The philosophy of the Kalam:
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| Main Author: | |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]
Harvard University Press
1976
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| Series: | Structure and Growth of Philosophic Systems from Plato to Spinoza
4 |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | Literaturverzeichnis Seiten 772 - 779 |
| Physical Description: | XXVI, 779 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 0674665805 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The philosophy of the Kalam |c by Harry Austryn Wolfson |
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Record in the Search Index
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| adam_text | CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THEKALAM I
I. The Term Kalam I
The meaning of kalam as determined by its uses in Arabic
translations from the Greek, i. — Its new meaning as a desig¬
nation of a special system of thought in Islam, 2.
II. The Kalam According to Shahrastani and Ibn
gALDUN 3
The salaf, 3.— Fikh and Kalam, 3. — The existence of a pre-
Mu tazilite Kalam, 4. — How the Kalam originated, 5.—
The two pre-Mu tazilite Kakm problems: (a) Anthropo¬
morphism: (1) View of The Early Muslims, 8.—(2)
Views of two groups of Innovators, 10.—Origin of the
formula a body unlike other bodies and corroborative
evidence of the explanation, n.— (b) Free will, 17.— The
rise of Mu tazilism, 18. — Shahrastani on a non-philosophical
Mu tazilism preceding the philosophical Mu tazilism, 19.—
The methods of the philosophers and the methods of the
Kalam, 20.—Ibn JJaldun on a non-philosophical Mu tazilism
preceding the philosophical Mu tazilism, 25. — The identifica¬
tion of Kalam with Mu tazilism, 29. — The Mihnah, 31.—
The three post-Mihnah orthodox groups, 32.—The rise of
the Ash arite Kalam, 35. — Ibn IJaldun s characterization of
the Ash arite Kalam, 36. — The changes subsequently intro¬
duced into the Ash arite Kalam: (a) by Bakillanl, 40.— (b)
by Ghazali, 41
III. The Kalam According to Maimonides .... 43
Maimonides account of the Kalam contrasted with the
accounts of Shahrastani and Ibn $aldun, 43. — Maimonides
explanation of why he is to discuss the Kalam, 46. — Outline
of his discussion: Christian philosophy as the background of
the two philosophized systems of Kalam current in his own
time, 48.—The origin of Christian philosophy, 50. — How
Christian philosophy became known to Muslims, 51.—How
the Kalam deviated from Christian philosophy, 55.—How
the Kalam applied the method of reasoning acquired from
Christian philosophy to- purely Muslim problems, 56.—
How Maimonides own system of thought is to differ from
that of the Kalam, 57.
xii CONTENTS
IV. Influences 58
1. CHRISTIANITY 58
Question as to whether there was any Christian influence
upon the Kakm raised against Maimonides, 58.—Commonly
held views concerning Christian influence upon Islam with
regard to three problems, 59.—With regard to predestina¬
tion and free will, 60. — With regard to attributes, 61.—
With regard to the Koran, 63.
2. GREEK PHILOSOPHY 64
3. IRANIAN AND INDIAN RELIGIONS ... 66
4. JUDAISM 68
V. Origin, Structure, Diversity 70
Two questions raised and the method used in answering
them, 70. — Why of the problems dealt with in the Kalam
only six were selected for treatment in this work, 72.—
How five of the eight scriptural presuppositions laid down
by Philo are accepted by the Kalam and how they are
treated, 74.
VI. Christian and Jewish Kalam 79
Introductory statement, 79.
1. CHRISTIAN KALAM 80
Evidence of its not having been affected by the philosophical
or theological teachings characteristic of the Muslim Kalam,
80.—Verbal accommodation: the splinter group of Nestor-
ians, 81.
2. JEWISH KALAM 82
Maimonides statement on the two types of Jewish philosophic
literature in Arabic, 82.—Discussion of his statement, 83.—
Halevi s statement on Karaite followers of the Kalam, 86.—
Discussion of that statement, 87.—References by other
writers to Jewish followers of the Kalam, 88.—Earliest
attitudes toward philosophy among Jews, 92.—Question as
to whether among Jews, as among Muslims, there were Attri-
butists, Predestinarians, and Anthropomorphists, 97.—The
identity of the people referred to by Maimonides as taking
Genesis 1:26 anthropomorphically, 106. — Other references
by Maimonides to Jewish anthropomorphists, 106. — Rabad s
comment on Maimonides . branding anthropomorphists as
heretics, 108.
