Research methods and analysis: Searching for relationships
Saved in:
| Main Authors: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New York u.a.
Harper & Row
1978
|
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXI, 516 S. graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0060468793 |
Staff View
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Record in the Search Index
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|---|---|
| adam_text | PREFACE xix
PARTI INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1
THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING 3
Objectives 4
Glossary 5
1. Introduction 5
2. Ways of Knowing 8
Revelation 8
Authority 9
Intuition 10
Everyday experience —common sense 10
Science 11
3. The Meaning of Cause and Effect 13
Time order 15
Mutual patterned change (association) 16
No other plausible explanation 16
Belief in a true link 11
A final note on causation 17
4. The Tentative Nature of Science 18
Unseens and unknowns 18
Representativeness of observations 19
Distorted observations 19
Ambiguity of data analysis 20
5. The Plan of the Book 20
6. Summary 21
Exercises 22
Project 23
References 24
CHAPTER 2
SEEING OUR ENVIRONMENT WITH CONCEPTS AND VARIARLES 25
Objectives 26
Glossary 27
1. Introduction 28
2. The Conceptualization Process 30
3. The Defining Process 31
4. From Definition to Measurement and Back Again 34
5. Scales and Indexes 37
6. General Ideas of Validity and Reliability 39
7. The Nature of Categories and Intervals 40
viii
8. Summary 47
Exercises 49
Project 51
References 52
PART II WHAT ARE WE SEARCHING FOR? 53
CHAPTER 3
RELATIONSHIPS 55
Objectives 56
Glossary 57
1. Viewing Systems of Variables 57
2. The Role of Relationships in Causation 60
3. Finding Patterned, Mutual Change —The Scatterplot 61
4. Moving from Observations to Scatterplots 67
5. Nongraphic Ways to Determine Relationships 77
6. Theory, Propositions, and Hypotheses in Research 78
7. Summary 79
Exercises 80
Project 82
References 82
CHAPTER 4
DETECTING RELATIONSHIPS WITH PERCENTAGES 83
Objectives 84
Glossary 85
1. Introduction 85
2. Reviewing the Types of Relationships and Change 86
3. Percentage Tables as Estimates of Scatterplots 87
4. Showing Change in the Independent Variable 90
Surveys 91
Cross-sectional surveys 91
Longitudinal panel surveys 92
Cumulative surveys 92
Experiments 93
Classical (simple) design 94
Multiple-X design 95
Summary for showing change in the independent variable 95
5. Showing Change in the Dependent Variable 95
Constructing simple frequency distributions 96
Constructing simple percentage distributions 98
Using percentages for cross-tabular analysis 101
Summary for the dependent variable 104
6. Putting It Together: Percentage Tables 105
7. Viewing Bivariate Relationships with Percentages 108
ix
The form of a relationship 108
Extent and precision (strength) of a relationship 112
Estimating scatterplots and Reading the Numbers 113
8. Special Note on Nominal Level Variables 117
9. A Final Caution 120
The importance of labeling 120
Cutting points 120
Direction of percentaging 121
10. Summary 121
Exercises 122
Project 125
PART III BEGINNING THE SEARCH FOR RELATIONSHIPS 127
CHAPTER 5
THE FIRST STEP IN EXPLORING A RELATIONSHIP 129
Objectives 130
Glossary 131
1. Introduction 131
2. What Are We Looking For? 132
Research traditions 132
Theoretical development 132
Source of hypotheses 133
Definitions 133
Specific findings 133
Paraphrases 134
Quotations 134
3. Why Do We Want Them? 134
4. Where Do We Look? 136
The library 136
Periodicals 137
Books in print 142
Documents 142
Information systems 143
Computer services 143
Personal contacts 144
Commercial Enterprises 145
5. How Do We Go About It? 145
Constructing key word lists 145
Follow-up on citations in previous works 147
Form of citations when writing 147
6. Summary 148
Exercises 149
X
Project 149
References 150
CHAPTER 6
THE ETHICS OF RESEARCH ON HUMAN SUBJECTS 151
Objectives 152
Glossary 153
1. The Importance of Ethics in Research on Human Subjects 152
2. The Basic Dilemma 153
3. The Subject as a Person 155
The right of self-determination 156
Voluntarism 156
Informed consent 157
Equal Opportunity 158
Delivery of promises 160
Maintaining self-respect 161
Protecting privacy 162
4. Ethical No-No s 163
Fabrication of data 164
Plagiarism 164
Exploitation of assistants and/or subjects 164
5. Ethical Guidelines 165
6. Summary 165
Exercises 166
Project 167
References 167
CHAPTER 7
ORGANIZING AND SUMMARIZING OUR OBSERVATIONS 169
Objectives 170
Glossary 171
1. Introduction 172
2. Cumulative Frequency and Percentage Distributions 172
3. Grouped Data 174
4. Graphic Presentations 175
5. Central Tendency and Dispersion 181
General definitions 182
Calculations for simple data 184
The mode 184
The mean 184
The median 186
The range 187
Mean deviation 187
Standard deviation 189
Calculations for grouped data 190
The mode 190
The mean 190
xi
The median 191
The range 192
Mean deviation 192
Standard deviation 193
Problems of interpretation 193
6. Using Statistics to Estimate Scatterplots 196
7. Summary 197
Exercises 198
Project 203
References 203
CHAPTER 8
COMPUTER USE 205
Objectives 206
Glossary 207
1. The Mystery Machine 207
2. The Role of the Computer User 208
Machines and devices at your disposal 209
What the user must be able to do 209
