Plant biology:
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Upper Saddle River, NJ
Prentice Hall
2006
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| Ausgabe: | 2. edition |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | xxix, 670 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme |
| ISBN: | 0131469061 |
Internformat
MARC
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Plant biology |c Linda E. Graham ; James M. Graham ; Lee W. Wilcox |
| 250 | |a 2. edition | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Upper Saddle River, NJ |b Prentice Hall |c 2006 | |
| 264 | 4 | |c © 2006 | |
| 300 | |a xxix, 670 Seiten |b Illustrationen, Diagramme | ||
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| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 7 | |a botany |2 cabt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a plant anatomy |2 cabt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a plant ecology |2 cabt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a plant morphology |2 cabt | |
| 650 | 7 | |a plant physiology |2 cabt | |
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| 700 | 1 | |a Wilcox, Lee W. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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Brief Contents
Introduction
1 Introduction to Plant Biology 2
2 Plants and People 18
'f'APl St Plant Structure and Function
3 Molecules of Life 32
4 Cells 58
5 Photosynthesis and Respiration 80
6 DNAandRNA 104
7 Cell Division 120
8 Plant Structure, Growth, and Development 134
9 Stems and Materials Transport 150
10 Roots and Plant Nutrition 170
11 Leaves: Photosynthesis and Transpiration 190
12 Plant Behavior 210
Plant Reproduction, Genetics, and Evolution
13 Reproduction, Meiosis, and Life Cycles 226
14 Genetics and the Laws of Inheritance 244
15 Genetic Engineering 264
16 Biological Evolution 278
, , * Diversity of Plants, Prokaryotes, Protists, and Fungi
17 Naming and Organizing Plants and Microbes 298
18 Prokaryotes and the Origin of Life on Earth 314
19 Protists and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 334
20 Fungi and Lichens 358
21 Seedless Plants 376
22 Gymnosperms, the First Seed Plants 400
23 Angiosperm Diversity and Reproduction 418
24 Flowering Plant and Animal Coevolution 440
Ecology and Plant Adaptations to the Environment
25 Principles of Ecology and the Biosphere 460
26 Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems 482
27 Moist Terrestrial Ecosystems 512
28 Aquatic Ecosystems 544
29 Human Impacts and Sustainability 572
Contents
Preface xxvii
f Introduction
1 Introduction to Plant Biology 2
1.1 What are plants? 4
1.2 Bacteria, fungi, and algae are important
to plant life 5
1.3 Plants and other organisms have scientific
names 7
1.4 Scientific methods are used to learn about nature 8
Science has an error correction capacity 9
The process of science may be inductive or deductive 10
1.5 Plants and associated organisms play essential roles
in maintaining Earth's environment 10
Plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria help maintain Earth's
atmospheric chemistry and climate 10
Plants benefit from close associations with other
organisms 11
Food webs 7 7
Beneficial symbioses 7 7
Coevolution 74
1.6 Plants, protists, fungi, and bacteria are important in
human affairs 15
ESSAY 1.1 Devilish Dodder 4
ESSAY 1.2 Global Warming: Too Much of a Good Thing 12
I highlight1' Id Review Questions 1~ Applying Concepts I"7
X
Zi Plants and People 18
2.1 Ethnobotany and economic botany focus on human
uses of plants 20
2.2 The origin of agriculture was key to development
of civilizations 20
How can we know something about the origins
of agriculture? 20
When and why did agriculture originate? 22
Where were plants first domesticated? 22
Ecological adaptations are responsible for the useful
features of cereals and legumes 23
How were cereals and legumes domesticated? 25
2.3 Food plant genetic resources and traditional
agricultural knowledge need to be preserved 26
2.4 Natural plant products are useful to humans as
medicine and in other ways 29
Plants are sources of medicine and dietary
supplements 29
Plants are sources of psychoactive drugs 29
ESSAY 2.1 Ethnobotany: Seeds of Culture 21
ESSAY 2.2 Chocolate: It Does a Body—and the Ecosystem
Good! 28
Highlights 31 Review Questions 31 Applying Concepts 31
PA9T 11 Plant Structure and Function
3 Molecules of Life 32
3.1 All physical matter is made up of elements composed
of distinct atoms 34
Plants contain and require more of some elements than
others 34
Atoms are made up of three subatomic particles: protons,
neutrons, and electrons 34
Every element has an atomic number and a mass
number 35
3.2 Several types of bonds link atoms to form
molecules 36
Ionic bonds form when atoms gain or lose electrons 36
Acids and bases contain ionic bonds 36
In covalent bonds, two or more atoms share electrons 37
Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between
molecules 37
3.3 Water has unique properties because it forms
hydrogen bonds 38
3.4 Four types of primary compounds are the molecules
of life 38
Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose 39
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids 41
Proteins are large molecules composed of amino acids 43
Storage proteins are important in human nutrition 46
Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts 47
Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are composed
of nucleotides 49
3.5 Plants produce a wide range of secondary
compounds 52
Terpenes and terpenoids repel insects 52
Phenolics have antiseptic properties and flavonoids color
many flowers and fruits 52
Many alkaloids are widely used as medicines 54
Contents xi
ESSAY 3.1 Molecules: Keys to the Search for
Extraterrestrial Life 40
I lit;hlit;hts t( Review Questions S6 Applvmg Concepts 56
4 Cells 58
4.1 Organisms are composed of one to many
microscopic cells 60
4.2 Microscopes are used to study cells 60
Light microscopes use glass lenses and visible light
to enlarge images 60
Electron microscopes use magnetic lenses to focus beams
of electrons 61
4.3 Two major types of cells are eukaryotic cells