CONTENTS xiH
CHAPTER II
ATTRIBUTES 112
I. The Muslim Attributes and the Christian
Trinity 112
In search of evidence for the acceptable assumption of a
Christian origin of the doctrine of attributes, 112. — How the
use of ma na and sifah in the sense of attributes shows the in¬
fluence of the Christian Trinity, 114. — How the fact that at
the very beginning only two attributes described by various
combinations of the terms life and knowledge were used
in discussions of attributes shows again the influence of the
Trinity, 120. — An imaginatively constructed debate between
a Christian and a Muslim wherein the latter was led to admit
the reality of attributes, 129. How the number of attributes
was increased, 131.
II. Denial of the Reality of Attributes . . . .132
Two arguments against the reality of attributes: (a) Eternity
means Deity; history of this argument, 133.— (b) Unity of
God excludes internal plurality; history of this argument,
134. — Attributists refutation of the first argument, 137.—
Their refutation of the second argument, 138. — The ex¬
ceptional treatment by some Antiattributists of knowledge,
will, and word, 140.
III. Created Attributes 143
The view of the Rafidah, 143.—The view of the Karra-
miyyah, 145.
IV. Modes 147
1. mu ammar s ma na 147
Various reports of Mu ammar s theory of ma na, 149,—The
question raised by Mu ammar and why he raised it, 157.—
How he first used Aristotle s term nature as an answer to his
question and why he later replaced it by the term ma na,
160. — Criticism of Mu ammar s theory of ma na on two
grounds, 162. — The question whether Mu ammar s theory
of ma na applies to divine attributes, 163. — Survey of two
other interpretations of Mu ammar s theory of ma na, 164.
2. abu hashim s ahival 167
How the theory of ahwal arose out of a criticism of the
theory of ma na, 167.—The term modes used as predicates
of 3 subject in three senses: (a) as properties; (b) as accidents;
xiv CONTENTS
(c) as genera and species, 169. — Modes as universals, 170. —
The application of modes to divine attributes, 171. — The
two innovations introduced by modes into attributes, 174.—
How the modes were adopted by Bakillani and Juwayru, 175.
Appendix A. The Threefold and the Twofold Classifica¬
tion of Modes 183
Appendix B. Relation of Abu Hashmis Theory of Ahwal
to Mu amtnar s Theory of Ma na 188
Appendix C. The Term Hal 193
3. OPPOSITION TO ABU HASHIM 197
Prefatory statement, 197. — Mu tazilite arguments against
modes, 198—Modalists refutation of these arguments, 201.
— Attributists arguments against modes, 204.
V. The Semantic Aspect of the Problem of
Attributes 205
The three aspects of the problem of attributes, 205.—The
two forms of the semantic aspect of the problem, 206.—The
formula that attributes are neither God nor other than God:
its history and how it is used by the Attributists, 207.—How
the same formula is used by Abu Hashim in the sense of
modes, 211 Question as to how the same formula added to
another formula was used by Ash ari, 211.—How these two
formulae were used by Ash arites, 214. How the Antiattribut-
ists came to start their treatment of the problem of attributes
by stating that attributes are mere names or words, 217.—
How they came to interpret these names or words as mean¬
ing actions or negations, 218.—How the different formulae
used by Naz?am and Abu al-Hudhayl reflect a difference
in the interpretation of Aristotle s phrase in virtue of itself,
225. — Corroborative evidence for the preceding statement,
228. — Three observations with regard to the different
formulae used by Nazzam and Abu al-Hudhayl, 229.—Ex¬
planation of a rather puzzling statement of Ash ari with
regard to formulae used by Attributists and Antiattributists,
CHAPTER III
THE KORAN. 235
I. The Uncreated Koran 235
I. ORIGIN OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE UNCREATED
KORAN 235
CONTENTS XV
Prefatory statement, 235. — How word and will became
real attributes, 236. — How the Koranic statements about
itself mean that the Koran was pre-existent but created,
238. — How the belief in the uncreatedness of the pre-existent
Koran arose, 239. — The earliest mention of opposition to
the belief in th« uncreatedness of the Koran, 241.—Believers
in the createdness of the Koran branded as heretics, 242.—
why the uncreated Koran could not be described as creator,
2. THE UNRAISED PROBLEM OF INLIBRATION . . 244
The two questions, 244. — (a) The question concerning the
relation of the uncreated Word of God to the created Pre¬
served Tablet, 244. — (b) The question concerning the rela¬
tion of the uncreated Word of God to the revealed Koran,
to which we shall refer as the Problem of Inlibration, 245.—
How the first question is raised and answered, 246.—How,
while the second question is not raised, certain statements
seem like answers in anticipation of such a question, 247.
a. Ibn Kullab and the Denial of Inlibration . 248
b. Ibn Hanbal and the Affirmation of Inlibra¬
tion 251
c. The Hanbalite Ash ari 254
d. The Kullabite Ash ari and Ash arites . . 255
e. The Hanbalite Ibn Hazm 257
How, though, unlike Ibn Hanbal, he maintains that the Word
of God in the sense of the Koran is identical with the essence
of God and not an attribute in it and how, still, like Ibn
Hanbal, he maintains that the Word of God contains within
itself innumerable words and is inlibrated, 257. — How the
term Koran and the expression the Word of God cannot be
described as created, even though four of the five things to
which they are applied are created, 259.
