Steel

Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels, which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation, typically are 18% chromium.
Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations.
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.
Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel. This was followed by the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th century, and then by the open-hearth furnace. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought iron. The German states were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centred in Pittsburgh; Bethlehem, Pennsylvania; and Cleveland until the late 20th century. Currently, world steel production is centered in China, which produced 54% of the world's steel in 2023.
Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and greenhouse gas emission intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally. Provided by Wikipedia
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Plants matter : exploring the becomings of plants and people /
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Developing teachers' assessment literacy : a tapestry of ideas and inquiries / by Koh, Kim Hong, 1969-, DePass, Cecille, Steel, Sean, 1972-
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Colonialism and male domestic service across the Asia Pacific / by Martínez, Julia, Lowrie, Claire, Steel, Frances, Haskins, Victoria K. (Victoria Katharine), 1967-
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Developing teachers' assessment literacy : a tapestry of ideas and inquiries / by Koh, Kim Hong, 1969-, DePass, Cecille, Steel, Sean, 1972-
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When ideology trumps science : why we question the experts on everything from climate change to vaccinations / by Wolters, Erika Allen, Steel, Brent
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The sacred body : materializing the divine through human remains in antiquity /
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The core model iterability problem / by Steel, J. R. (John R.), 1948-
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Fine structure and iteration trees / by Mitchell, William J., Steel, J. R. (John R.), 1948-
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Philosophy and the precautionary principle : science, evidence, and environmental policy / by Steel, Daniel, 1970-
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Proof of causation in tort law / by Steel, Sandy
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Philosophy and the precautionary principle : science, evidence, and environmental policy / by Steel, Daniel, 1970-
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The pursuit of wisdom in education / by Steel, Sean, 1972-
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The pursuit of wisdom in education / by Steel, Sean, 1972-
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The end of the Roman Republic 146 to 44 BC : conquest and crisis / by Steel, C. E. W.
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Gone with the glory : the Civil War in cinema / by Wills, Brian Steel, 1959-
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Changing politics in Japan / by Kabashima, Ikuo, 1947-, Steel, Gill, 1965-
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The life of Buddha and its lessons / by Olcott, Henry Steel, 1832-1907
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The Buddhist catechism / by Olcott, Henry Steel, 1832-1907
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Cicero, rhetoric, and empire / by Steel, C. E. W.
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Behaviour of steel structures in seismic areas : selected, peer reviewed papers from the 9th International Conference on the Behavior of Steel Structures in Seismic Areas (STESSA 2...
Published 2018“…Conference on Behaviour of Steel Structures in Seismic Areas Christchurch, N.Z.…”
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