and prokakryotic cells 63
Cell membranes, cytoplasm, and ribosomes occur
in all cells 63
The cell membrane functions in communication
and transport of materials 63
Some cell membrane proteins perceive environmental
information 64
Some cell membrane proteins transport materials into
or out of cells 64
Selective membrane permeability is the basis
for osmosis 65
Some plants are adapted to salty environments 66
Endocytosis and exocytos/s also transport materials
across cell membranes 67
Eukaryotic cells share some features that prokaryotes
lack 67
Nuclei contain most of the eukaryotic cell's genetic
information 67
The endomembrane system constructs and transports
cell materials 67
The endoplasmic reticulum 69
The Golgi apparatus 70
xii • Contents
The cytoskeleton and associated motor proteins generate
cell movements 70
Cytoske/eta/ components 71
Types of motor proteins 71
Flagella 71
Mitochondria are major cellular sites of chemical energy
transformations 72
Peroxisomes contain protective enzymes 72
4.4 Plant cells have the general features of eukaryotic
cells and additional components 73
Cellulose rich plant cell walls provide support
and protection 73
Cellulose 73
Noncellulose components of plant cell walls 73
Primary and secondary plant cell walls 73
Plant cells are connected by plasmodesmata 74
Plastids are sites of photosynthesis and other functions 75
Starch is formed in plastids of plants and green algae 77
Chromoplasts are non green, pigmented plastids
of flowers and fruits 77
Vacuoles play several important roles in plant cells 77
ESSAY 4.1 Plant "Psi"chological Stress 68
ESSAY 4.2 Heavy Metal Plants 78
Highlights 78 Review Questions 79 Applying Concepts 79
D Photosynthesis and Respiration 80
5.1 Photosynthesis and respiration are the processes
by which living organisms capture solar energy and
release it to sustain life on Earth 82
5.2 Metabolism includes many kinds of chemical
reactions organized into series called pathways 82
Chemical reactions may be exergonic or endergonic 83
Oxidation reduction reactions are highly important in cell
metabolism 83
In metabolism, chemical reactions are organized into
pathways 84
5.3 Photosynthesis harvests solar energy to sustain life
on Earth 85
Photosynthesis changed the early Earth so that multicellular
life became possible 85
Photosynthesis provides the food and fuel that power life
on Earth 86
The interaction between light and pigments is crucial
to solar energy capture 86
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of algae
and plants 87
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy
stored in sugars 89
The light reactions capture solar energy 89
Chemiosmosis and photophosphorylation produce ATP
molecules in the chloroplast 92
The carbon fixation reactions reduce carbon dioxide
to simple sugars 92
Photorespiration makes the pathway inefficient 94
C4 plants and CAM plants have mechanisms to reduce
photorespiration 95
C4 plants reduce photorespiration by preconcentrating
CO2 95
CAM plants reduce photorespiration by fixing CO2
at night 95
5.4 Respiration and fermentation release energy
for cellular metabolism 96
Respiration occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria
of cells 97
Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose into two molecules
of pyruvate 97
Fermentation extracts energy from organic compounds
without oxygen 98
Pyruvate is split into CO2 and an acetyl group attached
to coenzyme A 98
In the Krebs cycle, the acetyl group is broken into two
carbon dioxide molecules 99
The electron transport chain generates a proton gradient
across the inner mitochondrial membrane 100
Chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation generate ATP
in the mitochondrion 100
ESSAY 5.1 The Botany of Beer 99
Highlights 102 Review Questions 103 Applying Concepts 103
6DNAandRNA 104
6.1 DNA is a long molecule composed of subunits called
nucleotides 106
6.2 DNA contains two nucleotide strands that wind
about each other in a double helix 106
6.3 DNA replicates by separating its two strands and
synthesizing two new complementary strands 108
6.4 Stability of genetic information depends on efficient
mechanisms for DNA 109
6.5 Genetic information is coded in DNA as groups
of three nucleotides 110
6.6 Protein synthesis involves three forms of RNA
in the cytoplasm 110
Instructions for protein synthesis is coded in DNA are first
transcribed into a coded mRNA molecule 111
The coded information in mRNA is translated into a protein
with the aid of ribosomes and tRNAs 112
6.7 Differences in DNA account for differences among
organisms and even among individuals 115
ESSAY 6.1 Molecular Detectives: DNA Fingerprinting Solves
Crimes 117
Highlights 118 Review Questions 118 Applying Concepts 119
7 Cell Division 120
7.1 Cell division and the cell cycle 122
7.2 Division in prokaryotes, mitochondria, and plastids
occurs by binary fission 122
Contents j xiii
7.3 Eukaryotic cells have separate processes of nuclear
and cytoplasmic division 124
Preparation for cell division occurs during interphase 125
The Gj phase is a period of intense synthesis
of molecules and structures 125
DNA replication occurs during the S phase 125
The G2 phase completes preparations for cell
division 126
Mitosis consists of four phases 126
In prophase, chromosomes condense until they appear
as sister chromatids 126
In metaphase, chromosomes align on the equator
of the mitotic spindle 127
Sister chromatids separate in anaphase 128
In telophase, chromosomes become indistinct 128
In cytokinesis, cytoplasm is divided between daughter
cells 129
ESSAY 7.1 When to Stick and When to Split: Mechanisms
of Chromosome Cohesion and Separation 130
Highlights 132 Review Questions 133 Applying (.oneepts 133
O Plant Structure, Growth,
and Development 134
8.1 Plant structural variation is ecologically and
economically important 136
8.2 Plant bodies are composed of organs, tissues,
and many types of cells 136
Shoots, roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds are plant
organs or organ systems 136
Plant organs are composed of tissues whose cells are linked
by plasmodesmata 137
Plants grow by production of new tissues and cell