II. The Created Koran 263
1. THE DENIAL OF THE UNCREATED KORAN AND THE
DENIAL OF ETERNAL ATTRIBUTES .... 263
The difference between these two denials, 263.
2. THE CREATED KORAN AS A PRE-EXISTENT CREATED
HEAVENLY KORAN 264
Mu tazilite description of the Koran as created in an abode,
264. — How the createdness of the Koran was the original
belief held by the Muslims, 2*55. — How the abode in which
the Koran was created was itself created and it was the
XVi CONTENTS
Preserved Tablet, 266. — How two groups of Mu tazilites
differed in their views with regard to the inlibration of the
pre-existent created Koran, 268. — How Shahrastanl touches
upon this difference, 272.
3. THE DENIAL OF A PRE-EXISTENT HEAVENLY
KORAN 274
The view of Nazzam, 274.—The view of Mu ammar, 276.
III. The Formal Creeds on Inlibration .... 279
Introductory statement 279
1. the wasiyyah 280
2. nasafI and taftazani 282
3. FADALI 289
IV. The Terms Muhdath, Hadath, and Hadith as
Applied to the Koran 291
Stating the problem, 291. — The case of Thaljl who applies
to the Koran the term muhdath, 292.—The case of £ahiri
who similarly applies to it the term muhdath, 294. — The case
Tumani who applies to it the term hadath, 296. — The case
of the Karramiyyah who apply to it the term hadith, 300.
CHAPTER IV
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 304
I. Trinity and Incarnation in the Koran . . . . 304
How Trinity and Incarnation are presented in the Koran,
304.—Refutation of these two doctrines in the Koran, 305.
—The Koran s own account of the birth of Jesus: (a)
Verses in which that account centers on the term spirit,
which is used in two senses, 306.— (b) Verses in which that
account centers on the term word, which is also used in
two senses, 308. — Summary of the Koran s view of the birth
of Jesus, 309.
II. Trinity and Incarnation in the Kalam . . .310
How the Muslim learned of the Christian conception of the
Trinity, 310. — How the Muslim learned of the Christian
conception of the Incarnation, 312.—Muslim opposition to
these new conceptions of the Trinity and the Incarnation,
312.—Traces of the influence of these new conceptions of
die Trinity and the Incarnation upon certain sects in Islam,
3X3-
CONTENTS Xvii
III. The Philosopher Kind! and Yahya Ibn AdI on the
Trinity 318
Earlier and later disputations between Christians and Muslims,
318. — Kindl s three arguments against the Trinity; the first
argument, 321. — Yahya s refutation, 322. — Kindl s second
argument, 323. — Yahya s refutation, 324. — Kindl s third
argument, 324. — Yahya s refutation, 327. — Difficulties raised
against the analogies used by Yahya in his refutation of
Kindl s third argument as well as in other passages, 331.—
Solution of these difficulties, 333.
IV. An Unknown Splinter Group of Nestorians . . 337
How Shahrastani makes Nestorius a contemporary of
Ma mun and how he ascribes to the Nestorians a Trinitarian
formula which he compares to Abu Hashim s formula for
modes, 337. — Objections to Shahrastani s account of Nes-
torianism, 340. — Suggestion that Shahrastani s Nestorians
refer to a splinter group of Nestorians which appeared in
Iraq during the reign of Ma mun, 341. — Showing that, while
Shahrastani is right in the Trinitarian formula which he
ascribes to his Nestorians, he is wrong in comparing it to
Abu Hashim s formula for modes, 342.—What the Trini¬
tarian formula ascribed by Shahrastani to his Nestorians
really means, 343. — Evidence showing that a splinter group
of Nestorians did appear during the reign of Ma mun, 347.
