Geothermal energy: its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man
Saved in:
| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
London [u.a.]
Spon
1983
|
| Edition: | 2. ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXXVIII, 404 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 0419122206 |
Staff View
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Geothermal energy |b its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man |c H. Christopher H. Armstead |
| 250 | |a 2. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a London [u.a.] |b Spon |c 1983 | |
| 300 | |a XXXVIII, 404 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. | ||
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| 650 | 7 | |a ENERGY RESOURCES |2 unbist | |
| 650 | 7 | |a GEOTHERMAL ENERGY |2 unbist | |
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1804119275604017152 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
List of figures xvi
List of plates xxi
List of tables xxiii
Unit conversion table xxiv
Preface to second edition xxvii
Introduction xxix
1 Historical note 1
1.1 Applications of earth heat 1
1.1.1 Balneology 1
1.1.2 Domestic services 3
1.1.3 Mineral extraction 4
1.1.4 Electric power generation 5
1.1.5 District heating, domestic hot water supply and
air-conditioning 7
1.1.6 Farming and aquaculture 9
1.1.7 Industry 11
1.2 Scientific precursors 11
1.3 Development of the environmental conscience 12
1.4 Conclusion 13
2 The versatility of Earth heat 14
3 The structure of the Earth 20
3.1 Concentric layers of the earth 20
3.2 The crust 21
3.3 The seismic zone 22
3.4 Plate tectonics 23
3.5 Temperature gradients and heat flow 30
vu
viii Contents
4 The heat energy resources of the Earth 33
4.1 Stored heat 33
4.2 Specific crustal heat 33
4.3 The possible: problem of accessibility 34
4.4 The permissible: constraints upon crustal cooling 36
4.5 Attempted estimation of usable geothermal energy with
existing technology 37
4.5.1 World geothermal resources 38
4.5.2 National geothermal resources 39
4.6 Renewability of geothermal energy 41
4.7 Conclusion 43
5 The nature and occurrence of geothermal fields 44
5.1 The comparative rarity of geothermal fields 44
5.2 Classification of areas 44
5.3 Classification of thermal fields 45
5.4 Low-grade aquifers 46
5.5 Distribution and potential values of areas, fields and
low-grade aquifers 46
5.6 Speculation concerning the nature of geothermal fields 48
5.7 Model of a hyperthermal field 49
5.8 Model of a semithermal field 54
5.9 Actual hyperthermal fields 55
5.9.1 Wairakei 56
5.9.2 CerroPrieto 57
5.9.3 Other fields 57
5.10 Blowing of wet hyperthermal bores 57
5.11 Blowing of dry hyperthermal bores 60
5.12 The phenomenon of superheat in dry hyperthermal fields 60
5.13 Fluid losses from a field 61
5.14 Very deep, wet, hyperthermal fields 62
5.15 Blowing semithermal bores 62
5.16 Geopressurized fields 62
5.17 Reservoir capacity 63
5.18 Bore yield decline 66
6 Exploration 68
6.1 General 68
6.2 The aims of exploration 68
6.3 Likely locations of geothermal fields 69
6.4 Analysis of records 70
6.5 The function of the geologist 70
6.6 The function of the hydrogeologist 71
Contents ix
6.7 The function of the geophysicist 72
6.8 The function of the geochemist 75
6.9 Exploratory drilling 76
6.10 The value of preliminary work 77
6.11 The extent of worldwide geothermal exploration by late 1980 78
7 Drilling 80
7.1 General 80
7.2 Cellars 80
7.3 Optimum bore diameter 81
7.4 Rotary drilling 82
7.5 Casings 85
7.6 Cementing 88
7.7 Blow-out prevention 88
7.8 Coring 88
7.9 Drilling times, penetration rates and bit life 88
7.10 Corrosion and erosion 89
7.11 Maintenance or enhancement of output 90
7.12 Directional drilling 91
7.13 Mishaps 92
7.14 Wellspacing 94
7.15 Maximum economic depths for conventional drilling 95
7.16 Turbo-drilling 96
7.17 Improvements in conventional drilling techniques 97
8 Bore characteristics and their measurement 101
8.1 General 101
8.2 Wet hyperthermal fields 101
8.3 Dry hyperthermal fields 106
8.4 Hot water fields and low-grade aquifers 107
8.5 Measurements 107
8.5.1 Calorimetry 108
8.5.2 Sampler measurement 109
8.5.3 Phase separation and the measurement of each
phase separately 109
8.5.4 Critical lip pressure method 110
8.5.5 Method of cones 112
8.5.6 Beta-rays and isotopes 114
8.6 Heat capacity of a bore 115
8.7 Power capacity of a bore 116
8.8 Economic optimum wellhead pressure for power production 121