enlargement 139
Primary apical meristems produce primary tissues 139
Secondary meristems produce wood and bark 140
Plants also grow by cell expansion 140
xiv j Contents
Plant tissues are composed of one to several cell types 141
Specialized cells arise by the process of differentiation 142
8.3 Plants develop from single cells or small pieces 144
Plants can develop from zygotes, spores, or excised
pieces 144
Plant bodies have polarity, radial symmetry,
and indeterminate growth 148
ESSAY 8.1 Supermarket Botany 138
Highlights 149 Review Questions 149 Applying Concepts 149
y Steins and Materials Transport 150
9.1 Stems are fundamental plant organs having multiple
functions 152
9.2 The structure of conducting tissues helps explain
their functions 152
Conducting tissues in plants occur in vascular bundles 152
Living phloem tissues conduct organic compounds
in a watery solution 152
Phloem conducts sugars from their source to the sites
of utilization 154
Dead xylem tissues are structured to facilitate water
transport 155
Water and solutes move through stems as the result
of transpiration 155
Wood and bark arise by the activity of secondary
meristems 157
The vascular cambium produces wood and inner bark 157
The cork cambium produces a protective covering
for older woody stems 160
Some plants can grow tall without extensive wood 161
9.3 Humans use stems in many ways 162
Paper 162
Cork 163
Bamboo 164
Wood 164
ESSAY 9.1 Weird and Wonderful Stems 156
ESSAY 9.2 Growth Rings: Mirrors into the Past 165
Highlights 169 Review Questions 169 Applying Concepts 169
1 U Roots and Plant Nutrition 170
10.1 Roots play a variety of roles in plants 172
Roots anchor plants and absorb water and minerals 172
Some roots are useful as human food because they store
carbohydrates 172
Roots are important sites of hormone and secondary
compound production in plants 172
The roots of some plants help support stems 173
Pneumatophores help provide oxygen to underwater roots
of some mangroves 175
Some plants produce other types of specialized roots 175
10.2 Taproots, fibrous roots, and feeder roots are major
types of underground root systems 176
10.3 Root structure and function are intimately
related 177
External root structures include branch roots, root hairs,
and the root tip 177
An internal view of root tissues reveals how root cells grow
and specialize 178
The root apical mehstem produces primary tissues 179
Root cells enlarge and begin to specialize in the zone
of elongation 179
Specialized cells and tissues are present above the zone
of maturation 7 79
Root mineral absorption is selective and requires energy 182
Root hairs and endodermal cells are sites of selective
absorption 182
Plant roots require organic food and oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide 184
10.4 Plant roots are associated with beneficial
microbes 186
ESSAY 10.1 The Root of the Matter: Human Uses of Roots 174
ESSAY 10.2 Food for Thought: Plant Mineral Nutrition 185
Highlights 187 Review Questions 188 Applying Concepts 189
11 Leaves 190
11.1 As photosynthetic organs, leaves occur in a vast
range of forms 192
Most of the variation in leaves is in the form
of the blade 192
Leaves are arranged in distinct patterns on stems 192
11.2 The major tissues of leaves are epidermis,
mesophyll, xylem, and phloem 194
The epidermis provides structural support and retards
water loss 195
Mesophyll is the photosynthetic tissue of leaves 197
Xylem and phloem are the conducting tissues
of leaf veins 198
11.3 Plants lose large quantities of water through
transpiration 199
Stomatal movements control transpiration 199
Environmental factors can affect stomatal
movements 199
11.4 The cohesion tension theory explains movement
of water through plants 200
11.5 Senescence and leaf fall are a normal part of plant
development 202
Autumn leaf abscission is preceded by a period
of senescence 202
Leaf abscission is preceded by formation
of an abscission zone 202
11.6 Leaves perform many functions in addition to
photosynthesis 203
Some leaves are specialized for water
or food storage 203
Leaves are modified for defense in some plants 204
Leaves of some plants capture animal prey 204
11.7 Humans use leaves in many ways 205
ESSAY 11.1 Plant Leaves Track CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere 201
Hiuhlidi! . 2nh Rt\k\\ O .ii. ;i n , JON \ppKm;:l iiincpis .1(i'
Contents xv
12 Plant Behavior 210
12.1 Plants sense and respond to external and internal
signals 212
12.2 Hormones regulate plant growth and
development 213
There are several types of plant hormones 213
Auxins 213
Cytokinins 213
Ethylene 215
Gibberellins 216
Several plant hormones play protective roles 217
12.3 Plants use pigment containing molecules to sense
their light environments 218
Phytochrome controls seed and spore germination 219
Phytochrome helps control the timing of flowering
and dormancy 220
Plant shoots can sense shading and grow into the light 221
12.4 Plants respond to gravity and touch 221
12.5 Plants can respond to flooding, heat, drought,
and cold stress 223
12.6 Plants can defend themselves against attack 223
ESSAY 12.1 AspenAspirin 218
Hiilhliuhi 22 I Rc\ kw Oik Hi :T. ^ \ppl . u ;; oiu . pu 2,^
PART 111 Plant Reproduction, Genetics,
and Evolution
1 3 Reproduction, Meiosis, and Life
Cycles 226
13.1 Sexual and asexual reproduction confer different
advantages 228
Sexual reproduction accelerates adaptation 228
Asexual reproduction can occur rapidly 229
xvi Contents
Many organisms that reproduce only asexually evolved
from sexually reproducing ancestors 229
Many organisms reproduce by both asexual and sexual
means 231
13.2 Meiosis is essential to sexual reproduction 232
Meiosis prevents buildup of chromosomes as the result of
sexual reproduction over many generations 232
Meiosis contributes to genetic variability 234
13.3 Meiosis resembles mitosis in some respects, but
differs in important ways 234
Meiosis follows DNA replication and uses a spindle
apparatus, as does mitosis 234
Homologous chromosome pair, then separate
during meiosis I 234
Chromatids are separated during meiosis II 237
13.4 Life cycles link one generation to the next 237
Gametic life cycles are typical of animals and some