The keypunch (cardpunch) machine 213
The teletype 215
3. The Programmer and Programs 217
4. Bits and Pieces 218
Card layout 218
Writing variable format statements 220
Use of tapes 221
5. Can We Trust the Computer? 221
6. Summary 222
Exercises 222
Project 223
References 223
PART IV MAKING OBSERVATIONS AND COMING TO
CONCLUSIONS 225
CHAPTER 9
THE GRAND MASTER: THE EXPERIMENT 227
Observations 228
Glossary 229
1. Introduction 231
2. The Classical Experiment 232
3. Equivalency of Experimental Groups 236
4. The Common Sense Experiment 239
xii
5. The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design 240
6. The Simple Survey or Static-Group Comparison 240
7. The One-Shot Case Study 241
8. Sources of Confounding Influences 242
Differences in subject characteristics 243
Environmental changes 243
Maturation 244
Testing 244
Instrument Decay 245
Subject mortality 245
Unreliable measures of extreme groups 246
Reactivity 247
Experimenter bias 247
9. Generalization 247
Subjects 249
Setting 249
Manipulations and measures 250
Timing of events 254
Unique circumstances 255
10. Experiments: A Brief Assessment 255
11. Summary 256
Exercises 257
Project 258
References 259
CHAPTER 10
THE OMNIPRESENT SURVEY 261
Objectives 262
Glossary 263
1. Survey Design 265
Beginning the survey 265
Review of published material 266
Selecting variables and stating hypotheses 266
Developing indicators 267
Pilot studies 267
Specification of the research population 268
Sampling 268
Gaining access to subjects 269
Financing surveys 270
Data collection 271
Data reduction 271
Data analysis 272
Dissemination of findings 273
2. Question Construction 274
Word meaning 274
Double-barreled questions 275
xiii
Double negative questions 276
Prestige bias (socially acceptable response) 276
Leading questions 277
Emotionally loaded questions 278
Embarrassing questions 278
Assuming prior knowledge 279
Use of jargon or slang 279
3. Responses for Fixed Alternative Questions 280
Mutually inclusive (exhaustive) categories 280
Mutually exclusive categories 280
Residual categories 281
Balanced responses 282
Special exceptions 282
4. The Mailed Questionnaire 283
Questionnaire construction 283
Follow-ups 284
Inducements 285
5. Face-to-Face Interviews 286
Interview structure 287
6. Comparing Mailed Questionnaires with Interviews 289
7. Summary 290
Exercises 291
Project 293
References 294
CHAPTER 11
MEASURING AND ACCOUNTING FOR OTHER VARIABLES 295
Objectives 296
Glossary 297
1. Introduction 297
2. What it Means to Control for a Variable 299
3. Exploring Three Variable Models with Scatterplots 303
Spurious model 304
Intervening model 306
Complicated model 307
Joint-effects model 310
No-effect model 310
4. Analyzing Three Variable Models with Percentages 313
5. Conclusions 317
6. Summary 319
Exercises 321
Project 327
References 327
xiv
CHAPTER 12
OTHER RESEARCH DESIGNS 329
Objectives 330
Glossary 331
1. Leftovers or Golden Opportunities? 332
2. Participant Observation / Field Research 333
What is participant observation? 333
Why participant observation? 334
Exploration 334
Access to subjects 335
Richness of data 336
How to do participant observation 337
Problem selection 337
Choice of setting 338
Establishing social relationships 339
Finding informants 340
Establishing rapport 341
Rapport in complete and disguised observation 341
After the study 342
Recording of data 342
Summary of participant observation 343
3. Content Analysis 343
What is content analysis? 343
What are its various uses? 344
Cultural comparisons 344
Meanings and intentions 345
Indirect measurement of character and personality 345
Social trends 346
How is content analysis done? 347
Selecting a sample 347
Coding of material 347
The need for comparisons 348
Advantages and disadvantages of content analysis 349
Are the mass media a cause or an effect? 349
4. Simulation 350
The crucial aspect of simulation —the model 351
Some uses of simulation 352
Prediction 352
Planning 352
Quasi-research purposes 353
5. Evaluation Research 354
Formative versus summative evaluation 355
Experimental design and evaluation 357
The uses of evaluation 359
6. Unobtrusive Measures 360
The problem of reactivity 360
Major types of unobtrusive measures 361
XV
The future of unobtrusive research 362
A note about census data and secondary analysis 363
7. Conclusions 364
8. Summary 365
Exercises 365
Project 367
References 368
CHAPTER 13
MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION 371
Objectives 372
Glossary 373
1. The Basic Idea of Association 374
2. The Logic of Proportional Reduction of Error 374
3. Computation of Lambda 376
Determining original error 376
Determining new error 377
Comparing original error to new error 378
Characteristics of lambda 379
4. Computation of Correlation and Coefficient of Determination 383
Determining original error 384
Determining new error 385
Comparing original error to new error 386
Characteristics of r and r2 387
5. Association as Explained Variance 389
6. Multivariate Analysis with Measures of Association 390
Controlling by partitioning 390
Controlling by partial measures of association 391
The simultaneous examination of multivariate models 392
Multiple regression analysis 392
Path analysis 393
7. Summary 394
Exercises 395
Project 396
References 396
PARTV QUESTIONING OUR CONCLUSIONS 397
CHAPTER 14