V. Muslim Attributes in Medieval Christianity . . 349
How among the Church Fathers there was no problem of
attributes in its ontological sense, 349. — Sporadic unsuccess¬
ful attempts in the Middle Ages to introduce into Chris¬
tianity an ontological problem of attributes, 350. — How the
term attributes and the Muslim problem of attributes be¬
came known to Christians through the Latin translation of
Maimonides Guide of the Perplexed early in the thirteenth
century, 350. — How later in the thirteenth century both
Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas use the term attribute
and discuss the ontological aspect of the problem of at¬
tributes, 352. — Attributes in Descartes and Spinoza, 354.
CHAPTER V
CREATION OF THE WORLD 355
I. Creation Ex Nihilo 355
I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 355
How the belief in creation out of nothing appeared in Philo
xviii contents
and in the Church Fathers, 355. — How the Latin and the
Greek phrase for out of nothing appeared in Christianity,
356.—How the belief in creation out of nothing appeared
in Judaism, 356. Creation in the Koran, 357.
2. THE KALAM CONTROVERSY OVER THE NON¬
EXISTENT (al-mcfdwn) as a controversy
over ex nihilo 359
Various views as to the origin of this controversy, 359.—
Suggestion that underlying this controversy is the problem as
to whether creation is out of nothing or out of a pre-existent
matter, 362.—Evidence for this suggestion, 365. — The pre-
existent matter in question not conceived of as composed of
atoms, 366.—The change of min al-ma dum to la mm shay1
as the Arabic expression for ex mhild, 367. — Various other
Arabic expressions for ex nihilo, 368. — Saadia s logical ex¬
planation for the use of la nun shay instead of imn la shay1,
371.—The expression ba d al- adam, 372.
II. Arguments for Creation 373
Introductory statement, 373.
1. ARGUMENT FROM FINITUDES AND THE RECON¬
STRUCTION OF ITS ORIGINAL FORM IN JOHN
PHILOPONUS 374
Analysis of Saadia s restatement of this argument, 375.—
Two questions about Saadia s restatement of the argument,
375. — Answer to the first question, 376.—Answer to the
second question, 377.—Reconstruction of the original form
of John Philoponus argument, 381. — Syllogistic form of
Saadia s restatement of the argument, 382.
2. ARGUMENT FROM THE ANALOGY OF THINGS IN
THE WORLD 382
Platonic basis of this argument, 382. — As presented by the
following: Bahill quoted by Shahrastani, 383. — Maimonides
ascribing to one of the Mutakallimun, 383. — Averroes
ascribing it to the Muslim Mutakallimun, 384.—Isaac
Israeli, 385.
3. ARGUMENT FROM THE AGGREGATION AND SEG¬
REGATION OF ATOMS 386
As presented by the following: Ash arl as quoted by Shah¬
rastani, 386.—Maimonides Mutakallimun, 387.—Saadia, 388.
—Bahya, 389.—Showing that this argument is based upon a
triple argument by Abucara, 390.
CONTENTS xk
4. ARGUMENT FROM THE CREATEDNESS OF THE
ACCIDENTS OF THE COMPONENT PARTS OF THE
WORLD 392
As presented by the following: Bakillani, 393. — Ibn Suwar,
ascribing it to the Mutakallimun, 393. — How two of Ibn
Suwar s three criticisms of this argument are based (a) upon
a refutation by Aristotle of his own tentatively raised ob¬
jection to the eternity of the world and (b) upon Aristotle s
own view of the possibility of an infinite by succession, 395.