algae 237
Zygotic life cycles are common among protists 239
Sporic life cycles are characteristic of land plants
and some algae 240
ESSAY 13.1 The Perfect Date 233
ESSAY 13.2 The Guardian Spirit 238
I lii;lilu.'his 242 Review QucM.on^ 2 13 Applviim (.oncepis 2 'i3
1 t Genetics and the Laws
of Inheritance 244
14.1 Gregor Mendel's experiments with garden peas
revealed the pattern of inheritance of genetic
traits 246
Early hypotheses assumed hereditary material blended
in the offspring 246
Mendel's use of garden peas had many advantages 246
Mendel's experiments focused on seven distinct traits
in peas 247
The Fj generations revealed dominant and recessive
traits 248
The F2 generations had dominant and recessive forms
for each trait 249
Mendel's model of the pattern of inheritance 249
The testcross revealed the true nature of dominant traits 250
14.2 Mendel's model in terms of genes, alleles,
and chromosomes 250
14.3 Variations on Mendelian genetics 253
In incomplete dominance, the heterozygote has
an intermediate phenotype 253
In pleiotropy, a single gene affects several traits 253
In polygenic inheritance, several genes combine to affect
a single trait 253
The environment can alter the expression
of the phenotype 254
14.4 Genes and chromosomes 255
In sweet pea, the genes for flower color and pollen shape
are on the same chromosome 255
Genetic maps show the order and position of genes
on chromosome 255
In a dihybrid cross, genes segregate independently if they
are on separate chromosomes 256
Two or more genes interact to produce a trait
in epistasis 257
In some plants, genes located on sex chromosomes
determine separate male and female organisms 258
ESSAY 14.1 Pseudoscience and the Lysenko Affair 252
ESSAY 14.2 Hybrid Corn and Hybrid Orchids 260
Highlights 26 i Review Questions 262 Applying Concepts 262
1 v} Genetics Engineering 264
15.1 What is genetic engineering? 266
Genetic engineers use tools that are common in nature 266
Some genetic engineering tools are derived from bacteria
and viruses 266
Plants contribute other molecular tools 267
15.2 Plant genetic engineering resembles crop breeding
but is faster and more versatile 267
Humans have long altered the genetics of domesticated
plants and animals 267
Genetic engineering overcomes some drawbacks
of traditional breeding methods 269
15.3 Bacteria can be genetically engineered to produce
useful materials 270
Restriction enzymes are used to prepare DNA and vectors
for cloning 270
Foreign DNA is "glued" into the vector 270
, Modified vectors are incorporated into bacterial cells,
which are then grown to large populations 272
15.4 Plants can be genetically engineered 273
15.5 Genetic engineering has produced valued new
forms of crops 273
The roots of some GM crops can more effectively obtain
soil phosphate 273
Plants can be genetically modified to produce new types
of starch 274
GM crops can produce antibody and vaccine proteins
for use in human medicine 274
15.6 Genetically engineered crops pose some
concerns 274
Will genetic engineering help solve world food sufficiency
problems? 274
Should foods containing genetically modified crop
products be labeled? 275
Might GM crops have harmful environmental
effects? 275
Evolution of resistance to pest control measures might
offset the value of some GM crops 275
GM crops might have harmful effects on nonpest
species 275
Contents xvii
GM crops might poison the natural enemies of crop
pests 275
GM crop plants might interbreed with wild relatives
to form "superweeds" 275
GM crops pose other environmental concerns 276
ESSAY 15.1 PCR: The Gene Copier 268
I Imlilii'jiH 2~(i Review Qik.snon . 2~~ Applvint; (.oiucpH 2~~
1 O Biological Evolution 278
16.1 Pre Darwinian science held that species were
unchanging 280
16.2 Some early biologists proposed that species could
evolve 280
16.3 During the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin made
observations that revolutionized biology 280
16.4 Over the next two decades, Darwin developed his
theory of evolution by natural selection 281
16.5 The theory of evolution by natural selection can
be summarized as a series of observations and
conclusions 283
16.6 The synthetic theory of evolution combines
Darwinism with genetics and molecular biology 283
16.7 Many areas of science provide evidence
for evolution 284
Artificial selection demonstrates that species can be modified 284
Comparative anatomy reveals many evolutionary relationships 284
Changes in proteins and DNA trace evolutionary
changes 285
Fossils provide a record of large scale evolutionary
changes 286
16.8 Evolution occurs when forces change allele
frequencies in the gene pool of a population 287
Mutation provides new variation to a gene pool 288
Nonrandom mating alters the frequency of alleles 289
xviii | Contents
In small populations, genetic drift can cause alleles
to be lost 289
Migration causes alleles to flow into or out
of a population 289
Through natural selection, allele frequencies change such
that populations become better adapted to their environ¬
ment 290
Directional selection 290
Stabilizing selection 290
Disruptive selection 290
16.9 New species originate through the development
of reproductive isolation 291
The concept of species is based on genetic isolation 291
Allopatric speciation requires geographic isolation 292
Sympatric speciation can occur when polyploidy arises
in plants 293
Microbial species can evolve in the lab 293
ESSAY 16.1 Major Beneficial Gene Changes Can Separate
Species 296
Highlights 296 Review Questions 297 Applying Concepts 297
PART IV Diversity of Plants, Prokaryotes,
Protists, and Fungi
1 / Naming and Organizing Plants
and Microbes 298
17.1 Scientific names originated with Linnaeus, the father
of biological taxonomy and systematics 300
Each kind of organism has a unique scientific name 300
Scientific names are structured to provide useful
information 300
There is a correct way to write scientific names 300
Plant names signify subspecies, varieties, or cultivars 302
Hybrids have distinctive scientific names 302
Naming new plants must follow an established
procedure 303
17.2 Identifying and archiving plant specimens 303