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 399
Objectives 400
Glossary 401
xvi
1. Introduction 402
2. Reliability 403
Stability reliability 403
Equivalence reliability 404
What produces unreliability? 406
3. Validity 407
Face validity 408
Content validity 410
Criterion validity 411
Concurrent validity 411
Predictive validity 413
Construct validity 414
Showing the interrelationship of indicators 415
Showing relationships to hypothesized variables 416
Showing the lack of inappropriate relationships 417
4. Conclusions 417
5. Summary 418
Exercises 419
Project 420
References 421
CHAPTER 15
SAMPLING 423
Objectives 424
Glossary 425
1. The General Problem of Sampling 426
2. How to Generalize 430
3. Sampling for Surveys 433
Simple random samples 433
Systematic samples 435
Stratified samples 436
Cluster samples 436
Purposive samples 437
Quota samples 437
Availability samples 437
4. Sampling and Other Research Designs 438
Experiments 438
Unobtrusive studies 438
Participant observation 438
Simulation 439
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Samples 439
6. Summary 441
Exercises 442
Project 442
References 443
xvii
CHAPTER 16
FORMAL TESTS OF THE EXISTENCE OF A RELATIONSHIP 445
Objectives 446
Glossary 447
1. Testing for the Existence of a Relationship 448
2. Review of Sampling Distributions 448
3. The Decisions of Statistical Inference 452
4. Tests when Using Percentage Analysis 457
Defining the comparison population 458
Chi square: A calculation of difference 459
Understanding and using a Chi-square table 460
Making the comparison 461
The decision of inference 461
One-tailed and two-tailed tests 464
Terminology 464
5. Tests When Using Measures of Association 465
6. Levels of Significance: Useful or Meaningless 466
7. Summary 467
Exercises 468
Project 470
References 470
PART VI FINISHING TOUCHES 471
CHAPTER 17
READING AND EVALUATING RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS 473
Objectives 474
Glossary 475
1. Evaluating Research Publications 475
2. Procedures for Critiquing a Research Article 479
3. Illustration of Writing a Critique 480
Sample article 480
Notes on sample article 492
Outline for sample critique 494
Sample critique 498
4. A Note on Style 500
5. Summary 500
Exercises 501
Project 501
References 501
CHAPTER 18
THE NEVER-ENDING PROCESS 503
xviii
Objectives 504
Glossary 505
1. What s It All About? 505
2. Luck, Imagination, and Hard Work 508
INDEX 511
|
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| id | DE-604.BV001990514 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T15:38:29Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0060468793 |
| language | English |
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| spelling | Walizer, Michael H. Verfasser aut Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships Michael H. Walizer ; Paul L. Wienir* New York u.a. Harper & Row 1978 XXI, 516 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Metodologia da pesquisa larpcal Pesquisa (métodos estatísticos) larpcal Recherche - Méthodes statistiques Recherche - Méthodologie Statistik Research Statistics Research Methodology Research Statistical methods Research methods Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd rswk-swf Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 s DE-604 Wienir, Paul L. Verfasser aut HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=001298303&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Walizer, Michael H. Wienir, Paul L. Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships Metodologia da pesquisa larpcal Pesquisa (métodos estatísticos) larpcal Recherche - Méthodes statistiques Recherche - Méthodologie Statistik Research Statistics Research Methodology Research Statistical methods Research methods Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4155046-8 |
| title | Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships |
| title_auth | Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships |
| title_exact_search | Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships |
| title_full | Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships Michael H. Walizer ; Paul L. Wienir* |
| title_fullStr | Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships Michael H. Walizer ; Paul L. Wienir* |
| title_full_unstemmed | Research methods and analysis Searching for relationships Michael H. Walizer ; Paul L. Wienir* |
| title_short | Research methods and analysis |
| title_sort | research methods and analysis searching for relationships |
| title_sub | Searching for relationships |
| topic | Metodologia da pesquisa larpcal Pesquisa (métodos estatísticos) larpcal Recherche - Méthodes statistiques Recherche - Méthodologie Statistik Research Statistics Research Methodology Research Statistical methods Research methods Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Metodologia da pesquisa Pesquisa (métodos estatísticos) Recherche - Méthodes statistiques Recherche - Méthodologie Statistik Research Statistics Research Methodology Research Statistical methods Research methods Forschungsmethode |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=001298303&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT walizermichaelh researchmethodsandanalysissearchingforrelationships AT wienirpaull researchmethodsandanalysissearchingforrelationships |