— How Juwayni reinforces this argument, against one of Ibn
Suwar s criticisms of it, by arguing against Aristotle for the
impossibility of an infinite by succession, 396.—Mawardi,
Joseph al-BasIr, and Jeshua ben Judah, 397. — Shahrastani,
ascribing it to the Mutakallimun and alluding to their rein¬
forcement of it by the view of the impossibility of an infinite
by succession, 398. — Judah Halevi, ascribing it to the
Masters of the Kalam and alluding to their reinforcement of
it by the view of the impossibility of an infinite by succes¬
sion, 309. — Averroes, ascribing it to the Ash arites, as well
as to the Mutakallimun, and explicitly restating their rein¬
forcement of it by the view of the impossibility of an infinite
by succession, 400. — Maimonides, ascribing it to the Mu¬
takallimun and explicitly restating their reinforcement of it
by the view of the impossibility of an infinite by succession,
402. — Ibn Hazm and Joseph Ibn Saddik, 403. — Saadia and
Alfarabi, 404. — How the various presentations of this argu¬
ment fall into three types, 406. — How this argument is
analogous to a Patristic argument for creation based upon
Aristotle s tentative objection to the eternity of the world,
407. — How it can be shown that this argument is based
either directly upon Aristotle s tentative objection to the
eternity of the world or upon the Patristic version of it as an
argument for creation, 408,
5. ARGUMENT FROM THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF AN
INFINITE BY SUCCESSION 4IO
Introductory statement, 410. — How John Philoponus ref¬
utation of Aristotle s view on the possibility of an infinite
by succession consists of two arguments, each of them based
upon an Aristotelian principle, namely, (1) no infinite can
be traversed; (2) one infinite cannot be greater than another
infinite, 411. — How these two arguments against the possi¬
bility of an infinite by succession are restated by the follow¬
ing: Nazgam, 416.—Saadia, 417.—Juwayni, 420. — Ibn
Hazm, 421.—Ghazall, 422.—Judah Halevi, 413,—Shah¬
rastani, 424. — Averroes, 424. •— Maimonides, 425.—Averroes
XX CONTENTS
refutation of the Mutakallimun s impossibility of an infinite
succession, 427. — Maimonides refutation of that impossibil¬
ity. 431-
6. ARGUMENT FROM PARTICULARIZATION . . . 434
As presented by Juwayni in his lrshad, 434.—As presented
by him in his Nizimiyyah, 436.—As recast by Averroes on
the basis of the Nisantiyyah, 437.—How this argument
occurs in two forms, 438.—How it is presented by the fol¬
lowing: Judah Halevi, 439. — Ghazali, 439. — Shahrastani,
441. — Maimonides, 443.
7. ARGUMENT FROM PREPONDERATION . . . 444
Analysis of Avicenna s argument against the temporal crea¬
tion of the world in which die term tarfih, to give prepon¬
derance, occurs, 444.—How in GhazalFs refutation of
Avicenna and his affirmation of the temporal creation of the
world the term murajjip, preponderator, is used, 446.—
How the argument from preponderation is presented by the
following: Shahrastani, 447. — Maimonides, 449. — Maimoni¬
des criticism of the argument, 451.
8. ARGUMENT FROM IMMORTAL SOXJLS . . . 452
How this argument is presented by Maimonides, 453.—Re¬
construction of the history of this argument on the basis of
a statement by Avicenna in his Najat and statements by
Ghazali in his Makasid and Tahafut, 453.—How the argu¬
ment is reproduced by Shahrastani, 454. — Maimonides crit¬
icism of this argument, 455.
III. The Kalam Arguments for Creation in Albertus
Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventura . . 455
Introductory statement, 455. — Argument from Immortal
Souls: used by all three of them and traceable to Mai¬
monides, 457.—Argument from Vimtud.es: used by Thomas
Aquinas and traceable to Averroes, 458.—Argument from
an Infinite by Succession: one variation of this argument is
used by all three of them and two variations of it are used
by Aquinas and Bonaventura, 460. — Comment on this argu¬
ment, 465.
CHAPTER VI
ATOMISM 466
I. Affirmation of Atomism 466
I. ORIGIN OF ATOMISM IN THE KALAM . . . 466
Evidence of its Greek origin, 466.—Why the Kalam adopted
CONTENTS Xxi
atomism, 467. — How on religious grounds the Kalam intro¬
duced two fundamental changes into Greek atomism, 471.
2. AN UNKNOWN PSEUDO-DEMOCRITEAN FRAGMENT
AND THE UNEXTENDEDNESS OF ATOMS IN THE
KALAM 472
Problem of the origin of the unextendedness of atoms in
the Kalam, 472. — How no statement as to the extendedness
of atoms is to be found in the doxographies of Greek philos¬
ophers known to the Kalam, 474. — How Israeli s ascription
to Democritus of the statement that atoms are points is a
quotation from some doxography, 478. — Reconstruction of
that doxographic statement on the basis of certain statements
by Aristotle about Democritus, 480. — How early Muslim
students of philosophy could have gotten from that doxo¬
graphic statement the view that the Democritean atoms were
unextended, 483.
3. GREEK DESCRIPTIONS OF ATOMS AS REFLECTED
IN THE ATOMISM OF THE KALAM .... 486
Existence, position or turning, shape, order, or intercontact,
487. — Qualities, 488. — Motion, 489.—The swerve, 490.—
Apprehensibility, 491. — Homogeneity, 491. — In the com¬
position of bodies, 491. — The void, 493. — Aggregation and
segregation, 494. — Space, time, and motion, 494.