Plant collections can be stored as herbarium specimens 303
Resources for identifying plant include identification keys 306
17.3 Plants and other organisms are classified according
to their relationships 307
Species can be grouped into species complexes, genera,
families, orders, classes, phyla, and domains 310
Plant and microbe classifications change as new discoveries
are made 311
ESSAY 17,1 Viruses—Extreme Minimalists 301
ESSAY 17.2 Botanical Gardens: Science and Art All in One! 306
Highlights M2 Review Questions ,M 2 Applying Concepts 31 3
1 O Prokaryotes and the Origin of Life
on Earth 314
18.1 What is life and why does it occur on Earth? 316
The Earth's position in space is important to life 318
Early life changed Earth's atmospheric composition,
fostering modern life 318
18.2 When did the Earth form, and when did life first
appear? 319
A period of bombardment preceded the establishment
of life 319
18.3 How did life originate? 320
The chemical biological theory explains the origin of life
as a series of stages 320
Organic compounds can be formed from inorganic
molecules 320
Macromolecules can form from simple organic
compounds 321
Macromolecules in water can form cell like structures 321
18.4 Bacteria and Archaea are Earth's smallest, simplest
life forms 322
Prokaryote bodies are smaller and simpler than those of
eukaryotes 322
Prokaryotic cells are relatively simple in structure 322
Prokaryotic DNA 322
Prokaryotic enzymes 323
Other cell components 323
Some prokaryotes can swim or glide 324
Slimy polysaccharides often coat prokaryote surfaces 324
Prokaryote cell walls differ in structure and chemistry 325
Peptidoglycan forms part of bacterial cell walls 325
The Gram stain is useful in describing bacteria and
predicting responses to antibiotics 325
Prokaryotes reproduce primarily by binary fission 326
Many prokaryotes survive harsh conditions as tough
spores 326
Prokaryotes lack sex, but can exchange DNA 327
18.5 Prokaryotic diversity is important in nature
and human affairs 328
Proteobacteria are related to eukaryotic mitochondria 329
Cyanobacteria are related to eukaryotic plastids 329
Gram positive bacteria include important disease agents
and antibiotic producers 329
Prokaryotic nutrition is ecologically important 329
Prokaryotes have useful applications in human
affairs 330
Agricultural applications 330
Industrial applications 331
Environmental remediation and monitoring 331
ESSAY 18.1 Did Life Evolve on Mars? 317
Highlights 33 I Review Questions }M Applvini; Concepts 333
1 y Protists and the Origin
of Eukaryotic Cells 334
19.1 What are protists and where do they occur? 336
How can protists be distinguished from plants, fungi,
and animals? 336
Microscopes must be used to observe most protists 337
Contents xix
Protists are common and numerous in aquatic and moist
habitats 337
Microscopic protists move in several ways 337
19.2 Protists include diverse groups whose relationships
are not completely known 338
19.3 Algal diversity reflects the occurrence of key
evolutionary events 345
Mitochondria are derived from endosymbiotic
proteobacteria 346
Primary plastids originated from endosymbiotic
cyanobacteria 347
19.4 Protist nutritional variation explains diverse
ecological roles 348
19.5 Structural and reproductive adaptations aid
in protist survival 349
Cell coverings 349
Organic food storage 350
Asexual reproduction 350
Sexual reproduction 350
19.6 Algae have useful biotechnological
applications 354
Industrial and food products 354
Water quality improvement systems 355
Laboratory model systems 355
ESSAY 19.1 It's Not Easy Being Non green: Parasitic Algae 340
ESSAY 19.2 Killer Algae 343
Highlight 3^6 Review Questions 3^6 Applying ('onccpt^ 3S~
Zi U Fungi and Lichens 358
20.1 Fungi are eukaryotes with distinctive cell walls
and bodies 360
20.2 Fungal nutrition is absorptive 360
20.3 Major fungal groups differ in reproduction 362
xx j Contents
Sexual spores allow fungi to colonize new habitats 364
Asexual spores are used to disperse well adapted genetic
types 364
20.4 Fungi live in beneficial associations with most
plants 364
Endophytic fungal partners provide benefits to plants 364
Mycorrhizae and partnerships between fungi
and plant roots 366
Some heterotrophic plants obtain organic food from
fungi 366
20.5 Fungi are relevant to humans in many ways 367
Fungi function as decomposers 367
Fungi are useful as foods and in industrial production 369
Some fungi are poisonous or hallucinogenic 370
20.6 Lichens are partnerships between fungi
and photosynthetic microbes 372
Lichen evolution and diversity 372
Lichen reproduction and development 372
Lichen ecology 373
Human uses of lichens 373
ESSAY 20.1 Fungal Gold: Mining Truffles 369
Highlights 374 Review Questions 374 Applying Concepts 375
JL 1 Seedless Plants 376
21.1 What are plants? 378
Plants are multicellular autotrophs that are adapted to life
on land 378
Plant diversity is important in global ecology and human
affairs 378
21.2 DNA and fossils help trace the history
of plants 381
DNA data reveal relationships of modern plants 381
Land plants evolved from charophycean
green algae 381
DNA evidence reveals the order in which the modern
plant groups appeared 382
Fossils reveal important events in the early evolutionary
history of plants 383
The origin of land adapted plants 383
The rise of vascular plants 383
21.3 Early plant evolution illustrates the concept
of descent with modification 384
The plant sporophyte probably originated by delaying
zygote meiosis 384
Leaves of ferns arose from branched stem systems 384
21.4 Modern seedless plant groups include bryophytes,
lycophytes, and pteridophytes 386
Bryophytes are the earliest divergent modern
land plants 386
Bryophyte bodies are simpler than those of vascular
plants 387
Bryophytes reproduce by wind dispersed spores,
breakage, or asexual structures 387
Mosses are diverse, ecologically significant,
and economically useful 390
Lycophytes and pteridophytes are modern phyla
of seedless vascular plants 391
Lycophytes have simple leaves 391
Most pteridophytes have leaves with branched vascular
systems 392
Lycophyte and ptehdophyte reproduction illustrates early