8.9 Open discharge pipes 121
8.10 Fluid velocities at wellheads 124
x Contents
9 Fluid collection and transmission 127
9.1 Wellhead gear 127
9.2 Wellhead valving 129
9.3 Separators 130
9.4 Hot water discharge 133
9.5 Silencers 135
9.6 Safety devices 140
9.7 Steam branch pipes 141
9.8 Steam mains 141
9.8.1 Zig-zagging or lyre bends 141
9.8.2 Axial bellows pieces 141
9.8.3 Hinged bellows pieces 142
9.8.4 Articulated bellows pieces 142
9.8.5 Slip joints 142
9.9 Hot water transmission 145
9.10 Thermal lagging, condensation in steam pipes and heat losses 150
9.11 Pressurized water transmission 153
9.11.1 Line shaft pump 154
9.11.2 Down-hole turbine pump 156
9.11.3 Down-hole electric pump 156
9.12 Two-phase fluid transmission 157
9.13 Pressure drops in steam pipes 160
9.14 Limiting fluid transmission velocities 161
10 Electric power generation from geothermal energy 162
10.1 Evolution and situation at the end of 1980 162
10.2 Cycles 166
10.2.1 Indirect condensing cycle 166
10.2.2 Direct non-condensing cycle 168
10.2.3 Straight condensing cycle 168
10.2.4 Single flash cycle 168
10.2.5 Double flash cycle 169
10.2.6 Binary fluid cycle 169
10.2.7 Hot water sub-atmospheric cycle 172
10.2.8 The hybrid cycle 173
10.3 Power potential of geothermal fluids 173
10.4 Efficiencies of geothermal power plants 176
10.5 Use of hot water: general 179
10.6 Flashing 181
10.7 Flash steam scrubbing 184
10.8 Condensers and vacuum 186
10.9 Fuelled superheating 191
10.10 General points of geothermal turbine design 192
10.11 Geothermal power plant maintenance 195
Contents xi
10.12 Extraction of power from geothermal brines 195
10.13 Extraction of power from geopressurized fields 1%
10.14 Special geothermal power generators 197
10.14.1 The Sprankle HPC (Hydrothermal Power
Company) prime mover 197
10.14.2 The Robertson engine 197
10.14.3 The bladeless turbine 200
10.14.4 The KROV (Keller Rotor Oscillating Vane)
machine 201
10.14.5 The Armstead-Hero turbine 201
10.14.6 The gravimetric loop machine 202
10.14.7 EGD (Electro-gas-dynamics) 203
10.14.8 The total flow impulse turbine 205
10.14.9 The biphase turbine 205
10.15 The total flow concept: general 206
10.16 The contribution of geothermal power to a composite system 208
10.17 By-product hydro-power 210
10.18 What is a viable geothermal power field? 213
10.19 Photographs and descriptions of existing geothermal
power plants 213
11 Direct applications of Earth heat 223
11.1 General 223
11.2 Geothermal space-heating, domestic hot water supplies
and air-conditioning 229
11.2.1 Approximate situation in 1980 229
11.2.2 Iceland 230
11.2.3 USSR 231
11.2.4 Hungary 231
11.2.5 France 232
11.2.6 USA 232
11.2.7 Other countries 233
11.2.8 Temperatures 234
11.2.9 Duration curve 234
11.2.10 Peak heating 235
11.2.11 Domestic central heating 236
11.2.12 Domestic hot water 236
11.2.13 Heat transmission 236
11.2.14 Metering 238
11.2.15 Environmental advantages of geothermal heating 238
11.2.16 Air-conditioning 238
11.2.17 Combined heating and cooling systems 239
11.2.18 Sundry points relating to space-heating and cooling 239
11.2.19 Conclusion 240
xii Contents
11.3 Farming, including agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture,
animal husbandry, etc. 240
11.3.1 General comments 240
11.3.2 Geothermal greenhouse heating 241
11.3.3 Soil heating and cooling 242
11.3.4 Nursery gardens and botanical gardens 243
11.3.5 Soil sterilization 243
11.3.6 Crop drying 243
11.3.7 Animal husbandry 243
11.3.8 Fish breeding 243
11.4 Industry 244
11.4.1 General comments 244
11.4.2 The chemical industry 245
11.4.3 Mining and upgrading of minerals 246
11.4.4 Food processing 247
11.4.5 Various industries 248
11.5 Miscellaneous 249
11.5.1 Distillation 249
11.5.2 Balneology and crenotherapy 251
11.5.3 Zoology 251
11.5.4 Bottled mineral waters 251
11.5.5 Cooking 251
11.5.6 The prevention of freezing of public water supplies
and of fire-fighting water, and the melting of snow on roads
in winter 252
11.5.7 Scenic attractions 252
12 Dual and multi-purpose projects 253
12.1 Scope for dual or multi-purpose projects 253
12.2 Present examples 254
12.3 Planned and discussed examples 256
12.4 The problem of demand balancing 257
13 The control and safety of geothermal installations 259
13.1 Control: general 259
13.2 Steam control 259
13.2.1 Steam quantity primarily assured 260
13.2.2 Constancy of steam pressure primarily assured 263
13.2.3 Economic flow balance assured 264