II. The Denial of Atomism and the Theories of
Latency (kwnuri) and the Leap (al-tafrah). . . 495
Nazzam s denial of atomism and affirmation of infinite divis¬
ibility of bodies, 495.—Nazzam s adoption of the Aristotelian
conception of nature as inherent in things and causing their
transition from potentiality to actuality, 497. — How he
adapted this Aristotelian conception of nature to the Koranic
doctrine of creation and how the Aristotelian potentiality
and actuality are described as hiding and appearing,
and how this view is referred to here as the theory of latency,
497. — Hayyat s account of Nazzam s theory of latency, 498.
— Ash ari s account of theories of latency ascribed to various
Mutakallimun among whom Nazzam and Mu ammar are men¬
tioned, 500. — How from these two accounts one is to infer
the existence of two theories of latency, a comprehensive
one, which is that of Nazzam, and a limited one, which is
that of all the others, including Mu ammar, 501.—Why
Mu ammar does not agree with Nazzam in his comprehensive
theory of latency, 502.—How Baghdad! suggests an Aris¬
totelian origin for Nazzam s theory of latency, 504.—Aris-
Xxii CONTENTS
totelian exponents of the theory of latency referred to as
Mulhid and Mulhidun, 505. — How Shahrastani suggests an
Aristotelian origin for Najzam s theory of latency, 507.—
Historical precedents for the use of hiding and appearing
for Aristotle s potentiality and actuality, 509. — Histor¬
ical background for Na?zam s explanation of the six days of
creation as simultaneous creation, 511. — Conclusion and re¬
statement of four other interpretations of Nazzam s theory
of latency, 511. — How Nazzam s theory of the Leap was
meant to be an answer to Zeno s first argument against
Aristotle s infinite divisibility of space, 514.—Why Nazzam
did not use Aristotle s own answer to Zeno s first argument,
516. — Comment on the theory of the Leap, 517.
CHAPTER Vn
CAUSALITY 518
I. The Denial of Causality 518
1. THE DURATION AND DESTRUCTION OF THINGS . 518
How early in the eighth century Islam, in opposition to
Christianity, denied that God acts through intermediate
causes, affirming its belief that every event in the world is
created directly by God, 518. — How Islam arrived at such
a belief, 518. — How this belief gave rise in the Kalam to
eight main views with regard to the duration and de¬
struction of things whose existence was created directly
by God, 521.—The exponents of these eight main views:
Ash arites and Ka bl, 522.—Bakillani, 526.—Kalanisi, 529.—
Abu al-Hudhayl, 530.—The School of Basra supported by
gayyat of Baghdad, 533.—The Karramiyyah, 534. — Bishr
b. al-Mu tamir, 535. — Jubbal and Ibn Shablb, 537. How
these eight views fall into three groups and how the ex¬
pression continuous creation applies to them, 543.
2. THE THEORY OF CUSTOM ( Mah) AND ITS
FORMULATION BY GHAZALI 544
How Epicureanism and the Kalam were faced by the same
problem and how they each solved that problem, 544.—The
meaning of custom in Aristotle, 545.—Ascription of the
theory of custom to the Ash arites or Ash ari, 546.—How
the theory of custom was criticized by Ibn Hazm and Abu
Rashld, 547. — How Ghazalfs formulation of the theory of
custom obviates that criticism, 548.—What Ghazali means
by his arguing in favor of the philosophers explanation of
the lunar and solar eclipses, 549.—Ghazalfs use of a syn-
contents xxiii
onym for custom and a substitute for cause and his loose
use of the term cause, 550.
3. AVERROES CRITICISM OF THE DENIAL OF CAUSAL¬
ITY AND OF THE THEORY OF CUSTOM . . -551
Averroes restatement of the Kalam s denial of causality, 551.
— His four arguments against the denial of causality, 553.—
His argument against the theory of custom, 556.
II. Affirmation of Causality 559
Maimonides reference to Mutakallimun who affirmed cau¬
sality, 559. — Mu ammar as one of them, 560.—Two ap¬
parently contradictory reports on Nazzim and showing that
he affirmed causality, 561. — The common element in Mu am-
mar s and Na?zam s views on nature and causality, 565.—
The two differences between them: the first difference,
566. — The second difference, 569. — Na?zam*s view on the
manner of nature s operation and on miracles, 569. — Mu am-
mar s view on the manner of nature s operation and on
miracles, 572. — Historical background of Mu ammar s view,
573.— Three views on causality in the Kalam, 575. — Crit¬
icism of Mu ammar by Shahrastani and Ibn Hazm, 576.
III. Impossibilities 578
Historical background, 578. — As treated by the following:
The Mu tazilites, 579.—The orthodox, 581.—The Ihwan
al-Safa , 581.—Ibn Hazm, 584. — Ghazall, 586.