steps toward seed evolution 395
ESSAY 21.1 The Plants that Changed the World 380
Highlights 398 Review Questions 399 Applying Concepts 399
Ji Jd Gymnosperms, the First Seed
Plants 400
22.1 Gymnosperms include four modern groups
and diverse extinct forms 402
Modern gymnosperms are classified into four
major groups 402
Diverse groups of extinct gymnosperms were ecologically
significant in the past 402
22.2 Gymnosperms produce ovules and seeds in cones,
rather than within fruits 402
An ovule is an integument covered megasporangium 403
Seeds develop from ovules whose egg cells have been
fertilized 405
Ovule evolution illustrates Darwin's concept of descent
with modification 405
22.3 Seeds provide ecological advantages to present
and past plants 407
22.4 Diversity and utility of modern gymnosperms 409
Cycads are widely planted, but endangered in the wild 409
Ginko biloba is the maidenhair tree 410
Conifers are the most diverse living gymnosperms 412
Pines illustrate the major features of conifers 414
Gnetophytes are of evolutionary significance 415
ESSAY 22.1 Plant Survivors 411
Highlights 416 Review Questions 417 Applying Concepts 417
Zd 3 Angiosperm Diversity and
Reproduction 418
23.1 Flowering plants comprise an enormous number
and diversity of species 420
23.2 The parts of flowers are arranged in
whorls 421
Flowers vary greatly in the numbers, positions, and
arrangements of parts 423
Flowers have evolved many different types of inflorescence
for pollination 423
23.3 The angiosperm life cycle involves an alternation
of generations 427
Double fertilization produces a zygote
and an endosperm 427
Apomixis produces seeds without fertilization 428
Contents | xxi
23.4 The development of the embryo and seed follows
double fertilization 429
Plant embryos pass through a number of developmental
stages 429
The mature seed is nutritionally independent of the parent
plant 432
23.5 A fruit is a mature ovary containing seeds 433
Simple fruits are the most common type 433
Complex fruits develop from multiple pistils or multiple
flowers 435
23.6 Seed germination and the formation of the adult
plant 435
Germination requirements are closely linked
to the environment 435
After germination, plants follow various patterns
of development 436
ESSAY 23.1 The ABCs of Floral Organ Development 424
Highlights 438 Review Questions 438 Applying Concepts 4.V)
Zi T" Flowering Plant and Animal
Coevolution 440
24.1 (Revolutionary interactions between flowering
plants and animals are common and important
in nature and human affairs 442
Flowering plant animal coevolutionary interactions are
important in agriculture 442
Coevolution is important in global ecology 443
24.2 Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen from one
flower to another of the same species 443
Outbreeding provides greater genetic variability than
inbreeding 444
Animal pollinators offer precision, high fidelity pollination
services 445
Plant food rewards to animal pollinators include nectar,
pollen, and oil 446
Plants attract pollinators by flower scent, color, shape,
and arrangement 446
xxii | Contents
Flowers control pollinator access by flower shapes
and positions 448
Animal pollinators can learn to recognize the features
of favored flowers 449
Flowers and pollinators have coordinated traits known
as pollination syndromes 449
Beetles and beetle pollinated flowers 449
Bees and bee pollinated flowers 449
Nectar feeding flies, carrion flies, and fly pollinated
flowers 451
Butterflies, moths, and coevolved flowers 453
Birds and bird pollinated flowers 454
Bats and bat pollinated flowers 456
24.3 Plants have also coevolved with animals to
accomplish seed dispersal 456
ESSAY 24.1 Pollination by Wind and Water 445
Highlights 458 Review Questions 459 Applying Concepts 459
WF V Ecology and Plant Adaptations
to the Environment
2L O Principles of Ecology and the
Biosphere 460
25.1 Ecology focuses on populations, communities,
ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere 462
25.2 Populations show patterns of distribution and age
structure, grow and decline, occupy specific niches,
and interact with other populations 462
Plants in a population may be distributed in a random,
uniform, or clumped pattern 462
Age distribution and survivorship curves describe the age
structure of populations 462
Populations show distinct patterns of growth 463
The ecological niche includes the abiotic factors that
determine the area the population occupies 465
The ecological niche includes interactions between
populations of different species 465
In mutualism, two populations exchange benefits 465
In parasitism, herbivory, and predation, one population
benefits and the other is harmed 465
In competition, individual organisms have a negative
impact on each other 466
25.3 Communities are composed of individuals of many
different species 467
Communities can be characterized by their species
diversity 467
Ecological succession is the change in community
composition over time 468
Primary succession begins on areas not previously
occupied by organisms 469
Secondary succession occurs on areas where
a community has been removed 471
25.4 Ecosystem studies focus on trophic structure
and energy flow 471
Organisms may be grouped into functional categories 471
The flow of energy through a food chain is linear 471
Only a small fraction of energy passes between trophic
levels 472
25.5 Global climatic patterns determine the distribution
of biomes 473
The distribution of biomes is determined primarily
by global patterns of atmospheric circulation 473
Continentality, ocean currents, and mountain ranges also
affect the distribution of biomes 476
25.6 Matter moves between biomes and the physical
environment in large scale biogeochemical
cycles 476
Water cycles through the oceans, atmosphere, lands, and
organisms 476
Microorganisms largely control the nitrogen cycle 477
Carbon dioxide cycles between the atmosphere and the
biosphere 479
ESSAY 25.1 Determining Past Climate and Vegetation from
Pollen Data 470
Highlights 480 Review Questions 481 Applying Concepts 481
2* O Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems 482
26.1 Arid terrestrial ecosystems are diverse 484