13.3 Hot water control 265
13.4 Safety precautions: general 268
13.4.1 Pressure and vacuum limitation 268
13.4.2 Water entrainment 269
Contents xiii
13.4.3 Gas detection 269
13.4.4 Overspeeding 270
13.4.5 Standby corrosion 270
13.4.6 Load limiting in cold weather 270
13.5 Monitoring 270
13.6 Maintenance 272
13.7 Manpower, automation and decentralization 272
13.8 Annual plant factor 274
14 Some economic considerations 276
14.1 General 276
14.2 Unpredictability of geothermal costs 276
14.3 Geothermal cost experience until 1973 277
14.4 Effects of inflation 278
14.5 The nature of geothermal costs 280
14.6 The relative economics of using condensing and non-
condensing turbines 281
14.7 The economics of geothermal pilot plants 283
14.8 The economics of geothermal power for contributing to
peak loads 284
14.9 Scale effect 284
14.10 Drilling costs 286
14.11 Actual geothermal power costs 295
14.11.1 The steam purchase agreements of California 295
14.11.2 Californian power costs 297
14.11.3 New Zealand power costs 300
14.11.4 Mexican power costs 301
14.11.5 Italian power costs 301
14.11.6 Icelandic power costs 302
14.11.7 USSR power costs 302
14.11.8 Japanese power costs 303
14.12 Actual geothermal heat costs 304
14.13 Scope for cost improvements 307
14.13.1 Exploration costs 308
14.13.2 Two-phase fluid transmission and submersible
pumps 308
14.13.3 Binary fluids 308
14.13.4 Dual and multi-purpose plants 308
14.13.5 By-product hydro-power from wet fields 308
14.13.6 Novel drilling methods 309
14.13.7 Heat pumps 309
14.13.8 Excess geothermal power capacity 310
Contents xv
17 Miscellaneous points 338
17.1 Systematic approach 338
17.2 Legal questions 340
17.3 Training 340
17.4 Publication of data 341
17.5 Field management 343
17.6 Geothermal energy prospects in countries lying outside the
seismic belt 344
17.7 Geothermal developments in Europe 345
18 The future 347
18.1 The broadening horizon 347
18.2 The search for more natural fields and low-grade aquifers 348
18.3 Rock-fracturing 349
18.3.1 Underground nuclear explosions 350
18.3.2 Hydro-fracturing 351
18.3.3 Three-dimensional fracturing 355
18.4 Improved penetration methods 358
18.5 Direct tapping of magma 361
18.6 The ultimate goal: universal heat mining 362
19 Epilogue: the frame of the geothermal picture 364
19.1 Rationale 364
19.2 Energy hunger 364
19.3 The need for timely action 367
19.4 Curtailment of growth 369
19.5 Development of new energy sources and alternatives to
fossil fuels 369
19.5.1 Hydro-power 370
19.5.2 Other renewable energy sources 370
19.5.3 Nuclear fission 371
19.5.4 Nuclear fusion 371
19.5.5 Geothermal energy 371
19.6 Mutual inter-dependence of growth curtailment and the
development of new energy sources 371
19.7 World energy: the probable shape of things to come 373
References 377
Index 389
xiv Contents
14.14 Further economic points 310
14.14.1 Importance of location 310
14.14.2 Value versus cost 311
14.14.3 Diminishing returns 311
15 Chemical and metallurgical problems 312
15.1 Chemical and physical composition of geothermal fluids 312
15.2 Dangers of chemical action on plant components and on
the environment 313
15.3 Chemical deposition 313
15.3.1 Calcite deposits in wet bores 313
15.3.2 Silica deposits from wet bores 314
15.3.3 Turbine blade deposits 314
15.3.4 Iron sulphide deposits and steam pipe corrosion 315
15.4 Corrosion and stress-corrosion 315
15.5 Turbine materials 316
15.6 Condenser and gas extraction equipment 316
15.7 Expansion bellows pieces 316
15.8 Standby corrosion 318
15.9 Chemical attack on equipment from polluted atmosphere 318
15.10 Sulphate attack on cooling towers 319
15.11 Conclusion 319
16 Environmental problems 320
16.1 Pollutive masochism 320
16.2 How can geothermal development help solve the problem
of pollution? 321
16.3 The American anti-pollution laws and the cost of their too-
rapid enforcement 322
16.4 Reinjection 323
16.5 Hydrogen sulphide 326
16.6 Carbon dioxide 329
16.7 Land erosion 330
16.8 Water-borne poisons 330
16.9 Air-borne poisons 330
16.10 Noise 331
16.11 Heat pollution 331
16.12 Silica 333
16.13 Subsidence 333
16.14 Seismicity 334
16.15 Escaping steam 334
16.16 Scenery spoliation 335
16.17 Ecology 336
18.18 Conclusion 337
Contents xv
17 Miscellaneous points 338
17.1 Systematic approach 338
17.2 Legal questions 340
17.3 Training 340
17.4 Publication of data 341
17.5 Field management 343
17.6 Geothermal energy prospects in countries lying outside the