IV. Repercussions in Christianity 589
1. ST. THOMAS ON THE KALAM DENIAL OF CAUSAL¬
ITY 589
The sources drawn upon by him in his restatements of the
view of the Kalam, 589.
2. NICOLAUS OF AUTRECOURT AND GHAZALf S ARGU¬
MENT AGAINST CAUSALITY 593
Nicolaus denial of causality as a reaction against Latin
Averroists, 593. — How a question has been raised as to
whether Nicolaus refutation of an argument for causality
is based upon a certain work of Ghazall, 594. — How the
question is answered, 594.
CHAPTER VIII
PREDESTINATION AND FREE WILL 601
Predestinarian and Libertarian verses in die Koran, 601
Xxiv CONTENTS
I. The Predestinarians 602
How the earliest attempt at the formulation of a doctrine
of human action was based upon the predestinarian verses,
602.—Why the predestinarian verses were preferred to the
libertarian ones, 608. — How the earliest predestinarianism
which was conceived of as compulsionism was rejected by
¦ the later Predestinarians, 612.—How Predestinarians an¬
swered two stock arguments against predestinarianism, 612.
II. The Libertarians 613
How the Libertarians, with some exceptions, agreed ¦with the
Predestinarians in denying causality in all but human actions,
and why they did so, 613.—Two arguments used for free
will and their historical backgrounds, 616. — How the term
kadariyyah came to be applied to the Libertarians, 619.—
How the term creator came to be applied by the Mu tazil-
ites to man, 620.—Differences among the Libertarians with
regard to their common belief in man s freedom to act, 622.
III. The Hatirani in the Kalam and Ghazali as Inner
Motive Powers of Human Actions .... 624
In the Koran only two external powers, God and Satan, are
referred to as motivating man to good and evil, 624. — The
appearance in tradition of another external power, a good
angel, as the opponent of Satan, 626.—The mention in a
tradition of two created motivating powers, one for good
and another for evil, without making clear whether they are
outside man or within man, 626. — Nazzam s two motive
powers within man, which in matters religious are called by
him batirani, a batir each for obedience and disobedience,
628.—Possible origins of Nazzam s batirani, 631.—Nazzam s
batirani among the Mu tazilites, 634. — His batiram among
the orthodox: Muhasibi, 630. — Ghazali, 639.
IV. Generated Effects (ah-mutawalladat) .... 644
Mu tazilite classifications of human actions, 644. — Eight
Mu tazilite views with regard to generated effects reported
in the names of the following: Bishr b. al-Mu tamir, 646.—
Abfi al-Hudhayl, 648. —Nazzam and Mu ammar, 648. — Salih
Kubbah, 649.—Thumamah and Jahiz, 649.—pirar, 652.—
These eight views fall into two main groups, differing on the
question as to whether generated effects are free acts of
man, 654. — How those Mu tazilites who do not consider
generated effects as free acts of man would justify man s
responsibility and punishability for them, 654.
CONTENTS XXV
V. The Antinomies of Free Will 655
Introductory statement, 655.
1. FREE WILL AND THE PREDESTINARIAN VERSES IN
THE KORAN 655
2. FREE WILL AND THE APPOINTED TERM (djal) . 657
3. FREE WILL AND PREORDAINED SUSTENANCE . . 660
4. FREE WILL AND GOD S FOREKNOWLEDGE . . . 660
God s foreknowledge in the Koran, 660. — Two Mu tazilite
views: (1) denial of divine foreknowledge, 661.— (2) God s
foreknowledge not causative, 662.
5. FREE WILL AND GOD S POWER: THE THEORY OF
acquisition (kasb; iktisab) 663
a. Pre-Ash arite Acquisition 663
(1) Three Theories of Acquisition — Mu tazilite view on
the relation of God s power to man s freedom, 664. — Shah-
ham s theory of acquisition, 665. — pirar s theory of acqui¬
sition, 667. — Najjar s theory of acquisition, 669. — General
characterization of these three theories, 671. — Hisham b.
al-Hakam and Ibn Kullab on acquisition, 672.
(2) Spread of Acquisition among Libertarian Groups and
Individuals — Groups, 674. — Individuals: NashI, 676. — Jub-
ba I, 679.