26.2 Polar deserts have the most severe climates
on Earth 484
Arctic herb barrens contain few species of plants 484
Continental Antarctica contains only sparse populations
of mosses, lichens, and algae 485
In the maritime Antarctic, bryophytes and lichens are
dominant 486
26.3 Temperate and subtropical deserts are characterized
by low annual precipitation 486
Four physical factors determine the locations of temperate
and subtropical deserts 487
Desert plants have adapted to acquire water 488
Plants using the deep water table must put down
long roots 488
A great variety of desert plants use surface water 489
Desert algae, mosses, and lichens are tolerant
of high temperatures 489
Desert annuals and herbaceous perennials grow
when water is available 490
Deciduous perennials maintain significant aboveground
biomass 490
Desert succulents have a number of adaptive features to
survive aridity 492
Succulents conserve water by a low surface to volume
ratio and CAM metabolism 492
Much of the volume of succulents is available for water
storage 492
Cacti are extremely tolerant of high temperatures 493
Water uptake in desert succulents may be very rapid 493
Stem succulents have cylindrical, globose, or paddle like
stems 493
Contents j xxiii
Leaf succulents include the agaves, aloes, and stone
plants 493
Human impacts on deserts include mining, depletion
of aquifers, and urban sprawl 495
26.4 Grasslands are temperate areas dominated
by grasses 496
Grasslands are ecologically, evolutionarily, and economically
important 496
Grasslands occupy vast areas of land and support
immense populations of animals 496
Grasslands store vast amounts of organic carbon
in their soils 496
Grasslands support the world's most productive
agriculture 496
Grasslands have had a major impact on the evolution
of grazer animals and humans 497
Climate, fire, and herbivores shape grassland
environments 497
Grassland climate is drier and more extreme than
that of most forests 498
Fire plays an important role in maintaining grasslands 498
Large animal grazers also influence grassland
environments 498
Grassland plants are adapted to cope with environmental
stresses 499
Dominant grass species vary through the year
and by region 499
Grass plants are adapted for fast growth, high
productivity, and resistance to fire and grazing 500
Grass flowers and fruits are adapted for efficient
reproduction 501
Forbs are diverse grassland plants that are neither
grasses, trees, nor shrubs 502
Grassland trees and shrubs are adapted to survive fire
and provide important resources for some grazers 502
Grassland improvement, restoration, and preservation
yield benefits for people 503
Dry grasslands can degrade into deserts 504
Mesic grasslands have mostly been transformed into
farmlands 504
Wet grasslands provide valuable ecological services 506
27.6 Temperate deciduous forests are ecosystems with
seasonality and abundant precipitation 520
Eight genera of trees define the eastern temperate
deciduous forest 521
Plants in the temperate deciduous forest are adapted
to cold winters and competition for light 522
Humans have had a major impact on many features of the
eastern temperate deciduous forest 524
Many exotic species have invaded the temperate
deciduous forest 525
Plant rustling from national forests is becoming
a serious problem 526
Research at Hubbard Brook was undertaken to determine
how temperate forest ecosystems function 527
Acid rain is damaging the eastern temperate deciduous
forest 528
27.7 Tropical rain forests have a nonseasonal climate
and abundant precipitation 529
Tropical rain forests have high biotic diversity
and important global climate effects 529
Great age, rapid evolution, and complex structure foster
high biodiversity 530
Tropical rain forests store much of the Earth's carbon 531
Tropical rain forests play an important role in global water
cycling 531
Tropical forest vegetation is distinctive 531
Tropical forests are tall, evergreen, and layered 537
Tropical forests are richer in tree species than
other forests 531
Tropical forests contain plant forms that are rare
elsewhere 531
Tropical rain forests are among the most productive
ecosystems on Earth 532
Warm, moist tropical climates favor lush plant growth 532
Tropical plants compete for light 534
Some tropical plants are adapted to drought 534
Heavy rainfall and high winds can damage tropical
plants 534
Paradoxically, lush rain forests grow on poor soils 534
Tropical forest soils are low in nutrients and organic
materials 534
Tropical forest mineral nutrients are held within tissues
of living organisms 535
Nitrogen fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi help
tropical rain forest plants cope with poor soils 535
Early tropical forest farmers learned to cope
with poor soils 535
Temperate style agriculture is often difficult to practice
in the tropics 536
Tropical forest plants are adapted to numerous
environmental stresses 537
Canopy trees are well adapted to intercept light, but are
vulnerable to fire and forest fragmentation 537
Tropical tree stem architecture is amazingly diverse 537
Buttress roots provide structural support 537
Leaves of tropical trees are surprisingly uniform
in shape 538
Tree reproduction is adapted to forest conditions 539
Lianas' growth and reproduction reflect their clinging
lifestyle 540
ESSAY 27.1 Native American Uses of Temperate Forest
Plants 525
ESSAY 27.2 Fascinating Orchids 533
ESSAY 27.3 Restoring a Lost Forest 538
I hi'.hiisiin. , vi I Rc\ lew Qiu'snons S iJ AppK nip C oiucpis ^ t •
2i O Aquatic Ecosystems 544
28.1 Aquatic ecosystems are essential to humans 546
28.2 People and wildlife depend on freshwaters
and wetlands for many services 546
28.3 Lake ecosystems: seasonal changes, habitats,
and primary producers 546
Lakes contain three major types of habitats
and communities 546
Contents xxv
Mineral nutrient availability in temperate lakes varies with
seasonal temperature change 547
Spring 547
Summer 547
Fall 547
Winter 547
Freshwater algae and plants are adapted to aquatic
habitats 548
Algae 548
Floating plants 548
Rooted macropbytes 548
Human activities have degraded freshwaters 549