seismic belt 344
17.7 Geothermal developments in Europe 345
18 The future 347
18.1 The broadening horizon 347
18.2 The search for more natural fields and low-grade aquifers 348
18.3 Rock-fracturing 349
18.3.1 Underground nuclear explosions 350
18.3.2 Hydro-fracturing 351
18.3.3 Three-dimensional fracturing 355
18.4 Improved penetration methods 358
18.5 Direct tapping of magma 361
18.6 The ultimate goal: universal heat mining 362
19 Epilogue: the frame of the geothermal picture 364
19.1 Rationale 364
19.2 Energy hunger 364
19.3 The need for timely action 367
19.4 Curtailment of growth 369
19.5 Development of new energy sources and alternatives to
fossil fuels 369
19.5.1 Hydro-power 370
19.5.2 Other renewable energy sources 370
19.5.3 Nuclear fission 371
19.5.4 Nuclear fusion 371
19.5.5 Geothermal energy 371
19.6 Mutual inter-dependence of growth curtailment and the
development of new energy sources 371
19.7 World energy: the probable shape of things to come 373
References 377
Index 389
|
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| dewey-sort | 3621.44 |
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| discipline | Energietechnik Wirtschaftswissenschaften Geographie |
| edition | 2. ed. |
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| id | DE-604.BV005138784 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T16:23:36Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0419122206 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-003163896 |
| oclc_num | 9195657 |
| open_access_boolean | |
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| owner_facet | DE-473 DE-BY-UBG DE-824 DE-83 |
| physical | XXXVIII, 404 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| psigel | TUB-nveb |
| publishDate | 1983 |
| publishDateSearch | 1983 |
| publishDateSort | 1983 |
| publisher | Spon |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Armstead, Hugh Christopher H. 1903- Verfasser (DE-588)128101113 aut Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man H. Christopher H. Armstead 2. ed. London [u.a.] Spon 1983 XXXVIII, 404 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier ENERGY RESOURCES unbist GEOTHERMAL ENERGY unbist Geothermal engineering Geothermal resources Geothermik (DE-588)4020285-9 gnd rswk-swf Energieerzeugung (DE-588)4070813-5 gnd rswk-swf Geothermische Energie (DE-588)4020286-0 gnd rswk-swf Energieerzeugung (DE-588)4070813-5 s Geothermik (DE-588)4020285-9 s DE-604 Geothermische Energie (DE-588)4020286-0 s 1\p DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003163896&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Armstead, Hugh Christopher H. 1903- Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man ENERGY RESOURCES unbist GEOTHERMAL ENERGY unbist Geothermal engineering Geothermal resources Geothermik (DE-588)4020285-9 gnd Energieerzeugung (DE-588)4070813-5 gnd Geothermische Energie (DE-588)4020286-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4020285-9 (DE-588)4070813-5 (DE-588)4020286-0 |
| title | Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man |
| title_auth | Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man |
| title_exact_search | Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man |
| title_full | Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man H. Christopher H. Armstead |
| title_fullStr | Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man H. Christopher H. Armstead |
| title_full_unstemmed | Geothermal energy its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man H. Christopher H. Armstead |
| title_short | Geothermal energy |
| title_sort | geothermal energy its past present and future contributions to the energy needs of man |
| title_sub | its past, present and future contributions to the energy needs of man |
| topic | ENERGY RESOURCES unbist GEOTHERMAL ENERGY unbist Geothermal engineering Geothermal resources Geothermik (DE-588)4020285-9 gnd Energieerzeugung (DE-588)4070813-5 gnd Geothermische Energie (DE-588)4020286-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | ENERGY RESOURCES GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Geothermal engineering Geothermal resources Geothermik Energieerzeugung Geothermische Energie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003163896&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT armsteadhughchristopherh geothermalenergyitspastpresentandfuturecontributionstotheenergyneedsofman |