(3) Acquisition among the Ahl al-lthbat — How as Pre-
destinarians they followed either pirar or Najjar, 681.
b. Acquisition in Ash ari, Bakillani, and Juwayni . 684
How Ash ari s views on acquisition are in agreement with
those of Najjar, 684. — Why and how Bakillani revised the
view of Ash ari, 691. — How Juwayni rejected Bakillani s
revision and offered a solution of a difficulty in Ash ari s
view, 693. — Analysis of a report of a new moderate concep¬
tion of predestinarianism by Juwayni, 694.
c. Acquisition in Ghazall 698
His three discussions of acquisition: His first discussion
ending with his adoption of Ash ari s conception, of acqui¬
sition, 699.—His second discussion ending with the qualified
statement that acquisition could be found to be true only
from one aspect, 703. — His third discussion ending with his
identification of what the People of Truth call acquisi¬
tion with his own conception of man as the abode of
everything created in him by God, used by him as a solution
of the antinomy of God s power and man s free will, 705.
XXvi CONTENTS
d. Acquisition in Maturldl 711
Analysis of three passages reported as quotations, in trans¬
lation, from a work of Maturldl, 711. — How TaftazanFs
attribution of a theory of acquisition to the Maturidite Najm
al-Nasafl raises the question whether the attributed acquisi¬
tion is of the pirarite or the Najjarite type, 714. — How this
question is answered by showing that TaftazanTs description
of the attributed acquisition is based upon a description of
acquisition in a work by Hafiz al-Nasafl wherein it is at¬
tributed to Maturidites, 715. — How the view on acquisition
of the Maturidites as reported in Hafiz al-NasafTs work is
presented in the work of Abu Udhbah, 717.
CHAPTER IX
WHAT IS NEW IN THE KALAM 720
1. ATTRIBUTES 720
2. THE KORAN 723
3. CREATION 725
4. ATOMISM 727
5. CAUSALITY 729
6. PREDESTINATION 733
CONCLUSION 739
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 741
BIBLIOGRAPHY 743
INDEX OF REFERENCES 755
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Wolfson, Harry Austryn 1887-1974 |
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| author_role | aut |
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| author_variant | h a w ha haw |
| building | Verbundindex |
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| dewey-raw | 297/.2 |
| dewey-search | 297/.2 |
| dewey-sort | 3297 12 |
| dewey-tens | 290 - Other religions |
| discipline | Außereuropäische Sprachen und Literaturen Philosophie Literaturwissenschaft Theologie / Religionswissenschaften |
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| physical | XXVI, 779 Seiten |
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| series | Structure and Growth of Philosophic Systems from Plato to Spinoza |
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| spelling | Wolfson, Harry Austryn 1887-1974 Verfasser (DE-588)123348323 aut The philosophy of the Kalam by Harry Austryn Wolfson Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.] Harvard University Press 1976 XXVI, 779 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Structure and Growth of Philosophic Systems from Plato to Spinoza 4 Literaturverzeichnis Seiten 772 - 779 Islam - Doctrines Islamitische filosofie gtt Islam Doctrines Islamische Philosophie (DE-588)4137531-2 gnd rswk-swf Kalam (DE-588)4338653-2 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 gnd rswk-swf Islamische Theologie (DE-588)4335198-0 gnd rswk-swf Kalam (DE-588)4338653-2 s Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 s DE-604 Islamische Philosophie (DE-588)4137531-2 s Islamische Theologie (DE-588)4335198-0 s Structure and Growth of Philosophic Systems from Plato to Spinoza 4 (DE-604)BV002782690 4 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003290027&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Wolfson, Harry Austryn 1887-1974 The philosophy of the Kalam Structure and Growth of Philosophic Systems from Plato to Spinoza Islam - Doctrines Islamitische filosofie gtt Islam Doctrines Islamische Philosophie (DE-588)4137531-2 gnd Kalam (DE-588)4338653-2 gnd Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 gnd Islamische Theologie (DE-588)4335198-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4137531-2 (DE-588)4338653-2 (DE-588)4020517-4 (DE-588)4335198-0 |
| title | The philosophy of the Kalam |
| title_auth | The philosophy of the Kalam |
| title_exact_search | The philosophy of the Kalam |
| title_full | The philosophy of the Kalam by Harry Austryn Wolfson |
| title_fullStr | The philosophy of the Kalam by Harry Austryn Wolfson |
| title_full_unstemmed | The philosophy of the Kalam by Harry Austryn Wolfson |
| title_short | The philosophy of the Kalam |
| title_sort | the philosophy of the kalam |
| topic | Islam - Doctrines Islamitische filosofie gtt Islam Doctrines Islamische Philosophie (DE-588)4137531-2 gnd Kalam (DE-588)4338653-2 gnd Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 gnd Islamische Theologie (DE-588)4335198-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Islam - Doctrines Islamitische filosofie Islam Doctrines Islamische Philosophie Kalam Geschichte Islamische Theologie |
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