Oligotrophic freshwaters are low in nutrients and
productivity but high in species diversity 550
Eutrophic freshwaters are high in nutrients and
productivity but low in species diversity 550
Phosphorous availability controls growth of freshwater
plants, algae, and cyanobacteria 550
Lake and stream eutrophication can be prevented
or reversed 551
28.4 Wetland ecosystems 552
Common freshwater wetlands include riparian wetlands,
deep water swamps, marshes, acid bogs, and sedge
meadows 552
Wetlands play important roles in global carbon cycling 552
Wetland plants are adapted in ways that help them
overcome stresses of wetland habitats 553
Humans have destroyed many of the world's wetlands 555
Wetland delineation, invasive species, and restoration are
issues in wetland protection and restoration 555
28.5 Oceans are essential to humans and life
on Earth 556
28.6 Oceans cover most of the surface of the Earth 557
Seawater and freshwater differ in the amount of dissolved
substances 557
Ocean basins contain a varied terrain 558
Atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis force drive
ocean currents 558
xxvi l Contents
Ocean temperatures vary with depth, season,
and latitude 559
The oceans can be divided into realms 560
28.7 The epipelagic ecosystem contains plankton
and nekton communities 560
Bacterioplankton are the most important group in terms
of productivity 561
Phytoplankton are very diverse in form 561
Diatoms 561
Dinoflagellates 56 7
Haptophytes 562
The planktonic food web begins with picoplankton 562
28.8 The sublittoral zone includes kelp forests, seagrass
beds, and coral reefs 563
Kelp forests are dominated by large photosynthetic
protists 563
Seagrasses stabilize soft sandy sediments and provide
shelter for many marine animals 565
Coral reefs are among the most beautiful and diverse
ecosystems on Earth 566
28.9 The littoral zone includes estuaries, salt marshes,
and mangrove forests 567
Estuaries have relatively few species of organisms 567
Salt marshes contain herbs, grasses, and shrubs rooted in
soils washed by tides 568
In mangrove forests the trees grow in shallow seawater 569
ESSAY 28.1 Jamaican Coral Reefs: Going, Going,. Gone 568
Highlichts 5T0 Review Questions 370 Applying Concepts 571
Zi y Human Impacts and
Sustainability 572
29.1 Sustainability is the maintenance of humans
together with healthy environments 574
29.2 Humans impact the global environment in many
ways 574
How many people can Earth sustain? 575
Human population growth is correlated with environmental
degradation 575
Global warming is affecting every ecosystem on Earth 576
Humans impact the global environment in a number
of other ways 577
Acid rain 577
Depletion of soil fertility and erosion 577
Pollution of coastal zones 577
Overfishing 578
Transformation of ecosystems leads to loss
of biodiversity 578
29.3 The concept of sustainability has many different
dimensions 580
Stable human populations are necessary
for sustainability 580
Innovative technologies may improve energy
sustainability 580
Sustainable agriculture reduces erosion, nutrient and
organic carbon loss, and chemical use 581
Sustainable use of ocean resources and restoration
of coastal zones are future goals 582
Sustainability requires maintaining ecosystem services
and biodiversity 583
Biodiversity "hotspots" are regions of high endemism 583
Biomes differ in their vulnerability to extinction 584
Everyone can contribute to global sustainability 584
ESSAY 29.1 Fossil Fuel Free in Iceland 582
ESSAY 29.2 Sustainable Use of Neotropical Forests 584
Highlights 586 Review Questions SK( Applying Concepts 58/
APPENDIX I Metric Systems Conversions 589
APPENDIX II Geological Time Scale 591
Answers 593
Glossary 623
Credits 639
Index 641 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Graham, Linda E. 1946- Graham, James M. Wilcox, Lee W. |
| author_GND | (DE-588)172688302 |
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| dewey-ones | 580 - Plants |
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| discipline | Biologie |
| edition | 2. edition |
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| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0131469061 |
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| lccn | 2005043043 |
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| spelling | Graham, Linda E. 1946- Verfasser (DE-588)172688302 aut Plant biology Linda E. Graham ; James M. Graham ; Lee W. Wilcox 2. edition Upper Saddle River, NJ Prentice Hall 2006 © 2006 xxix, 670 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier botany cabt plant anatomy cabt plant ecology cabt plant morphology cabt plant physiology cabt Botany Textbooks Botanik (DE-588)4007842-5 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4123623-3 Lehrbuch gnd-content Botanik (DE-588)4007842-5 s b DE-604 Graham, James M. Verfasser aut Wilcox, Lee W. Verfasser aut HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=013349069&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Graham, Linda E. 1946- Graham, James M. Wilcox, Lee W. Plant biology botany cabt plant anatomy cabt plant ecology cabt plant morphology cabt plant physiology cabt Botany Textbooks Botanik (DE-588)4007842-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4007842-5 (DE-588)4123623-3 |
| title | Plant biology |
| title_auth | Plant biology |
| title_exact_search | Plant biology |
| title_full | Plant biology Linda E. Graham ; James M. Graham ; Lee W. Wilcox |
| title_fullStr | Plant biology Linda E. Graham ; James M. Graham ; Lee W. Wilcox |
| title_full_unstemmed | Plant biology Linda E. Graham ; James M. Graham ; Lee W. Wilcox |
| title_short | Plant biology |
| title_sort | plant biology |
| topic | botany cabt plant anatomy cabt plant ecology cabt plant morphology cabt plant physiology cabt Botany Textbooks Botanik (DE-588)4007842-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | botany plant anatomy plant ecology plant morphology plant physiology Botany Textbooks Botanik Lehrbuch |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=013349069&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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