human-computer interaction ed. by Martin Helander |
| title_short | Handbook of human-computer interaction |
| title_sort | handbook of human computer interaction |
| topic | Human-computer interaction Mensch-Maschine-System (DE-588)4038662-4 gnd Benutzeroberfläche (DE-588)4131424-4 gnd Computer (DE-588)4070083-5 gnd Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 gnd Ergonomie (DE-588)4015249-2 gnd Software Engineering (DE-588)4116521-4 gnd Künstliche Intelligenz (DE-588)4033447-8 gnd Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation (DE-588)4125909-9 gnd |
| topic_facet | Human-computer interaction Mensch-Maschine-System Benutzeroberfläche Computer Psychologie Ergonomie Software Engineering Künstliche Intelligenz Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation Aufsatzsammlung |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003756138&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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